This work was funded by grant 19PRE34380625 and 14SDG20380081 from the American Heart Association to D. Corporan and M. Padala respectively, grants HL135145, HL133667, and HL140325 from the National Institutes of Health to M. Padala, and infrastructure funding from the Carlyle Fraser Heart Center at Emory University Hospital Midtown to M. Padala.

Procedures were approved by the Animal Care and Use Program at Emory University under the protocol number EM63Rr, approval date 06/06/2017.
1. Pre-surgical preparation
<ol>
	<li>Steam sterilize surgical instruments prior to the procedure.</li>
	<li>On the procedure day, transfer rats from housing to surgery, and weigh them.</li>
	<li>Draw pre-operative and post-operative drugs according to the weight: two doses of Carprofen (2.5 mg/kg each), one dose of Gentamycin (6 mg/kg), and one dose of ...

<ol>
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P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Wall+stress+and+patterns+of+hypertrophy+in+the+human+left+ventricle.">Wall stress and patterns of hypertrophy in the human left ventricle.</a> Journal of Clinical Investigation. 56 (1), 56-64 (1975).</li><li>Carabello, B. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Concentric+versus+eccentric+remodeling.">Concentric versus eccentric remodeling.</a> Journal of Cardiac Failure. 8 (6), S258-S263 (2002).</li><li>Braunwald, E., Welch, G. H., Sarnoff, S. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Hemodynamic+effects+of+quantitatively+varied+experimental+mitral+regurgitation.">Hemodynamic effects of quantitatively varied experimental mitral regurgitation.</a> Circulation Research. 5 (5), 539-545 (1957).</li><li>Sasayama, S., Kubo, S., Kusukawa, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Hemodynamic+and+angiocardiographic+studies+on+cardiodynamics:+experimental+mitral+insufficiency.">Hemodynamic and angiocardiographic studies on cardiodynamics: experimental mitral insufficiency.</a> Japanese Circulation Journal. 34 (6), 513-530 (1970).</li><li>Hennein, H., Jones, M., Stone, C., Clark, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Left+ventricular+function+in+experimental+mitral+regurgitation+with+intact+chordae+tendineae.">Left ventricular function in experimental mitral regurgitation with intact chordae tendineae.</a> Journal of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery. 105 (4), 624-632 (1993).</li><li>Stumpe, K. O., S&#246;lle, H., Klein, H., Kr&#252;ck, F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mechanism+of+sodium+and+water+retention+in+rats+with+experimental+heart+failure.">Mechanism of sodium and water retention in rats with experimental heart failure.</a> Kidney International. 4 (5), 309-317 (1973).</li><li>Abassi, Z., Goltsman, I., Karram, T., Winaver, J., Hoffman, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Aortocaval+fistula+in+rat:+A+unique+model+of+volume-overload+congestive+heart+failure+and+cardiac+hypertrophy.">Aortocaval fistula in rat: A unique model of volume-overload congestive heart failure and cardiac hypertrophy.</a> Journal of Biomedicine and Biotechnology. 2011 (January), 1-13 (2011).</li><li>Corporan, D., Onohara, D., Hernandez-Merlo, R., Sielicka, A., Padala, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Temporal+changes+in+myocardial+collagen,+matrix+metalloproteinases,+and+their+tissue+inhibitors+in+the+left+ventricular+myocardium+in+experimental+chronic+mitral+regurgitation+in+rodents.">Temporal changes in myocardial collagen, matrix metalloproteinases, and their tissue inhibitors in the left ventricular myocardium in experimental chronic mitral regurgitation in rodents.</a> American Journal of Physiology - Heart and Circulatory Physiology. 315 (5), H1269-H1278 (2018).</li><li>Onohara, D., Corporan, D., Hernandez-Merlo, R., Guyton, R. A., Padala, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mitral+Regurgitation+Worsens+Cardiac+Remodeling+in+Ischemic+Cardiomyopathy+in+an+Experimental+Model.">Mitral Regurgitation Worsens Cardiac Remodeling in Ischemic Cardiomyopathy in an Experimental Model.</a> The Journal of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery. , (2019).</li><li>Garcia, R., Diebold, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Simple,+rapid,+and+effective+method+of+producing+aortocaval+shunts+in+the+rat.">Simple, rapid, and effective method of producing aortocaval shunts in the rat.</a> Cardiovascular Research. 24 (5), 430-432 (1990).</li><li>Brower, G. L., Janicki, J. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Contribution+of+ventricular+remodeling+to+pathogenesis+of+heart+failure+in+rats.">Contribution of ventricular remodeling to pathogenesis of heart failure in rats.</a> American Journal of Physiology-Heart and Circulatory Physiology. 280 (2), H674-H683 (2001).</li><li>McCutcheon, K., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Dynamic+changes+in+the+molecular+signature+of+adverse+left+ventricular+remodeling+in+patients+with+compensated+and+decompensated+chronic+primary+mitral+regurgitation.">Dynamic changes in the molecular signature of adverse left ventricular remodeling in patients with compensated and decompensated chronic primary mitral regurgitation.</a> Circulation Heart Failure. 12 (9), (2019).</li><li>McCutcheon, K., Manga, P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Left+ventricular+remodeling+in+chronic+primary+mitral+regurgitation.">Left ventricular remodeling in chronic primary mitral regurgitation.</a> Cardiovascular Journal of Africa. 29 (1), 51-64 (2018).</li></ol>

A reproducible rodent model of severe MR with good survival (93.75% survival after surgery) and without significant post-operative complications is reported. Real-time imaging with transesophageal echocardiography and introduction of a needle into the beating heart to puncture the mitral leaflet are feasible and can be taught. Severe MR was produced with the 23 G needle size in this study, which can be varied as desired using a smaller or larger needle. MR induced in this model creates a low-pressure volume overload on t...

