Name: using a bacterial pathogen to probe for cellular and organismic-level host responses
Uploaded: 2019-02-22T12:30:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Using a Bacterial Pathogen to Probe for Cellular and Organismic-level Host Responses at JoVE.com

Mice were treated humanely in accordance with all appropriate government guidelines for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals of the National Institutes of Health and their use was approved for this entire study by the University of Miami Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (protocol 16-053).
1. Preparing Cells for Infection
<ol>
	<li>Propagate mouse macrophage-like cell line RAW 264.7 in DMEM tissue culture media supplemented with 10% fetal calf serum (henceforth referred to as DME...

<ol>
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D., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Specific+depletion+reveals+a+novel+role+for+neutrophil-mediated+protection+in+the+liver+during+Listeria+monocytogenes+infection.">Specific depletion reveals a novel role for neutrophil-mediated protection in the liver during Listeria monocytogenes infection.</a> European Journal of Immunology. 41 (9), 2666-2676 (2011).</li><li>Bl&#233;riot, C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Liver-resident+macrophage+necroptosis+orchestrates+type+1+microbicidal+inflammation+and+type-2-mediated+tissue+repair+during+bacterial+infection.">Liver-resident macrophage necroptosis orchestrates type 1 microbicidal inflammation and type-2-mediated tissue repair during bacterial infection.</a> Immunity. 42 (1), 145-158 (2015).</li><li>Jones, G. S., D'Orazio, S. E. F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Monocytes+are+the+predominant+cell+type+associated+with+Listeria+monocytogenes+in+the+gut,+but+they+do+not+serve+as+an+intracellular+growth+niche.">Monocytes are the predominant cell type associated with Listeria monocytogenes in the gut, but they do not serve as an intracellular growth niche.</a> Journal of Immunology. 198, 2796-2804 (2017).</li><li>Agaisse, H., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Genome-wide+RNAi+screen+for+host+factors+required+for+intracellular+bacterial+infection.">Genome-wide RNAi screen for host factors required for intracellular bacterial infection.</a> Science. 309, 1248-1251 (2005).</li><li>Cheng, L. 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E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Perturbation+of+vacuolar+maturation+promotes+listeriolysin+O-independent+vacuolar+escape+during+Listeria+monocytogenes+infection+of+human+cells.">Perturbation of vacuolar maturation promotes listeriolysin O-independent vacuolar escape during Listeria monocytogenes infection of human cells.</a> Cellular Microbiology. 11, 1382-1398 (2009).</li><li>Shrestha, N., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+host-encoded+Heme+Regulated+Inhibitor+(HRI)+facilitates+virulence-associated+activities+of+bacterial+pathogens.">The host-encoded Heme Regulated Inhibitor (HRI) facilitates virulence-associated activities of bacterial pathogens.</a> PLoS One. 8, 68754 (2013).</li><li>Bahnan, W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+eIF2&#945;+Kinase+Heme-Regulated+Inhibitor+Protects+the+Host+from+Infection+by+Regulating+Intracellular+Pathogen+Trafficking.">The eIF2&#945; Kinase Heme-Regulated Inhibitor Protects the Host from Infection by Regulating Intracellular Pathogen Trafficking.</a> Infection and Immunity. 20, 00707 (2018).</li><li>Kortebi, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Listeria+monocytogenes+switches+from+dissemination+to+persistence+by+adopting+a+vacuolar+lifestyle+in+epithelial+cells.">Listeria monocytogenes switches from dissemination to persistence by adopting a vacuolar lifestyle in epithelial cells.</a> PLoS Pathogen. 13, 1006734 (2017).</li><li>VanCleave, T. T., Pulsifer, A. R., Connor, M. G., Warawa, J. M., Lawrenz, M. B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Impact+of+Gentamicin+Concentration+and+Exposure+Time+on+Intracellular+Yersinia+pestis.">Impact of Gentamicin Concentration and Exposure Time on Intracellular Yersinia pestis.</a> Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology. 7, 505 (2017).</li></ol>

Due to its rapid and processive cellular infection program, Lm is an ideal pathogen to probe cellular activities that impact infection. A number of host factors have been identified that either positively or negatively affect Lm cellular infection11,12,13,14. Two such host factors characterized in our laboratory, Perforin-2 and the Heme Regulated Inhibitor (P2 and hI), regulat...

