This research was supported by the Institute of International Education&#39;s Scholar Rescue Fund (IIE-SRF).

Separation of Aquafaba from Chickpeas
<ol>
	<li>Obtain cans of chick peas from local grocers and open with a manual can opener.</li>
	<li>Label cans from A to J.</li>
	<li>Separate chickpeas from aquafaba using a stainless steel meshed kitchen strainer and weigh the separated chickpeas and aquafaba.</li>
</ol>
Obtain a Representative Sample of Chickpeas and Aquafaba for Chemical Analysis.
<ol start="4">
	<li>Randomly select ten chickpeas after draining the aquafaba to determine moisture conten...

<ol>
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K., Parthasarathy Rao, P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Global+and+regional+pulse+economies+current+trends+and+outlook.">Global and regional pulse economies current trends and outlook.</a> IFPRI Discussion Paper 01544. , 149 (2016).</li><li>Oomah, B. D., Patras, A., Rawson, A., Singh, N., Compos-Vega, R., Tiwari, B. K., Gowen, A., Mckenna, B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Chemistry+of+pulses.">Chemistry of pulses.</a> Pulse Foods. , 9-55 (2011).</li><li>Gugger, E. 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The authors have nothing to disclose.

In this research, we have found that chickpea aquafaba from different commercial sources produces foams that vary in both properties (volume and stability of foam) and chemical composition. There was a positive correlation between aquafaba viscosity and moisture content. Foam volume increase (Vf100) was not related to these parameters. Additives such as salt and disodium EDTA might suppress viscosity and foam stability as aquafaba from chickpea canned with these additives had lower viscosity and produced foams...

Increasingly vegetarian products are being developed that mimic the properties of meat, milk, and eggs. The functional properties of pulses are important in their current uses in food applications and their properties are being explored in the development of replacements for animal protein. For example, dairy alternatives sales were $8.80 Billion USD in 2015 and this market is growing rapidly. This market is projected to grow to $35.06 billion by 2024. Moreover, the upward trend in demand for plant-based milk substitutes is, in part, a result of consumer health concerns regarding cholesterol, antibiotics, and growth hormones often used in milk production1. Similarly, vegetable protein and hydrocolloid egg replacer markets are rapidly expanding and a compound annual growth rate of 5.8% is expected for these materials over the next 8 years with sales of $1.5 billion USD expected in 20262. A growing number of consumers prefer vegan protein sources, allergen reduced diets and reduced carbon footprint for food products. Demand for pulse-based products, especially from lentil, chickpea, and faba bean are steadily growing due to the high protein content, dietary fiber and low saturated fat content of pulses3. Pulses also contain phytochemicals with potentially beneficial biological activity4.
Commercial entities, scientists and private individuals have taken different approaches to communicate the quality properties of chickpea based egg and milk replacements. Gugger et al.5 produced a milk-like product from high starch grains including adzuki bean and chickpea. In their described methods the proponents attempted to show that their product is unique and different from &#34;aquafaba&#34;6. In another commercial approach elucidated by Tetrick et al.7 a plant-based egg substitute was developed. Their patent application describes methods of combining pulse flour with known thickeners that emulate the function of egg white in baked materials. Typical formulae include 80-90% pulse flour and 10-20% thickening additives.
Peer reviewed literature also indicates the functionality possible with chickpea and has demonstrated that albumin protein fractions obtained from kabuli and desi chickpea flour have good emulsification properties. They have also found a significant effect of chickpea source on the albumin yield and performance8.
After the initial internet report describing &#34;aquafaba&#34; by French chef Jo&#235;l Roessel, an open source movement is showing the utility of aquafaba as a replacement of egg white and dairy protein in many food applications. There are many highly viewed webpages and YouTube videos showing the incorporation of aquafaba in foods that emulate the qualities of ice cream, meringue, cheese, mayonnaise, scrambled eggs, and whipped cream. Most pioneers providing open source aquafaba applications (recipes) obtain their material by straining canned chickpeas and using the liquid in their recipes. These individuals are mostly not trained scientists. Video comments sections indicate that the respondents have copied the recipes and some have failed to replicate the successes of the aquafaba advocates.
All three approaches (corporate, scientific and open source) to developing egg and milk replacements have merit but are missing an important dimension. Applied scientists, basic scientists and individuals promulgating pulse-based products have incompletely characterized and standardized their input material. Standardization of a product for a specific use is a normal industrial practice. Chickpea cultivars have not been standardized for aquafaba quality and industrial canning practices are standardized to produce consistent chickpeas not aquafaba.
Based on studies of other commodities, it is predictable that both genotype and environment will contribute to pulse aquafaba quality. It is known that both genotype and environment affect kabuli chickpea canning properties9. Typically, genotypic effects are large between related species and smaller within members of a species. Variation in physical and chemical properties can be minimized through identity preservation that allows the selection of cultivars with desired properties. Environmental effects can also be large and are managed by quality evaluation and blending to standard performance in specific tests10.
There are many genetically distinct cultivars of chickpea in commercial production. For examples, the University of Saskatchewan Crop Development Centre, a major source of commercial chickpea germplasm, has released 23 chickpea cultivars since 1980 of which 6 are currently recommended for cultivation in Canada. While scientific manuscripts often describe the cultivar used in a study, the patents and internet pages that were surveyed did not indicate the cultivar used or the provenance of the chickpeas. The standardization of cultivars and handling could help users increase their success in using chickpea but this information is not available on canned chickpea products.
The objective of this research is to determine the aquafaba components that contribute foaming properties. Here,the rheological properties of aquafaba from commercial chickpea brands were compared and the chemical properties were studied by NMR, electrophoresis, and peptide mass fingerprinting. To our knowledge, this is the first research which describes the chemical composition and the functional properties of the aquafaba viscosifier components.

