The authors wish to thank Dr. Hudson W. P. de Carvalho for the support to develop this work. The authors are also grateful to the Laboratory of Electron Microscopy &#39;&#39;Prof. Elliot Watanabe Kitajima&#39;&#39; for providing the light microscopy facility. The authors thank&#160;Dr. Fl&#225;via Rodrigues Alves Patr&#237;cio for supplying the plant material with lesions.

1. Preparation of the buffering solution and reagents
<ol>
	<li>Prepare 2 M cacodylate buffer by adding 4.28 g of sodium cacodylate to 100 mL of distilled water and adjust the pH to 7.25 with 0.2 N HCl.</li>
	<li>Prepare 100 mL of the Karnovsky fixative solution by mixing 10 mL of 25% aqueous glutaraldehyde, 10 mL of 10% aqueous formaldehyde, 25 mL of 2 M cacodylate buffer, and 0.5 mL of 0.5 M CaCl226. Make up the volume to 100 mL with distilled water. 
	NOTE: Th...

<ol>
	<li>deBary, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Research+on+the+development+of+some+parasitic+fungi.">Research on the development of some parasitic fungi.</a> Annals of Natural Sciences. Botany and Plant Biology. 20, 5 (1863).</li><li>Mangin, L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Research+on+the+Peronospores.">Research on the Peronospores.</a> Bulletin of the Natural History Society of Autun. 8, 55-108 (1895).</li><li>Underwood, W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+plant+cell+wall:+a+dynamic+barrier+against+pathogen+invasion.">The plant cell wall: a dynamic barrier against pathogen invasion.</a> Frontiers in Plant Science. 3 (85), 1-6 (2012).</li><li>Hu&#776;ckelhoven, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cell+wall-associated+mechanisms+of+disease+resistance+and+susceptibility.">Cell wall-associated mechanisms of disease resistance and susceptibility.</a> Annual Review of Phytopathology. 45, 101-127 (2007).</li><li>Voigt, C. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Callose-mediated+resistance+to+pathogenic+intruders+in+plant+defense-related+papillae.">Callose-mediated resistance to pathogenic intruders in plant defense-related papillae.</a> Frontiers in Plant Science. 5 (168), 1-6 (2014).</li><li>Chowdhury, J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Differential+accumulation+of+callose,+arabinoxylan+and+cellulose+in+nonpenetrated+versus+penetrated+papillae+on+leaves+of+barley+infected+with+Blumeria+graminis+f.+sp.+Hordei.">Differential accumulation of callose, arabinoxylan and cellulose in nonpenetrated versus penetrated papillae on leaves of barley infected with Blumeria graminis f. sp. Hordei.</a> New Phytologist. 204 (3), 650-660 (2014).</li><li>Marques, J. P. 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C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+cell+wall.">The cell wall.</a> Biochemistry and Molecular Biology of Plants., 2nd Edition. , 45 (2015).</li><li>Lionetti, V., Cervone, F., Bellincampi, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Methyl+esterification+of+pectin+plays+a+role+during+plant-pathogen+interactions+and+affects+plant+resistance+to+diseases.">Methyl esterification of pectin plays a role during plant-pathogen interactions and affects plant resistance to diseases.</a> Journal of Plant Physiology. 169 (16), 1623-1630 (2012).</li><li>Lionetti, V. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Pectoplate:+the+simultaneous+phenotyping+of+pectin+methylesterases,+pectinases,+and+oligogalacturonides+in+plants+during+biotic+stresses.">Pectoplate: the simultaneous phenotyping of pectin methylesterases, pectinases, and oligogalacturonides in plants during biotic stresses.</a> Frontiers in Plant Science. 6 (331), 1-8 (2015).</li><li>Lionetti, V., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Three+pectin+methylesterase+inhibitors+protect+cell+wall+integrity+for+Arabidopsis+immunity+to+Botrytis.">Three pectin methylesterase inhibitors protect cell wall integrity for Arabidopsis immunity to Botrytis.</a> Plant Physiology. 173 (3), 1844-1863 (2017).</li><li>Heath, M. 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E., Inanaga, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Calcium+effects+on+root+cell+wall+composition+and+ion+contents+in+two+soybean+cultivars+under+salinity+stress.">Calcium effects on root cell wall composition and ion contents in two soybean cultivars under salinity stress.</a> Canadian Journal of Plant Science. 94 (4), 733-740 (2014).</li><li>Marques, J. P. R., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Sugarcane+smut:+shedding+light+on+the+development+of+the+whip-shaped+sorus.">Sugarcane smut: shedding light on the development of the whip-shaped sorus.</a> Annals of Botany. 119 (5), 815-827 (2017).</li><li>Delaye, L., Garc&#237;a-Guzm&#225;n, G., Heil, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Endophytes+versus+biotrophic+and+necrotrophic+pathogens-are+fungal+lifestyles+evolutionarily+stable+traits.">Endophytes versus biotrophic and necrotrophic pathogens-are fungal lifestyles evolutionarily stable traits.</a> Fungal Diversity. 60 (1), 125-135 (2013).</li><li>Avelino, J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+coffee+rust+crises+in+Colombia+and+Central+America+(2008-2013):+impacts,+plausible+causes+and+proposed+solutions.">The coffee rust crises in Colombia and Central America (2008-2013): impacts, plausible causes and proposed solutions.</a> Food Security. 7, 303-321 (2015).</li><li>Zambolim, L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Current+status+and+management+of+coffee+leaf+rust+in+Brazil.">Current status and management of coffee leaf rust in Brazil.</a> Tropical Plant Pathology. 41, 1-8 (2016).</li><li>Swiderska-Burek, U., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Phytopathogenic+Cercosporoidfungi-from+taxonomy+to+modern+biochemistry+and+molecular+biology.">Phytopathogenic Cercosporoidfungi-from taxonomy to modern biochemistry and molecular biology.</a> International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 21 (22), 8555 (2020).</li><li>Andrade, C. C. L., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Infection+process+and+defense+response+of+two+distinct+symptoms+of+Cercospora+leaf+spot+in+coffee+leaves.">Infection process and defense response of two distinct symptoms of Cercospora leaf spot in coffee leaves.</a> Phytoparasitica. 49 (7), 727-737 (2021).</li><li>Zambolim, L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Coffee+tree+diseases.">Coffee tree diseases.</a> Handbook of Phytopathology: Diseases of cultivated plants. 5th ed. , 810 (2016).</li><li>Casta&#241;o, A. J. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Coffee+rust.">Coffee rust.</a> Informative report Cenicaf&#233;. 82, 313-327 (1956).</li><li>Echandi, E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Coffee+rust,+caused+by+the+fungus+Cercospora+coffeicola.">Coffee rust, caused by the fungus Cercospora coffeicola.</a> Turrialba. 9 (2), 54-67 (1959).</li><li>Souza, A. G. C., Rodrigues, F. A., Maffia, L. A., Mizubuti, E. S. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Infection+process+of+Cercospora+coffeicola+on+coffee+leaf.">Infection process of Cercospora coffeicola on coffee leaf.</a> Journal of Phytopathology. 159 (1), 6-11 (2011).</li><li>Karnovsky, M. 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The present work introduces an alternative double-staining histochemical test to investigate the pectin composition of cell walls that encapsulates haustoria in a biotrophic pathosystem. The aim is also to demonstrate the efficacy of the method to detect necrotrophic fungus and cell wall changes induced by it. Here, pectin of coffee parenchyma cell walls can encapsulate both the neck and the haustorium of the rust fungus Hemileia vastatrix. Silva et al. have also described encapsulation by cellulose and callose ...