Infection-based experimental models are inherently challenging due to their dependence on the starting state conditions of the host and pathogen, the various pathogen infection strategies, and the difficulty of attributing pathogen- and host-driven processes based on outcomes. The bacterium Listeria monocytogenes (Lm) has become an ideal pathogen to probe host defense responses because of its genetic and microbiological tractability, its rapid and processive cellular infection strategy, and the relatively clear relationship between its cellular- and organismic-level infection phenotypes. The cellular infection of Lm proceeds through four distinct phases1: (i) cellular invasion that concludes with Lm being enclosed within a vacuole; (ii) Lm-directed dissolution of the vacuole membrane and release of Lm into the cytosol; (iii) intracytosolic replication; and (iv) physical penetration of the plasma membrane that results in either the infection of directly adjacent cells (such as in an epithelial sheet) or, in solitary cells, release of Lm into the extracellular milieu. Each of these phases are promoted by specific Lm-encoded factors (referred to as &#39;virulence factors&#39;) that, when deleted, cause infection defects in both cellular and animal models. This general infection strategy has been independently evolved by a number of the so-called &#39;cytosolic&#39; pathogens2.
Colony-forming unit (CFU) assays are widely employed to evaluate both in vitro (i.e., cellular) as well as in vivo (i.e., organismic) infection outcomes. In addition to their high sensitivity, particularly for in vivo infections, CFU assays provide an unambiguous readout for pathogen invasion and intracellular survival/proliferation. CFU assays have been extensively used to analyze both Lm and host cell determinants that impact infection. As informative as these prior studies have been to analyze cellular invasion and intracytosolic replication, CFU assays have not, to the best of our knowledge, been used to track the fourth phase of the Lm infection process: cellular escape. Here, we describe relatively simple means of how cellular escape (hereafter referred to as &#39;emergence&#39;) can be monitored by CFU assay (as well as by flow cytometry) and show examples of how both pathogen- and host-encoded factors regulate this phase of the Lm infection cycle. The analysis of the terminal phase of the cellular Lm infection cycle may make it possible to identify additional pathogen and host cell infection-specific factors and activities.

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			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">ACK Lysing Buffer</td>
			<td style="width:128px;">Gibco&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">A1049201</td>
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			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">BHI (Brain Heart Infusion) broth</td>
			<td>EMD Milipore</td>
			<td>110493</td>
			<td></td>
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			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Cell Strainer, 70 &#181;m</td>
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			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Collagenase D</td>
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			<td>11965-092</td>
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			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">FACS tubes&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:128px;">BD Falcon</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">352054</td>
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			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">FBS - Heat Inactivated&#160;</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>F4135-500ML</td>
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			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Hanks&#8217; Balanced Salt solution</td>
			<td style="width:128px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>H6648-6X500ML</td>
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		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">LB agar</td>
			<td style="width:128px;">Grow Cells MS</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">MBPE-4040</td>
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			<td>R415</td>
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			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">SP6800 Spectral Analyzer</td>
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			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Syringe 28G 1/2&#34; 1cc</td>
			<td style="width:128px;">BD</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">329461</td>
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			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">TPP Tissue Culture 48 Well Plates&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:128px;">MIDSCI</td>
			<td>TP92048</td>
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		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">TPP Tissue Culture 6 Well Plates&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:128px;">MIDSCI</td>
			<td>TP92406</td>
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			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">UltraComp eBeads</td>
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			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Antigen</td>
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			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
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			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">CD11b&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:128px;">Biolegend</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td>Flurochrome = PE Cy5, Dilution = 1/100, Clone = M1/70</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">CD11c</td>
			<td style="width:128px;">Biolegend</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td>Flurochrome = AF 647, Dilution = 1/100, Clone = N418</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">CD45</td>
			<td style="width:128px;">Biolegend</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td>Flurochrome = APC Cy7, Dilution = 1/100, Clone = 30-F11</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">F4/80</td>
			<td style="width:128px;">Biolegend</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td>Flurochrome = PE, Dilution = 1/100, Clone = BM8</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Live/Dead</td>
			<td style="width:128px;">Invitrogen</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td>Flurochrome = AmCyN, Dilution = 1/100</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Ly6C</td>
			<td style="width:128px;">Biolegend</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td>Flurochrome = PacBlue, Dilution = 1/200, Clone = HK1.4</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">MHC II</td>
			<td style="width:128px;">Biolegend</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td>Flurochrome = AF 700, Dilution = 1/200, Clone = M5/114.15.2</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">NK 1.1</td>
			<td style="width:128px;">Biolegend</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td>Flurochrome = BV 605, Dilution = 1/100, Clone = PK136</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
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using a bacterial pathogen to probe for cellular and organismic-level host responses