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			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:219px;">Formic acid&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:217px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:100px;">33015-500mL</td>
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			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:219px;">Mass spectrometry vial&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:217px;">Agilent Technologies Canada Ltd.</td>
			<td style="width:100px;"></td>
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			<td height="63" style="height:63px;width:219px;">Agilent 6550 iFunnel quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometer&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:217px;">Agilent Technologies Canada Ltd.</td>
			<td style="width:100px;"></td>
			<td style="width:267px;">Agilent 1260 series LC instrument and Agilent Chip Cube LC-MS interface</td>
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			<td height="64" style="height:64px;width:219px;">HPLC-Chip II: G4240-62030 Polaris-HR-Chip_3C18&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:217px;"></td>
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			<td style="width:267px;">360 nL enrichment column and 75 &#181;m &#215; 150 mm analytical column, both packed with Polaris C18-A, 180&#197;, 3 &#181;m stationary phase.&#160;</td>
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			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:219px;">Agilent MassHunter Qualitative Analysis Software</td>
			<td style="width:217px;">Agilent Technologies Canada Ltd.</td>
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			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:219px;">SpectrumMill data extractors</td>
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</table>

composition and properties of aquafaba: water recovered from commercially canned chickpeas

Chickpea and other pulses are commonly sold as canned products packed in a thick solution or a brine. This solution has recently been shown to produce stable foams and emulsions, and can act as a thickener. Recently interest in this product has been enhanced through the internet where it is proposed that this solution, now called aquafaba by a growing community, can be used a replacement for egg and milk protein. As aquafaba is both new and being developed by an internet based community little is known of its composition or properties. Aquafaba was recovered from 10 commercial canned chickpea products and correlations among aquafaba composition, density, viscosity and foaming properties were investigated. Proton NMR was used to characterize aquafaba composition before and after ultrafiltration through membranes with different molecular weight cut offs (MWCOs of 3, 10, or 50 kDa). A protocol for electrophoresis, and peptide mass fingerprinting is also presented. Those methods provided valuable information regarding components responsible for aquafaba functional properties. This information will allow the development of practices to produce standard commercial aquafaba products and may help consumers select products of superior or consistent utility.