Cell wall defense mechanisms in plants are crucial to restrain fungal infection. Studies have reported changes in cell wall thickness and composition since the 19th century1,2. These changes can be induced by a fungal pathogen that stimulates the formation of a papilla, which prevents fungi from entering the cell or could be used to encapsulate the hyphae to isolate the host cell protoplast from the fungal haustoria. The production of a dynamic cell wall barrier (i.e., papillae and a fully encased haustorium) is important to promote plant resistance3. Histopathological studies on fungus-related diseases have investigated the occurrence of these mechanisms and have described the cell wall polymers, cellulose, hemicellulose (arabinoxylans), and callose as resistance mechanisms to fungal attack4,5,6,7.
The cell wall is the first barrier against microorganismal attack, impairing the plant-fungal interaction. Pectic polysaccharides compose the cell wall and account for about 30% of the cell wall composition in primary cells of eudicot plants in which homogalacturonans are the most abundant polymer (roughly 60%)8. The Golgi secretes complex pectin compounds that comprise the galacturonic acid chains, which may or may not be methylated8,9. Since 2012, the literature has pointed out that the degree of pectin methyl esterification is critical to determining the compatibility during infection by microbial pectic enzymes10,11,12. Thus, protocols are required to verify the presence and distribution of pectic compounds in plant-fungal pathosystems.
Various techniques have been used to detect the encapsulation of papillae or haustoria. The reference methods used are transmission electron microscopy (TEM) of fixed tissue and light microscopy of living and fixed tissues. Regarding TEM, several studies have demonstrated the structural role of cell wall appositions in fungal resistance13,14,15,16, and that the use of lectins and antibodies is an intricate method to locate carbohydrate polymers16. However, studies show that light microscopy is an important approach and that the histochemical and immunohistochemical tools allow a better understanding of the composition of papillae and haustorium encasement6,7.
Pathogenic fungi show two main types of lifestyles: biotrophic and necrotrophic. Biotrophic fungi depend on living cells for their nutrition whereas necrotrophic fungi kill the host cells, and then live in the dead tissues17. In Latin America, coffee leaf rust, caused by the fungus Hemileia vastatrix, is an important disease in coffee crops18,19. Hemileia vastatrix presents a biotrophic behavior and, among the structural changes observed in resistant coffee species or cultivars, a hypersensitivity response, deposition of callose, cellulose, and lignin on the cell walls, as well as cell hypertrophy14&#160;have been reported. To the authors&#39; knowledge, the literature does not report information on the importance of pectin in coffee rust resistance. On the other hand, necrotrophic fungi that cause cercosporiosis target pectin via a set of enzymes associated with cell wall degradation, such as pectinases and polygalacturonase20. Cercosporiosis in coffee, caused by the fungus Cercospora coffeicola is also a major threat to coffee crops21,22. This fungus causes necrotic lesions in both leaves and berries. After penetration, C. coffeicola colonizes plant tissues through intracellular and intercellular pathways23,24,25.
The present protocol investigates the presence of fungal structures and pectin on cell walls. This protocol is useful to identify the plant response associated with pectin (stained with ruthenium red dye, which is specific to acidic groups of polyuronic acids of pectin), induced by the host in a biotrophic interaction with fungus. It also helps to verify the effect of necrotrophic fungi on the degradation of pectic cell walls. The present results indicate that the double staining method is effective to discriminate structures and the reproductive phase of fungi.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Blades DB80 HS</td>
			<td>Leica</td>
			<td>14035838383</td>
			<td>Sectioning</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cacodylate buffer</td>
			<td>EMS</td>
			<td># 11652</td>
			<td>Fixation</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cotton Blue Lactophenol</td>
			<td>Metaqu&#237;mica</td>
			<td>70SOLSIG024629</td>
			<td>Staining</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Formaldehyde</td>
			<td>EMS</td>
			<td>#15712</td>
			<td>Fixation</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glutaraldehyde</td>
			<td>EMS</td>
			<td>#16216</td>
			<td>Fixation</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Historesin Kit</td>
			<td>Technovit /EMS</td>
			<td>#14653</td>
			<td>Historesin for embedding</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hot plate</td>
			<td>Dubesser</td>
			<td>SSCD25X30-110V</td>
			<td>Staining</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microscopy</td>
			<td>Zeiss</td>
			<td>#490040-0030-000</td>
			<td>Image capture</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microtome (Leica RM 2540)</td>
			<td>Leica</td>
			<td>149BIO000C1 14050238005</td>
			<td>Sectioning</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Plastic molding cup tray</td>
			<td>EMS</td>
			<td>10176-30</td>
			<td>Staining</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ruthenium red</td>
			<td>LABHouse</td>
			<td>#006004</td>
			<td>Staining</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Software Axion Vision</td>
			<td>Zeiss</td>
			<td>#410130-0909-000</td>
			<td>Image capture</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Vaccum pump</td>
			<td>Prismatec</td>
			<td>131 TIPO 2 V.C.</td>
			<td>Fixation</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