There are a variety of strategies bacterial pathogens employ to survive and proliferate once inside the eukaryotic cell. The so-called 'cytosolic' pathogens (Listeria monocytogenes, Shigella flexneri, Burkholderia pseudomallei, Francisella tularensis, and Rickettsia spp.) gain access to the infected cell cytosol by physically and enzymatically degrading the primary vacuolar membrane. Once in the cytosol, these pathogens both proliferate as well as generate sufficient mechanical forces to penetrate the plasma membrane of the host cell in order to infect new cells. Here, we show how this terminal step of the cellular infection cycle of L. monocytogenes (Lm) can be quantified by both colony-forming unit assays and flow cytometry and give examples of how both pathogen- and host-encoded factors impact this process. We also show a close correspondence of Lm infection dynamics of cultured cells infected in vitro and those of hepatic cells derived from mice infected in vivo. These function-based assays are relatively simple and can be readily scaled up for discovery-based high-throughput screens for modulators of eukaryotic cell function.

Assessing the role of pathogen and host-encoded factors impacting cellular infection 
Using the infection conditions described above, 0.15% of the input wild-type Lm is recovered after 1.5 h of co-incubation with cultured macrophages (Figure 1A). In the subsequent 1.5 h of co-incubation (3 h post infection, hpi), there was a 4-fold increase in recovery of viable Lm and from 3 to 6 hpi there was an addit...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Using a Bacterial Pathogen to Probe for Cellular and Organismic-level Host Responses at JoVE.com

Using a Bacterial Pathogen to Probe for Cellular and Organismic-level Host Responses

We describe both in vitro and in vivo infection assays that can be used to analyze the activities of host-encoding factors.

There are a variety of strategies bacterial pathogens employ to survive and proliferate once inside the eukaryotic cell. The so-called 'cytosolic' ...