Each can of chick peas is labeled to indicate the ingredients added during canning. Ingredients included water, chick peas, salt, and disodium ethylenediamine tetraacetic acid (EDTA). In addition, two cans were labeled as &#34;may contain calcium chloride&#34;. Three distinct lining colours were observed; white, clear yellow and metallic (Table 1).
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Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Composition and Properties of Aquafaba: Water Recovered from Commercially Canned Chickpeas at JoVE.com

Composition and Properties of Aquafaba: Water Recovered from Commercially Canned Chickpeas

Aquafaba is a viscous juice from canned chickpea that, when stirred vigorously, produces a relatively stable white froth or foam. The primary research goal is to identify the components of aquafaba that contribute viscosifying/thickening properties using nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), ultrafiltration, electrophoresis, and peptide mass fingerprinting.

Chickpea and other pulses are commonly sold as canned products packed in a thick solution or a brine. This solution has recently been shown to produce ...

My name is Martin Reaney. I'm Chair of Lipid Quality and Utilization at the University of Saskatchewan, Department of Agriculture and Bioresources. Pulses and pulse fractions have been recently used as milk and egg replacements.For this purpose, we investigated the use of aquafaba for milk and egg replacement. Aquafaba is the water remaining from canned chickpeas. This water contains components that can thicken food products and stabilize food foams and emulsions.There are many recipes on the internet which describe the use of aquafaba in food products. However, people often report that they could not repeat recipes that they found on the internet and achieve the same properties of aquafaba that other users have achieved. The overall goal of our study was to investigate the correlation between aquafaba composition, density, viscosity and foaming properties.NMR and electrophoresis were used to study aquafaba composition. There is a procedure used by all manufacturers producing canned chickpeas. This involves first sorting the seed for quality to remove undesirable seed.Optionally, the seed is rinsed with water to remove surface contamination. For our purposes, the seed is submerged in water for a few seconds and then the water is immediately drained. After the seed is rinsed, the seed is immersed in two volumes of water or more to allow it to expand and fully hydrate.This soaking is called steeping. After soaking, the seeds have expanded and are ready to can. The seeds are comparatively softer and more fragile and must be handled appropriately.This involves, first of all, sorting the seeds for quality to remove undesirable seeds, then it follows that the seeds would be soaked in water. First they're rinsed and then soaked for a period of time, as you can see here. After soaking, they will have greatly expanded in volume and they are ready for canning.After steeping the seeds, we pour the soaked seed through a sieve. Water going through the sieve is discarded. The seed is transferred to a 300mL can with a large spoon such as this one here.The can is filled with water to within one centimeter of the top so that sufficient room is available for expansion. The canning lid was placed on top of the can and placed in the can sealer as demonstrated. The sealer is operated by pressing down on the handle to force the lid into contact with the can during sealing.The hand crank on the sealer is turned to both spin the can and to seal the can with two die that shape the lid and fix it to the can. Once the can is sealed, the die retracts and the can is readily removed. The can's seal should be watertight.Then, the sealed can is placed in a pressure cooker. Water is added to the cooker to fill it to about four centimeters deep. The cooker is sealed by placing the lid on the cooker and rotating it until it is sealed as shown.For pulses, the cooking time is a period of 75 minutes at 115 degrees centigrade. After cooking the peas, we have to take them out and separate the peas from the aquafaba. We open this with a standard can opener.Now that the can is open, we can place the contents of the can in a colander that is put in a larger collection vessel. The aquafaba juice goes through the colander and can be separated that way from the peas in the can. It's this liquid that we use for further experiments.So, that's aquafaba of two minutes. Here, you can see the type of foam we would use for further studies. In this study, we used commercial cans from 10 different commercial sources as our sources of aquafaba.After blending for two minutes, the foam was placed in