double-staining method to detect pectin in plant-fungus interaction

Plant cells use different structural mechanisms, either constitutive or inducible, to defend themselves from fungal infection. Encapsulation is an efficient inducible mechanism to isolate the fungal haustoria from the plant cell protoplast. Conversely, pectin, one of the polymeric components of the cell wall, is a target of several pectolytic enzymes in necrotrophic interactions. Here, a protocol to detect pectin and fungal hyphae through optical microscopy is presented. The pectin-rich encapsulation in the cells of coffee leaves infected by the rust fungus Hemileia vastatrix and the mesophyll cell wall modification induced by Cercospora coffeicola are investigated. Lesioned leaf samples were fixed with the Karnovsky solution, dehydrated, and embedded in glycol methacrylate for 2-4 days. All steps were followed by vacuum-pumping to remove air in the intercellular spaces and improve the embedding process. The embedded blocks were sectioned into 5-7 &#181;m thick sections, which were deposited on a glass slide covered with water and subsequently heated at 40 &#176;C for 30 min. Next, the slides were double-stained with 5% cotton blue in lactophenol to detect the fungus and 0.05% ruthenium red in water to detect pectin (acidic groups of polyuronic acids of pectin). Fungal haustoria of Hemileia vastatrix were found to be encapsulated by pectin. In coffee cercosporiosis, mesophyll cells exhibited dissolution of cell walls, and intercellular hyphae and conidiophores were observed. The method presented here is effective to detect a pectin-associated response in the plant-fungi interaction.

The cotton blue lactophenol staining on the GMA-embedded section revealed the presence of several fungal structures between and inside coffee mesophyll cells in both biotrophic and necrotrophic fungal interactions.
In the biotrophic pathosystem, when stained using the double-staining method, Hemileia vastatrix hyphae containing cell walls and the dense protoplast content appear in dark blue in both spongy and palisade parenchyma (Figure 4A,B</stro...