Microbial Pathogens that replicate intracellularly must eventually exit the infected cell. Which, when compared to other aspects of host pathogen interactions is relatively understudied. Here, we describe techniques to analyze pathogen efflux.We show how relatively simply assays can be used to either evaluate efflux efficiency or characterize post-efflux pathogens The general techniques described here are broadly applicable although specific pathogen host cell models may differ in kinetics, dosages and possibly read-outs. As in setting up any experimental system, it is essential that clear controls are established that will ensure that genuine, biological processes are observed in experimental samples or cohorts. Demonstrating the procedure will be Petoria Gayle, a graduate student from my laboratory.To begin with the infection experiment, use a pipette to add 20 microliters of the freshly prepared Lm inoculum to wells, with the dish slightly tilted and the pipette tip carefully placed in the overlying media. Avoid touching the walls of the well with the pipette tip. Gently pipette the contents of each well to ensure complete mixing.Do not shake or significantly tilt the plate to avoid spreading LM over the walls of the well. Return cell culture dish to the 37 degree Celsius, five percent carbon dioxide incubator. Use conditioned media from uninfected cells as diluent to prepare a 10 micrograms per milliliter gentamicin solution.At 30 minutes post-infection, carefully add 30 microliters of the gentamicin solution into the dish to reach a final concentration of two-point-five micrograms per milliliter. Gently pipette the contents of the well to mix and return the cell culture dish to the incubator. To harvest, slightly tilt the dish and carefully use a pipette to remove the entire media from the well.Add point-five milliliters of distilled, sterile water to the well. After 30 seconds, transfer the resulting water lysate to a one-point-five milliliter microcentrifuge tube and vortex vigorously for 10 seconds. Add four-point-five microliters and 50 microliters of the water lysate to 450 microliters of distilled, sterile water to prepare the tenfold and one-hundredfold dilutions.Briefly vortex to ensure thorough mixing. Add 50 microliters of the original tenfold diluted and one-hundredfold diluted samples onto lysogeny broth agar plates, and spread using a plate spreader. To assay for emerging LM, extract 10 microliters of the overlaying media from the dish and divide it into two five-microliter aliquots and micro centrifuge tubes.Add five-microliters of DMEM/FCS to one aliquot and add five-microliters of DMEM/FCS containing five-microliters per milliliter gentamicin to the second aliquot as control. Wait five minutes at room temperature. Add 90 microliters of distilled sterile water to each aliquot and vortex the two vigorously for 10 seconds.Then add 50 microliters of the sample on LB agar plates and spread using a plate spreader. Store the plates in 37 degrees celsius incubator for two days before enumerating Lm colonies. Using an automated cell counter, adjust the prepared, raw two-six-four-point-seven cells to the concentration of one times 10 to the sixth cells-per-milliliter.Add one milliliter of the sample to wells of a six-well tissue culture plate. Infect the cells with a prepared Lm inoculum, corresponding to a multiplicity of infection of 50. At one-point-five hours post-infection, in a one-point-five milliliter microcentrifuge tube filled with 500 microliters of four percent PFA, collect media from the first set of wells and place the tube on ice.To collect intracellular Lm, add one milliliter of distilled, sterile water to each well. After 60 seconds, transfer the resulting water lysate to a one-point-five milliliter microcentrifuge tube with 500 microliters of four-percent PFA. Vortex the tube vigorously for 10 seconds and place it on ice.For remaining wells, remove media and replace with one-milliliter of DMEM/FCS with five-micrograms per milliliter gentamicin to kill extracellular Lm.Promptly return the dish to the incubator. After 30 minutes, remove media and replace with DMEM/FCS without gentamicin. After another another two and four hours, collect media in lysates for the second and third time points into the tubes and place them on ice to chill.Centrifuge tubes at 10, 000 times G for seven minutes. Using a pipette, remove supernatant without disturbing the pellet. Add staining cocktail containing 50 microliters of four-percent PFA and 15 microliters of phalloidin into the tube and mix to suspend each pellet.Incubate tubes in the dark at four degrees Celsius for 20 minutes. After incubation, add one milliliter of FACS buffer to each tube and pipette up and down to mix. Spin tubes in the centrifuge at 10, 000 times G for seven minutes.Remove supernatant without disturbing the pellet. For immediate use, suspend each pellet in 400 microliters of FAX buffer. If storing for later analysis, add 200 microliters of FAX buffer and 200 microliters of four percent PFA into the tube and mix to suspend.Using the infection conditions in the brief treatment with the antibiotic gentamicin to eliminate non-internalized Lm, zero-point-one-five percent of the wild-type Lm is recovered after one-point-five hours of co-incubation with cultured macrophages. In the subsequent co-incubation, there was a fourfold and seven-point-fivefold increase in the recovery of viable Lm, which exclusively represent intracellular proliferation. Comparable profile was observed for the Lm strain possessing a hypervirulent prfA during initial infection but not between three and six HPI.When the prfA was deleted from the Lm strain, there is a subsequent reduction in the recovery of the strain after prolonged co-incubation. When gentamicin is removed from the wells at six HPI, extracellular Lm can be detected one hour later for both wild-type and hypervirulent prfA strains, but not for the strain with prfA deleted. Media overlaying both uninfected and infected macrophages contained light-scattering, bacterium-sized particulate matter.However, only media from infected macrophages possessed GFP positive signals within the size gating. A time-dependent increase in the appearance of phalloidin-positive Lm was observed with infected macrophages. When plating out the macrophages in the 48-well tissue culture dish, leave some wells without cells.These no-cell control wells are then treated exactly the same as the cell-containing wells, in terms of the addition of the pathogen, antibiotics, etc. to ensure that experimental signals are dependent on the presence of host cells. Similar to the experiments shown in figures one and three, pathogen or host factors and or small molecules can be tested as to their impact on pathogen cellular efflux.