plastic cups and observed over time. As you can see, the foam is collapsing in all the cups. Only two samples, D and H, produced a stable foam that lasted throughout the entire experiment.All of the other foams collapsed over time. At zero hours, all cups were full of foam. After one hour, separation of liquid was evident in all samples except Sample H.After 14 hours, some of the liquid had separated from Sample H.We further wanted to characterize aquafaba from canned peas.We looked at gross characteristics, mass balance, including looking at the content of chickpea seeds, juice volume, juice density and juice viscosity. The correlations among these properties were also investigated. Unsurprisingly, there was a strong negative correlation between chickpea fresh weight and juice volume.There was a strong positive correlation between chickpea fresh weight and aquafaba viscosity. Aquafaba samples were prepared for NMR spectroscopy. The aquafaba, shown here as juice, was centrifuged of 9200g in an Eppendorf tube for 10 minutes.The supernatant was taken up from the Eppendorf tube in a one mL slope syringe as seen here. Then about four or five micron filters attached to the Luer-Lok on the syringe. We found that the filtration required some application of force to expel the sample.Once the sample is filtered, it is possible to use it for NMR spectrometry. Here, the sample is being transferred to an NMR tube. Later, deuterated water will also be added to the sample to allow the NMR spectrometer to lock to its frequency.Based on the NMR resonances observed, it is possible to determine the compounds that are present in aquafaba. We were able to observe compounds that reflected conditions experienced by the chickpea during processing. For example, conditions during steeping might allow anoxic respiration by the seed or microorganisms present.We observed compounds such as lactic and acetic acid that are likely formed during steeping. We also observed compounds that likely leach from the seed during cooking. These includes compounds such as choline and sugars.The supernatant was also used for peptide mass fingerprinting after removing low molecular weight species. In this case, the chickpea liquid was placed in a centrifugal unit with a three kilodalton membrane. The centrifugal unit was used to centrifuge it at 3900 times g for two hours.The retentate of this centrifugation was used for SDS-PAGE analysis. After standard separation of the proteins by SDS-PAGE, the gel was stained using Coomassie Blue. Intensely stained bands were then cut from the gel, destained, subject to tryptic digestion and the digestion fragments were analyzed using LC-mass spectrometry, Protein mass spectrometry software was used to deduce the sequences of proteins present.Most of the proteins present appear to be chickpea, but a few high molecular weight proteins are present that are due to microbial contamination from the chickpea disease organism, Ascochyta blight. The majority of proteins identified are well-known, heat stable proteins, including dehydrants, late embryo abundant proteins and defensins. Additives to chickpea include salt, disodium ADT and calcium chloride.The can linings that we observed were white, clear yellow or metallic. Chickpea fresh weight is positively correlated to its juice viscosity and the VF/VJ ratio. This relationship is largely related to the samples without an AZL added.These samples have a much higher viscosity, but much lower VF/VJ than other samples. Chickpea fresh weight and juice volume are easily determined by consumers. We observed a negative correlation between juice density and volume increase ratio.The foam formed from aquafaba samples derived from chickpeas cooked with salt had much greater stability. Aquafaba contains proteins with molecular weights that are greater than three kilodaltons. End of our analysis shows the presence of substances in chickpeas, for example choline, and also compounds that might accumulate during soaking the peas due to action of bacteria or seed metabolism, such as acetic acid and lactic acid.Electrophoresis and peptide mass fingerprinting has allowed a preliminary characterization of proteins present.

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32.9K 조회수.  University of Saskatchewan. My name is Martin Reaney. I'm Chair of Lipid Quality and Utilization at the University of Saskatchewan, Department of Agriculture and Bioresources. Pulses and pulse fractions have been recently used as milk and egg replacements.For this purpose, we investigated the use of aquafaba for milk and egg replacement. Aquafaba is the water remaining from canned chickpeas. This water contains components that can thicken food products and stabilize food foams and emulsions.There are many ...