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Double-Staining Method to Detect Pectin in Plant-Fungus Interaction

This protocol describes a microscopical method to detect pectin in coffee-fungus interaction.

Plant cells use different structural mechanisms, either constitutive or inducible, to defend themselves from fungal infection. Encapsulation is an ...

This protocol is significant as it make it possible to identify the plant-fungus interaction. In addition to coloring the pectin, it also demonstrates defects on the pathogen cell wall polymer and allows the identification of fungus structures. This simple and uncomplicated technique can be performed using light microscopy and it doesn't require any expensive equipment such as scanning electron microscope.In addition, it is a fast technique that obtains an excellent distinction of plant structures for histopathological studies. The technique identifies the plant-fungus interaction. Hence, it collaborates to diagnose the diseases caused by biotrophic and necrotrophic fungi such as coffee rust and cercosporiosis.To begin, harvest and approximately 10 square millimeter leaf sample at the middle region of the lesion using a scalpel and tweezer, and immerse it in 30 milliliters of Karnovsky fixative solution. Subject the leaf sample to a low vacuum of 500 to 600 millibar for 15 minutes using an oil pump, at least four times to increase the permeability of the fixative solution in the leaf tissue. After fixation, wash the leaf sample three times in 0.5 M cacodylate buffer diluted in distilled water for five minutes each, and then transfer it to a graded ethanolic series for 15 minutes at each ethanol concentration.To gradually transfer the samples to glycol methacrylate, make Solution A by mixing the one gram of glycol methacrylate powder with 100 milliliters of basic resin under magnetic agitation. Then, immerse the samples in ratio one to two of Solution A and 100%ethanol for three hours. Immerse the samples in ratio one to one for Solution A:100%ethanol for three hours, then immersed in a pure basic resin for two to four days.Subject the sample to a low vacuum at least four times a day for 15 minutes, followed by rotation. Mix 15 milliliters of Solution A with one milliliter of the hardener in a beaker with rotation for two minutes to produce the polymerization Solution B.Put 1.2 milliliters of this polymerization Solution B in plastic molds. Using a wooden pick, transfer the lesioned leaf samples from pure basic resin to Solution B and avoid using tweezers as they can cause tissue crushing.Ensure to quickly orient leaf samples perpendicular to the plastic molds as Solution B quickly becomes viscous. When the perpendicular orientation of the leaf samples is achieved, wait for 30 minutes and then transfer the plastic mold to a plastic or glass chamber containing silica gel to prevent humidity. Once the resin and the leaf sample are polymerized after two to three hours, detach the resulting block from the plastic mold by sanding the block base with a sanding file.Then, glue the block to a piece of wood. Cut the block into five micrometer thick sections using a rotating microtome equipped with eight centimeter steel blades. Place the sections onto glass slides covered with distilled water.Then, transfer the slides to a hot plate to dry at 40 degrees Celsius and promote the adhesion of the sections to the glass slides. After drying, label the glass slides with the block reference name and the slide number. Cover the sections with two milliliters of 5%cotton blue in lactophenol and heat them on a hot plate at 45 degrees Celsius for five minutes.Remove the excess dye by washing the slide three times in a beaker filled with distilled water. Stain it with two milliliters of 0.01%ruthenium red in water for one minute. Remove the excess dye by washing the slide three times in a beaker filled with distilled water.Put a drop of distilled water over the sections and cover the sections with a cover slip for performing light microscopy analysis. In the double staining method, Hemileia vastatrix hyphae containing cell walls and the dense protoplasts content appeared dark blue in both spongy and palisade parenchyma. The haustorium mother cell and the haustoria also exhibited a dark blue color.The counter staining with ruthenium red clearly defined fungal distribution in the intercellular spaces. During the interaction, Hemileia vastatrix haustorium mother cell broke the host cell wall and developed a haustorial neck surrounded by pectic compounds. The pectin-rich pink-red colored encapsulation of the haustorial neck cannot prevent haustorial formation.In some cases, the pectin-rich encapsulation encased the haustorium incompletely. And in some cases, the haustorium is fully encapsulated. The pectin-rich cell wall maintain the integrity at the lesion border, where the fungus is not present.The double staining method demonstrated the presence of intercellular hyphae. In interaction zones, pectin cell walls appeared to lose their integrity due to dissolution. Reproductive structures such as conidia were found in the adaxial epidermis.Cercospora coffeicola hyphae were found in the substomatic chamber as curling structures, and the palisade parenchyma in the lesion region seems to undergo cell wall lysis. Avoid using tweezers as they can cause tissue crushing. Further histopathological studies on rusts, anthracnose, cercosporiosis, smuts and other biotrophic, hemibiotrophic, and necrotrophic plant-fungal interactions should be conducted to investigate the potential use of this technique in different pathosystems.