using-bacterial-pathogen-to-probe-for-cellular-organismic-level-host

Research

JoVE Journal

Immunology and Infection

Invasion of Human Cells by a Bacterial Pathogen

Here we will describe how we study the invasion of human endothelial cells by bacterial pathogen Staphylococcus aureus . The general protocol can be applied to the study of cell invasion by virtually any culturable bacterium. The stages at which specific aspects of invasion can be studied, such as the role of actin rearrangement or caveolae, will be highlighted. Host cells are grown in flasks and when ready for use are seeded into 24-well plates containing Thermanox coverslips. Using coverslips allows subsequent removal of the cells from the wells to reduce interference from serum proteins deposited onto the sides of the wells (to which S. aureus would attach). Bacteria are grown to the required density and washed to remove any secreted proteins (e.g. toxins). Coverslips with confluent layers of endothelial cells are transferred to new 24-well plates containing fresh culture medium before the addition of bacteria. Bacteria and cells are then incubated together for the required amount of time in 5% CO2 at 37&deg;C. For S. aureus this is typically between 15-90 minutes. Thermanox coverslips are removed from each well and dip-washed in PBS to remove unattached bacteria. If total associated bacteria (adherent and internalised) are to be quantified, coverslips are then placed in a fresh well containing 0.5% Triton X-100 in PBS. Gentle pipetting leads to complete cell lysis and bacteria are enumerated by serial dilution and plating onto agar. If the number of bacteria that have invaded the cells is needed, coverslips are added to wells containing 500 &mu;l tissue culture medium supplemented with gentamicin and incubation continued for 1 h, which will kill all external bacteria. Coverslips can then be washed, cells lysed and bacteria enumerated by plating onto agar as described above. If the experiment requires direct visualisation, coverslips can be fixed and stained for light, fluorescence or confocal microscopy or prepared for electron microscopy.

A general protocol for the study of invasion of host cells by a bacterial pathogen, focusing on Staphylococcus aureus and human endothelial cells.

Here we will describe how we study the invasion of human endothelial cells by bacterial pathogen Staphylococcus aureus . The general protocol can be ...

Use of the EpiAirway Model for Characterizing Long-term Host-pathogen Interactions

Nontypeable Haemophilus influenzae (NTHi) are human-adapted Gram-negative bacteria that can cause recurrent and chronic infections of the respiratory mucosa 1; 2. To study the mechanisms by which these organisms survive on and inside respiratory tissues, a model in which successful long-term co-culture of bacteria and human cells can be performed is required. We use primary human respiratory epithelial tissues raised to the air-liquid interface, the EpiAirway model (MatTek, Ashland, MA). These are non-immortalized, well-differentiated, 3-dimensional tissues that contain tight junctions, ciliated and nonciliated cells, goblet cells that produce mucin, and retain the ability to produce cytokines in response to infection. 
This biologically relevant in vitro model of the human upper airway can be used in a number of ways; the overall goal of this method is to perform long-term co-culture of EpiAirway tissues with NTHi and quantitate cell-associated and internalized bacteria over time. As well, mucin production and the cytokine profile of the infected co-cultures can be determined. This approach improves upon existing methods in that many current protocols use submerged monolayer or Transwell cultures of human cells, which are not capable of supporting bacterial infections over extended periods3. For example, if an organism can replicate in the overlying media, this can result in unacceptable levels of cytotoxicity and loss of host cells, arresting the experiment. The EpiAirway model allows characterization of long-term host-pathogen interactions. Further, since the source for the EpiAirway is normal human tracheo-bronchial cells rather than an immortalized line, each is an excellent representation of actual human upper respiratory tract tissue, both in structure and in function4.
For this method, the EpiAirway tissues are weaned off of anti-microbial and anti-fungal compounds for 2 days prior to delivery, and all procedures are performed under antibiotic-free conditions. This necessitates special considerations, since both bacteria and primary human tissues are used in the same biosafety cabinet, and are co-cultured for extended periods.

This method allows characterization of extended bacterial co-culture with EpiAirways, primary human respiratory epithelial tissue grown at the air-liquid interface, a biologically relevant in vitro model. The approach can be used with any microbe that is amenable to long-term co-culture.

Nontypeable Haemophilus influenzae  (NTHi) are human-adapted Gram-negative bacteria that can cause recurrent and chronic infections of the respiratory ...

Visualization of Bacterial Toxin Induced Responses Using Live Cell Fluorescence Microscopy