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JoVE Journal

Biology

4.1K ビュー.  University of São Paulo. このプロトコルは、植物 - 真菌相互作用を同定することを可能にするので重要である。ペクチンを着色することに加えて、それはまた病原体細胞壁ポリマー上の欠陥を示し、真菌構造の同定を可能にする。このシンプルで単純な技術は、光学顕微鏡を使用して実行することができ、走査型電子顕微鏡などの高価な機器を必要としません。さらに、それは組織病理学?...

ビデオ: Double-Staining Method to Detect Pectin in Plant-Fungus Interaction

Pyrosequencing: A Simple Method for Accurate Genotyping

Pharmacogenetic research benefits first-hand from the abundance of information provided by the completion of the Human Genome Project. With such a tremendous amount of data available comes an explosion of genotyping methods. Pyrosequencing(R) is one of the most thorough yet simple methods to date used to analyze polymorphisms. It also has the ability to identify tri-allelic, indels, short-repeat polymorphisms, along with determining allele percentages for methylation or pooled sample assessment. In addition, there is a standardized control sequence that provides internal quality control. This method has led to rapid and efficient single-nucleotide polymorphism evaluation including many clinically relevant polymorphisms. The technique and methodology of Pyrosequencing is explained.


Pyrosequencing(R) is one of the most thorough yet simple methods to date used to analyze polymorphisms. This method has led to rapid and efficient single-nucleotide polymorphism evaluation including many clinically relevant polymorphisms. The technique and methodology of Pyrosequencing is explained.

Pharmacogenetic research benefits first-hand from the abundance of information provided by the completion of the Human Genome Project. With such a ...

In vivo and in vitro Studies of Adaptor-clathrin Interaction

A major endocytic pathway initiates with the formation of clathrin-coated vesicles (CCVs) that transport cargo from the cell surface to endosomes1-6. CCVs are distinguished by a polyhedral lattice of clathrin that coats the vesicle membrane and serves as a mechanical scaffold. Clathrin coats are assembled during vesicle formation from individual clathrin triskelia , the soluble form of clathrin composed of three heavy and three light chain subunits7,8. Because the triskelion does not have the ability to bind to the membrane directly, clathrin-binding adaptors are critical to link the forming clathrin lattice to the membrane through association with lipids and/or membrane proteins9. Adaptors also package transmembrane protein cargo, such as receptors, and can interact with each other and with other components of the CCV formation machinery9.
Over twenty clathrin adaptors have been described, several are involved in clathrin mediated endocytosis and others localize to the trans Golgi network or endosomes9. With the exception of HIP1R (yeast Sla2p), all known clathrin adaptors bind to the N-terminal -propeller domain of the clathrin heavy chain9. Clathrin adaptors are modular proteins consisting of folded domains connected by unstructured flexible linkers. Within these linker regions, short binding motifs mediate interactions with the clathrin N-terminal domain or other components of the vesicle formation machinery9. Two distinct clathrin-binding motifs have been defined: the clathrin-box and the W-box9. The consensus clathrin-box sequence was originally defined as L[L/I][D/E/N][L/F][D/E]10 but variants have been subsequently discovered11. The W-box conforms to the sequence PWxxW (where x is any residue).
Sla1p (Synthetic Lethal with Actin binding protein-1) was originally identified as an actin associated protein and is necessary for normal actin cytoskeleton structure and dynamics at endocytic sites in yeast cells12. Sla1p also binds the NPFxD endocytic sorting signal and is critical for endocytosis of cargo bearing the NPFxD signal13,14. More recently, Sla1p was demonstrated to bind clathrin through a motif similar to the clathrin box, LLDLQ, termed a variant clathrin-box (vCB), and to function as an endocytic clathrin adaptor15. In addition, Sla1p has become a widely used marker for the endocytic coat in live cell fluorescence microscopy studies16. Here we use Sla1p as a model to describe approaches for adaptor-clathrin interaction studies. We focus on live cell fluorescence microscopy, GST-pull down, and co-immunoprecipitation methods.

In vivo and in vitro Studies of Adaptor-clathrin Interaction

Clathrin-mediated endocytosis depends on adaptor proteins that coordinate cargo selection and clathrin coat assembly. Here we describe procedures to study adaptor-clathrin physical interaction and live cell imaging approaches using as a model the yeast endocytic adaptor protein Sla1p.

A major endocytic pathway initiates with the formation of clathrin-coated vesicles (CCVs) that transport cargo from the cell surface to endosomes1-6. CCVs ...