Bacterial toxins bind to cholesterol in membranes, forming pores that allow for leakage of cellular contents and influx of materials from the external environment. The cell can either recover from this insult, which requires active membrane repair processes, or else die depending on the amount of toxin exposure and cell type1. In addition, these toxins induce strong inflammatory responses in infected hosts through activation of immune cells, including macrophages, which produce an array of pro-inflammatory cytokines2. Many Gram positive bacteria produce cholesterol binding toxins which have been shown to contribute to their virulence through largely uncharacterized mechanisms.
Morphologic changes in the plasma membrane of cells exposed to these toxins include their sequestration into cholesterol-enriched surface protrusions, which can be shed into the extracellular space, suggesting an intrinsic cellular defense mechanism3,4. This process occurs on all cells in the absence of metabolic activity, and can be visualized using EM after chemical fixation4. In immune cells such as macrophages that mediate inflammation in response to toxin exposure, induced membrane vesicles are suggested to contain cytokines of the IL-1 family and may be responsible both for shedding toxin and disseminating these pro-inflammatory cytokines5,6,7. A link between IL-1&beta; release and a specific type of cell death, termed pyroptosis has been suggested, as both are caspase-1 dependent processes8. To sort out the complexities of this macrophage response, which includes toxin binding, shedding of membrane vesicles, cytokine release, and potentially cell death, we have developed labeling techniques and fluorescence microscopy methods that allow for real time visualization of toxin-cell interactions, including measurements of dysfunction and death (Figure 1). Use of live cell imaging is necessary due to limitations in other techniques. Biochemical approaches cannot resolve effects occurring in individual cells, while flow cytometry does not offer high resolution, real-time visualization of individual cells. The methods described here can be applied to kinetic analysis of responses induced by other stimuli involving complex phenotypic changes in cells.

Methods for purifying the cholesterol binding toxin streptolysin O from recombinant E. coli and visualization of toxin binding to live eukaryotic cells are described. Localized delivery of toxin induces rapid and complex changes in targeted cells revealing novel aspects of toxin biology.

Bacterial toxins bind to cholesterol in membranes, forming pores that allow for leakage of cellular contents and influx of materials from the external ...

The Citrobacter rodentium Mouse Model: Studying Pathogen and Host Contributions to Infectious Colitis

This protocol outlines the steps required to produce a robust model of infectious disease and colitis, as well as the methods used to characterize Citrobacter rodentium infection in mice. C. rodentium is a gram negative, murine specific bacterial pathogen that is closely related to the clinically important human pathogens enteropathogenic E. coli and enterohemorrhagic E. coli. Upon infection with C. rodentium, immunocompetent mice suffer from modest and transient weight loss and diarrhea. Histologically, intestinal crypt elongation, immune cell infiltration, and goblet cell depletion are observed. Clearance of infection is achieved after 3 to 4 weeks. Measurement of intestinal epithelial barrier integrity, bacterial load, and histological damage at different time points after infection, allow the characterization of mouse strains susceptible to infection.
The virulence mechanisms by which bacterial pathogens colonize the intestinal tract of their hosts, as well as specific host responses that defend against such infections are poorly understood. Therefore the C. rodentium model of enteric bacterial infection serves as a valuable tool to aid in our understanding of these processes. Enteric bacteria have also been linked to Inflammatory Bowel Diseases (IBDs). It has been hypothesized that the maladaptive chronic inflammatory responses seen in IBD patients develop in genetically susceptible individuals following abnormal exposure of the intestinal mucosal immune system to enteric bacteria. Therefore, the study of models of infectious colitis offers significant potential for defining potentially pathogenic host responses to enteric bacteria. C. rodentium induced colitis is one such rare model that allows for the analysis of host responses to enteric bacteria, furthering our understanding of potential mechanisms of IBD pathogenesis; essential in the development of novel preventative and therapeutic treatments.

The Citrobacter rodentium Mouse Model: Studying Pathogen and Host Contributions to Infectious Colitis

Citrobacter rodentium infection provides a valuable model to study enteric bacterial infections as well as host immune responses and colitis in mice. This protocol outlines the measurement of barrier integrity, pathogen load and histological damage allowing for the thorough characterization of pathogen and host contributions to murine infectious colitis.

This protocol  outlines the steps required to produce a robust model of infectious disease and  colitis, as well as the methods used to characterize ...

A Comparative Approach to Characterize the Landscape of Host-Pathogen Protein-Protein Interactions

Significant efforts were gathered to generate large-scale comprehensive protein-protein interaction network maps. This is instrumental to understand the pathogen-host relationships and was essentially performed by genetic screenings in yeast two-hybrid systems. The recent improvement of protein-protein interaction detection by a Gaussia luciferase-based fragment complementation assay now offers the opportunity to develop integrative comparative interactomic approaches necessary to rigorously compare interaction profiles of proteins from different pathogen strain variants against a common set of cellular factors.
This paper specifically focuses on the utility of combining two orthogonal methods to generate protein-protein interaction datasets: yeast two-hybrid (Y2H) and a new assay, high-throughput Gaussia princeps protein complementation assay (HT-GPCA) performed in mammalian cells.
A large-scale identification of cellular partners of a pathogen protein is performed by mating-based yeast two-hybrid screenings of cDNA libraries using multiple pathogen strain variants. A subset of interacting partners selected on a high-confidence statistical scoring is further validated in mammalian cells for pair-wise interactions with the whole set of pathogen variants proteins using HT-GPCA. This combination of two complementary methods improves the robustness of the interaction dataset, and allows the performance of a stringent comparative interaction analysis. Such comparative interactomics constitute a reliable and powerful strategy to decipher any pathogen-host interplays.