Lipid Vesicle-mediated Affinity Chromatography using Magnetic Activated Cell Sorting (LIMACS): a Novel Method to Analyze Protein-lipid Interaction

The analysis of lipid protein interaction is difficult because lipids are embedded in cell membranes and therefore, inaccessible to most purification procedures. As an alternative, lipids can be coated on flat surfaces as used for lipid ELISA and Plasmon resonance spectroscopy. However, surface coating lipids do not form microdomain structures, which may be important for the lipid binding properties. Further, these methods do not allow for the purification of larger amounts of proteins binding to their target lipids.
 To overcome these limitations of testing lipid protein interaction and to purify lipid binding proteins we developed a novel method termed lipid vesicle-mediated affinity chromatography using magnetic-activated cell sorting (LIMACS). In this method, lipid vesicles are prepared with the target lipid and phosphatidylserine as the anchor lipid for Annexin V MACS. Phosphatidylserine is a ubiquitous cell membrane phospholipid that shows high affinity to the protein Annexin V. Using magnetic beads conjugated to Annexin V the phosphatidylserine-containing lipid vesicles will bind to the magnetic beads. When the lipid vesicles are incubated with a cell lysate the protein binding to the target lipid will also be bound to the beads and can be co-purified using MACS. This method can also be used to test if recombinant proteins reconstitute a protein complex binding to the target lipid. 
 We have used this method to show the interaction of atypical PKC (aPKC) with the sphingolipid ceramide and to co-purify prostate apoptosis response 4 (PAR-4), a protein binding to ceramide-associated aPKC. We have also used this method for the reconstitution of a ceramide-associated complex of recombinant aPKC with the cell polarity-related proteins Par6 and Cdc42. Since lipid vesicles can be prepared with a variety of sphingo- or phospholipids, LIMACS offers a versatile test for lipid-protein interaction in a lipid environment that resembles closely that of the cell membrane. Additional lipid protein complexes can be identified using proteomics analysis of lipid binding protein co-purified with the lipid vesicles.

Lipid Vesicle-mediated Affinity Chromatography using Magnetic Activated Cell Sorting LIMACS: a Novel Method to Analyze Protein-lipid Interaction

To test the interaction of a protein with its target lipid we used MACS and Annexin V-conjugated magnetic beads and lipid vesicles synthesized from the target lipid and Annexin V-binding phosphatidylserine. Proteins bound to the target lipid are co-purified and analyzed after elution from the beads.

The analysis of lipid protein interaction is difficult because lipids are embedded in cell membranes and therefore, inaccessible to most purification ...

Use of LysoTracker to Detect Programmed Cell Death in Embryos and Differentiating Embryonic Stem Cells

Programmed cell death (PCD) occurs in adults to maintain normal tissue homeostasis and during embryological development to shape tissues and organs1,2,6,7. During development, toxic chemicals or genetic alterations can cause an increase in PCD or change PCD patterns resulting in developmental abnormalities and birth defects3-5. To understand the etiology of these defects, the study of embryos can be complemented with in vitro assays that use differentiating embryonic stem (ES) cells.
Apoptosis is a well-studied form of PCD that involves both intrinsic and extrinsic signaling to activate the caspase enzyme cascade. Characteristic cell changes include membrane blebbing, nuclear shrinking, and DNA fragmentation. Other forms of PCD do not involve caspase activation and may be the end-result of prolonged autophagy. Regardless of the PCD pathway, dying cells need to be removed. In adults, the immune cells perform this function, while in embryos, where the immune system has not yet developed, removal occurs by an alternative mechanism. This mechanism involves neighboring cells (called "non-professional phagocytes") taking on a phagocytic role-they recognize the 'eat me' signal on the surface of the dying cell and engulf it8-10. After engulfment, the debris is brought to the lysosome for degradation. Thus regardless of PCD mechanism, an increase in lysosomal activity can be correlated with increased cell death.
To study PCD, a simple assay to visualize lysosomes in thick tissues and multilayer differentiating cultures can be useful. LysoTracker dye is a highly soluble small molecule that is retained in acidic subcellular compartments such as the lysosome11-13. The dye is taken up by diffusion and through the circulation. Since penetration is not a hindrance, visualization of PCD in thick tissues and multi-layer cultures is possible12,13. In contrast, TUNEL (Terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase dUTP nick end labeling) analysis14, is limited to small samples, histological sections, and monolayer cultures because the procedure requires the entry/permeability of a terminal transferase.
In contrast to Aniline blue, which diffuses and is dissolved by solvents, LysoTracker Red DND-99 is fixable, bright, and stable. Staining can be visualized with standard fluorescent or confocal microscopy in whole-mount or section using aqueous or solvent-based mounting media12,13. Here we describe protocols using this dye to look at PCD in normal and sonic hedgehog null mouse embryos. In addition, we demonstrate analysis of PCD in differentiating ES cell cultures and present a simple quantification method. In summary, LysoTracker staining can be a great complement to other methods of detecting PCD.

We present a simple protocol to visualize regions of programmed cell death (PCD) in mouse embryos and differentiating embryonic stem (ES) cell cultures using a highly soluble dye called LysoTracker.

Programmed cell death (PCD) occurs in adults to maintain normal tissue homeostasis and during embryological development to shape tissues and ...