This article focuses on the identification of high-confident interaction datasets between host and pathogen proteins using a combination of two orthogonal methods: yeast two-hybrid followed by a high-throughput interaction assay in mammalian cells called HT-GPCA.

Significant efforts were gathered to generate  large-scale comprehensive protein-protein interaction network maps. This is  instrumental to understand the ...

Imaging InlC Secretion to Investigate Cellular Infection by the Bacterial Pathogen Listeria monocytogenes

Bacterial intracellular pathogens can be conceived as molecular tools to dissect cellular signaling cascades due to their capacity to exquisitely manipulate and subvert cell functions which are required for the infection of host target tissues. Among these bacterial pathogens, Listeria monocytogenes is a Gram positive microorganism that has been used as a paradigm for intracellular parasitism in the characterization of cellular immune responses, and which has played instrumental roles in the discovery of molecular pathways controlling cytoskeletal and membrane trafficking dynamics. In this article, we describe a robust microscopical assay for the detection of late cellular infection stages of L. monocytogenes based on the fluorescent labeling of InlC, a secreted bacterial protein which accumulates in the cytoplasm of infected cells; this assay can be coupled to automated high-throughput small interfering RNA screens in order to characterize cellular signaling pathways involved in the up- or down-regulation of infection.

Imaging InlC Secretion to Investigate Cellular Infection by the Bacterial Pathogen Listeria monocytogenes

Listeria monocytogenes is a Gram positive bacterial pathogen frequently used as a major model for the study of intracellular parasitism. Imaging late L. monocytogenes infection stages within the context of small-interfering RNA screens allows for the global study of cellular pathways required for bacterial infection of target host cells.

Bacterial intracellular  pathogens can be conceived as molecular tools to dissect cellular signaling  cascades due to their capacity to exquisitely ...

Implementation of a Permeable Membrane Insert-based Infection System to Study the Effects of Secreted Bacterial Toxins on Mammalian Host Cells

Many bacterial pathogens secrete potent toxins to aid in the destruction of host tissue, to initiate signaling changes in host cells or to manipulate immune system responses during the course of infection. Though methods have been developed to successfully purify and produce many of these important virulence factors, there are still many bacterial toxins whose unique structure or extensive post-translational modifications make them difficult to purify and study in in vitro systems. Furthermore, even when pure toxin can be obtained, there are many challenges associated with studying the specific effects of a toxin under relevant physiological conditions. Most in vitro cell culture models designed to assess the effects of secreted bacterial toxins on host cells involve incubating host cells with a one-time dose of toxin. Such methods poorly approximate what host cells actually experience during an infection, where toxin is continually produced by bacterial cells and allowed to accumulate gradually during the course of infection. This protocol describes the design of a permeable membrane insert-based bacterial infection system to study the effects of Streptolysin S, a potent toxin produced by Group A Streptococcus, on human epithelial keratinocytes. This system more closely mimics the natural physiological environment during an infection than methods where pure toxin or bacterial supernatants are directly applied to host cells. Importantly, this method also eliminates the bias of host responses that are due to direct contact between the bacteria and host cells. This system has been utilized to effectively assess the effects of Streptolysin S (SLS) on host membrane integrity, cellular viability, and cellular signaling responses. This technique can be readily applied to the study of other secreted virulence factors on a variety of mammalian host cell types to investigate the specific role of a secreted bacterial factor during the course of infection.

Here, a method using a permeable membrane insert-based infection system to study the effects of Streptolysin S, a secreted toxin produced by Group A Streptococcus, on keratinocytes is described. This system can be readily applied to the study of other secreted bacterial proteins on various host cell types during infection.

Many bacterial pathogens secrete potent toxins to aid in the destruction of host tissue, to initiate signaling changes in host cells or to manipulate ...