Flow Cytometric Analysis of Bimolecular Fluorescence Complementation: A High Throughput Quantitative Method to Study Protein-protein Interaction

Among methods to study protein-protein interaction inside cells, Bimolecular Fluorescence Complementation (BiFC) is relatively simple and sensitive. BiFC is based on the production of fluorescence using two non-fluorescent fragments of a fluorescent protein (Venus, a Yellow Fluorescent Protein variant, is used here). Non-fluorescent Venus fragments (VN and VC) are fused to two interacting proteins (in this case, AKAP-Lbc and PDE4D3), yielding fluorescence due to VN-AKAP-Lbc-VC-PDE4D3 interaction and the formation of a functional fluorescent protein inside cells.
BiFC provides information on the subcellular localization of protein complexes and the strength of protein interactions based on fluorescence intensity. However, BiFC analysis using microscopy to quantify the strength of protein-protein interaction is time-consuming and somewhat subjective due to heterogeneity in protein expression and interaction. By coupling flow cytometric analysis with BiFC methodology, the fluorescent BiFC protein-protein interaction signal can be accurately measured for a large quantity of cells in a short time. Here, we demonstrate an application of this methodology to map regions in PDE4D3 that are required for the interaction with AKAP-Lbc. This high throughput methodology can be applied to screening factors that regulate protein-protein interaction.

Flow cytometric analysis of Bimolecular Fluorescence Complementation provides a high throughput quantitative method to study protein-protein interaction. This methodology can be applied to mapping protein binding sites and for screening factors that regulate protein-protein interaction.

Among methods to study protein-protein interaction inside cells, Bimolecular Fluorescence Complementation (BiFC) is relatively simple and sensitive. BiFC ...

Using Coculture to Detect Chemically Mediated Interspecies Interactions

In nature, bacteria rarely exist in isolation; they are instead surrounded by a diverse array of other microorganisms that alter the local environment by secreting metabolites. These metabolites have the potential to modulate the physiology and differentiation of their microbial neighbors and are likely important factors in the establishment and maintenance of complex microbial communities. We have developed a fluorescence-based coculture screen to identify such chemically mediated microbial interactions. The screen involves combining a fluorescent transcriptional reporter strain with environmental microbes on solid media and allowing the colonies to grow in coculture. The fluorescent transcriptional reporter is designed so that the chosen bacterial strain fluoresces when it is expressing a particular phenotype of interest (i.e. biofilm formation, sporulation, virulence factor production, etc.) Screening is performed under growth conditions where this phenotype is not expressed (and therefore the reporter strain is typically nonfluorescent). When an environmental microbe secretes a metabolite that activates this phenotype, it diffuses through the agar and activates the fluorescent reporter construct. This allows the inducing-metabolite-producing microbe to be detected: they are the nonfluorescent colonies most proximal to the fluorescent colonies. Thus, this screen allows the identification of environmental microbes that produce diffusible metabolites that activate a particular physiological response in a reporter strain. This publication discusses how to: a) select appropriate coculture screening conditions, b) prepare the reporter and environmental microbes for screening, c) perform the coculture screen, d) isolate putative inducing organisms, and e) confirm their activity in a secondary screen. We developed this method to screen for soil organisms that activate biofilm matrix-production in Bacillus subtilis; however, we also discuss considerations for applying this approach to other genetically tractable bacteria.

Bacteria produce secreted compounds that have the potential to affect the physiology of their microbial neighbors. Here we describe a coculture screen that allows detection of such chemically mediated interspecies interactions by mixing soil microbes with fluorescent transcriptional reporter strains of Bacillus subtilis on solid media.

In nature, bacteria rarely exist in isolation; they are instead surrounded by a diverse array of other microorganisms that alter the local environment by ...

Analysis of Apoptosis in Zebrafish Embryos by Whole-mount Immunofluorescence to Detect Activated Caspase 3

Whole-mount immunofluorescence to detect activated Caspase 3 (Casp3 assay) is useful to identify cells undergoing either intrinsic or extrinsic apoptosis in zebrafish embryos. The whole-mount analysis provides spatial information in regard to tissue specificity of apoptosing cells, although sectioning and/or colabeling is ultimately required to pinpoint the exact cell types undergoing apoptosis. The whole-mount Casp3 assay is optimized for analysis of fixed embryos between the 4-cell stage and 32 hr-post-fertilization and is useful for a number of applications, including analysis of zebrafish mutants and morphants, overexpression of mutant and wild-type mRNAs, and exposure to chemicals. Compared to acridine orange staining, which can identify apoptotic cells in live embryos in a matter of hours, Casp3 and TUNEL assays take considerably longer to complete (2-4 days). However, because of the dynamic nature of apoptotic cell formation and clearance, analysis of fixed embryos ensures accurate comparison of apoptotic cells across multiple samples at specific time points. We have also found the Casp3 assay to be superior to analysis of apoptotic cells by the whole-mount TUNEL assay in regard to cost and reliability. Overall, the Casp3 assay represents a robust, highly reproducible assay in which to analyze apoptotic cells in early zebrafish embryos.

Certain genetic perturbations or exposure to toxins can disrupt normal developmental processes leading to death of specific cell types. The analysis of activated Caspase 3 by whole-mount immunofluorescence in zebrafish embryos reveals stage- and tissue-specific localization of cells specifically undergoing apoptosis.

Whole-mount immunofluorescence to detect activated Caspase 3 (Casp3 assay) is useful to identify cells undergoing either intrinsic or extrinsic apoptosis ...

Probing High-density Functional Protein Microarrays to Detect Protein-protein Interactions

High-density functional protein microarrays containing ~4,200 recombinant yeast proteins are examined for kinase protein-protein interactions using an affinity purified yeast kinase fusion protein containing a V5-epitope tag for read-out. Purified kinase is obtained through culture of a yeast strain optimized for high copy protein production harboring a plasmid containing a Kinase-V5 fusion construct under a GAL inducible promoter. The yeast is grown in restrictive media with a neutral carbon source for 6 hr followed by induction with 2% galactose. Next, the culture is harvested and kinase is purified using standard affinity chromatographic techniques to obtain a highly purified protein kinase for use in the assay. The purified kinase is diluted with kinase buffer to an appropriate range for the assay and the protein microarrays are blocked prior to hybridization with the protein microarray. After the hybridization, the arrays are probed with monoclonal V5 antibody to identify proteins bound by the kinase-V5 protein. Finally, the arrays are scanned using a standard microarray scanner, and data is extracted for downstream informatics analysis1,2 to determine a high confidence set of protein interactions for downstream validation in vivo.

Using protein microarrays containing nearly the entire S. cerevisiae proteome is probed for rapid unbiased interrogation of thousands of protein-protein interactions in parallel. This method can be utilized for protein-small molecule, posttranslational modification, and other assays in high-throughput.

High-density functional protein microarrays containing ~4,200 recombinant yeast proteins are examined for kinase protein-protein interactions using an ...

Broth Microdilution In Vitro Screening: An Easy and Fast Method to Detect New Antifungal Compounds

Fungal infections have become an important medical condition in the last decades, but the number of available antifungal drugs is limited. In this scenario, the search for new antifungal drugs is necessary. The protocol reported here details a method to screen peptides for their antifungal properties. It is based on the broth microdilution susceptibility test from the Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI) M27-A3 guidelines with modifications to suit the research of antimicrobial peptides as potential new antifungals. This protocol describes a functional assay to evaluate the activity of antifungal compounds and may be easily modified to suit any particular class of molecules under investigation. Since the assays are performed in 96-well plates using small volumes, a large-scale screening can be completed in a short amount of time, especially if carried out in an automation setting. This procedure illustrates how a standardized and adjustable clinical protocol can help the bench-work pursuit of new molecules to improve the therapy of fungal diseases.

Broth Microdilution In Vitro Screening: An Easy and Fast Method to Detect New Antifungal Compounds

An easy and adaptable broth microdilution method for screening antifungal compounds and extracts.

Fungal infections have become an important medical condition in the last decades, but the number of available antifungal drugs is limited. In this ...

Plant-Microbe Interaction: Transcriptional Response of Bacillus Mycoides to Potato Root Exudates

Beneficial plant-associated bacteria play an important role in promoting growth and preventing disease in plants. The application of plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) as biofertilizers or biocontrol agents has become an effective alternative to the use of conventional fertilizers and can increase crop productivity at low cost. Plant-microbe interactions depend upon host plant-secreted signals and a reaction hereon by their associated bacteria. However, the molecular mechanisms of how beneficial bacteria respond to their associated plant-derived signals are not fully understood. Assessing the transcriptomic response of bacteria to root exudates is a powerful approach to determine the bacterial gene expression and regulation under rhizospheric conditions. Such knowledge is necessary to understand the underlying mechanisms involved in plant-microbe interactions. This paper describes a detailed protocol to study the transcriptomic response of B. mycoides EC18, a strain isolated from the potato endosphere, to potato root exudates. With the help of recent high-throughput sequencing technology, this protocol can be performed in several weeks and produce massive datasets. First, we collect the root exudates under sterile conditions, after which they are added to B. mycoides cultures. The RNA from these cultures is isolated using a phenol/chloroform method combined with a commercial kit and subjected to quality control by an automated electrophoresis instrument. After sequencing, data analysis is performed with the web-based T-REx pipeline and a group of differentially expressed genes is identified. This method is a useful tool to facilitate new discoveries on the bacterial genes involved in plant-microbe interactions.

Plant-Microbe Interaction: Transcriptional Response of Bacillus Mycoides to Potato Root Exudates

The goal of the protocol presented here is to study the transcriptomic response of endosphere-isolated Bacillus mycoides to potato root exudates. This method facilitates the identification of important bacterial genes involved in plant-microbe interactions and is in principle applicable to other endophytes and plants, with minor adjustments.