Isolation of Salmonella typhimurium-containing Phagosomes from Macrophages

Salmonella typhimurium is a facultative intracellular bacterium that causes gastroenteritis in humans. After invasion of the lamina propria, S. typhimurium bacteria are quickly detected and phagocytized by macrophages, and contained in vesicles known as phagosomes in order to be degraded. Isolation of S. typhimurium-containing phagosomes have been widely used to study how S. typhimurium infection alters the process of phagosome maturation to prevent bacterial degradation. Classically, the isolation of bacteria-containing phagosomes has been performed by sucrose gradient centrifugation. However, this process is time-consuming, and requires specialized equipment and a certain degree of dexterity. Described here is a simple and quick method for the isolation of S. typhimurium-containing phagosomes from macrophages by coating the bacteria with biotin-streptavidin-conjugated magnetic beads. Phagosomes obtained by this method can be suspended in any buffer of choice, allowing the utilization of isolated phagosomes for a broad range of assays, such as protein, metabolite, and lipid analysis. In summary, this method for the isolation of S. typhimurium-containing phagosomes is specific, efficient, rapid, requires minimum equipment, and is more versatile than the classical method of isolation by sucrose gradient-ultracentrifugation.

Isolation of Salmonella typhimurium-containing Phagosomes from Macrophages

We describe here a simple and quick method for the isolation of Salmonella typhimurium-containing phagosomes from macrophages by coating the bacteria with biotin and streptavidin.

Salmonella typhimurium is a facultative intracellular bacterium that causes gastroenteritis in humans. After invasion of the lamina propria, S. ...

Evaluation of Host-Pathogen Responses and Vaccine Efficacy in Mice

Vaccines are a 20th century medical marvel. They have dramatically reduced the morbidity and mortality caused by infectious diseases and contributed to a striking increase in life expectancy around the globe. Nonetheless, determining vaccine efficacy remains a challenge. Emerging evidence suggests that the current acellular vaccine (aPV) for Bordetella pertussis (B. pertussis) induces suboptimal immunity. Therefore, a major challenge is designing a next-generation vaccine that induces protective immunity without the adverse side effects of a whole-cell vaccine (wPV). Here we describe a protocol that we used to test the efficacy of a promising, novel adjuvant that skews immune responses to a protective Th1/Th17 phenotype and promotes a better clearance of a B. pertussis challenge from the murine respiratory tract. This article describes the protocol for mouse immunization, bacterial inoculation, tissue harvesting, and analysis of immune responses. Using this method, within our model, we have successfully elucidated crucial mechanisms elicited by a promising, next-generation acellular pertussis vaccine. This method can be applied to any infectious disease model in order to determine vaccine efficacy.

Here we present an elegant protocol for in vivo evaluation of vaccine effectiveness and host immune responses. This protocol can be adapted for vaccine models that study viral, bacterial, or parasitic pathogens.

Vaccines are a 20th century medical marvel. They have dramatically reduced the morbidity and mortality caused by infectious diseases and contributed to a ...

Opsonophagocytic Killing Assay to Assess Immunological Responses Against Bacterial Pathogens

A key aspect of the immune response to bacterial colonization of the host is phagocytosis. An opsonophagocytic killing assay (OPKA) is an experimental procedure in which phagocytic cells are co-cultured with bacterial units. The immune cells will phagocytose and kill the bacterial cultures in a complement-dependent manner. The efficiency of the immune-mediated cell killing is dependent on a number of factors and can be used to determine how different bacterial cultures compare with regard to resistance to cell death. In this way, the efficacy of potential immune-based therapeutics can be assessed against specific bacterial strains and/or serotypes. In this protocol, we describe a simplified OPKA that utilizes basic culture conditions and cell counting to determine bacterial cell viability after co-culture with treatment conditions and HL-60 immune cells. This method has been successfully utilized with a number of different pneumococcal serotypes, capsular and acapsular strains, and other bacterial species. The advantages of this OPKA protocol are its simplicity, versatility (as this assay is not limited to antibody treatments as opsonins), and minimization of time and reagents to assess basic experimental groups.

This opsonophagocytic killing assay is used to compare the ability of phagocytic immune cells to respond to and kill bacteria based on different treatments and/or conditions. Classically, this assay serves as the gold&#160;standard for assessing effector functions of antibodies raised against a bacterium as opsonin.

A key aspect of the immune response to bacterial colonization of the host is phagocytosis. An opsonophagocytic killing assay (OPKA) is an experimental ...