Mitral regurgitation (MR) is a common heart valve lesion, diagnosed in 1.7% of the general US population and in 9% of the elderly population greater than 65 years of age1. In this heart valve lesion, improper closure of the mitral valve leaflets in systole, causes regurgitation of blood from the left ventricle into the left atrium. MR can occur due to various etiologies; however, primary lesions of the mitral valve (primary MR) are diagnosed and treated more frequently compared to secondary MR2. Isolated primary MR is often a result of myxomatous degeneration of the mitral valve, resulting in elongation of the leaflets or chordae tendineae, or rupture of some chordae, all of which contribute to the loss of systolic coaptation of the valve.
MR resulting from such valve lesions elevates the blood volume filling the left ventricle in each heartbeat, increasing the end diastolic wall stress and providing a hemodynamic stressor that incites cardiac adaptation and remodeling. Cardiac remodeling in this lesion is often characterized by significant chamber enlargement3,4, mild wall hypertrophy, with preserved contractile function for prolonged periods of time. Since the ejection fraction is often preserved, correction of MR using surgical or transcatheter means is often delayed, until the onset of symptoms such as dyspnea, heart failure, and arrhythmias. However, uncorrected MR is associated with high risks of cardiac adverse events, though currently knowledge regarding the ultrastructural changes underlying these events are unknown.
Animal models of MR provide a valuable model to investigate such ultrastructural changes in the heart, and study longitudinal progression of the disease. Previously, researchers have induced MR in large animals including pigs, dogs, and sheep, by creating an external ventriculo-atrial shunt5, intracardiac chordal rupture6, or leaflet perforation7. While surgical techniques are easier in large animals, these studies have been limited to sub-chronic follow-up in a small sample size, due to the high costs of performing such studies in large animals. Furthermore, molecular analysis of tissue from these models is often challenging due to limited species-specific antibodies and annotated genome libraries for alignment.
Small animal models of MR can provide a suitable alternative to study this valve lesion and its impact on cardiac remodeling. Historically, the rat model of aorto-caval fistula (ACF) of cardiac volume overload has been used. First described in 1973 by Stumpe et al.8, an arterio-venous fistula is surgically created to bypass high pressure arterial blood from the descending aorta into the low pressure inferior vena cava. The high flow rate in the fistula induces a drastic volume overload on both sides of the heart, causing significant right and left ventricular hypertrophy and dysfunction occurring within days of creating the ACF9. Despite its success, ACF does not mimic the hemodynamics of MR, a low-pressure volume overload, which elevates preload but also reduces afterload. Due to such limitations of the ACF model, we sought to develop and characterize a model of MR that better mimics the low-pressure volume overload.
Herein, we describe the protocol for a model of mitral valve leaflet puncture to create severe MR in rats10,11. A hypodermic needle was introduced into the beating rat heart, and advanced into the anterior mitral valve leaflet under real-time echocardiographic guidance. The technique is highly reproducible and a relatively good model that mimics MR as seen in patients. MR severity is controlled by the size of the needle used to perforate the mitral leaflet and severity of MR can be assessed using transesophageal echocardiography (TEE).

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>23G needle</td>
			<td>Mckesson</td>
			<td>16-N231</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>25G needle, 5/8 inch</td>
			<td>McKesson</td>
			<td>1031797</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>4-0 vicryl</td>
			<td>Ethicon</td>
			<td>J496H</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>6-0 prolene</td>
			<td>Ethicon</td>
			<td>8307H</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>70% ethanol</td>
			<td>McKesson</td>
			<td>350600</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ACE Light Source</td>
			<td>Schott</td>
			<td>A20500</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ACUSON AcuNav Ultrasound probe</td>
			<td>Biosense Webster</td>
			<td>10135936</td>
			<td>8Fr Intracardiac echo probe</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ACUSON PRIME Ultrasound System</td>
			<td>Siemens</td>
			<td>SC2000</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Betadine</td>
			<td>McKesson</td>
			<td>1073829</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Blunted microdissecting scissors</td>
			<td>Roboz</td>
			<td>RS5990</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Buprenorphine</td>
			<td>Patterson Veterinary</td>
			<td>99628</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Carprofen</td>
			<td>Patterson Veterinary</td>
			<td>7847425</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Chest tube (16G angiocath)</td>
			<td>Terumo</td>
			<td>SR-OX1651CA</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Disposable Surgical drapes</td>
			<td>Med-Vet</td>
			<td>SMS40</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Electric Razor</td>
			<td>Oster</td>
			<td>78400-XXX</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Gentamycin</td>
			<td>Patterson Veterinary</td>
			<td>78057791</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Heat lamp with table clamp</td>
			<td>Braintree Scientific</td>
			<td>HL-1 120V</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hemostatic forceps, curved</td>
			<td>Roboz</td>
			<td>RS7341</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hemostatic forceps, straight</td>
			<td>Roboz</td>
			<td>RS7110</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Induction chamber</td>
			<td>Braintree Scientific</td>
			<td>EZ-1785</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Injection Plug, Cap, Luer Lock</td>
			<td>Exel</td>
			<td>26539</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Isoflurane</td>
			<td>Patterson Veterinary</td>
			<td>6679401725</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Mechanical ventilator</td>
			<td>Harvard Apparatus</td>
			<td>Inspira ASV</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microdissecting forceps</td>
			<td>Roboz</td>
			<td>RS5135</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microdissecting spring scissors</td>
			<td>Roboz</td>
			<td>RS5603</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Needle holder</td>
			<td>Roboz</td>
			<td>RS6417</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>No. 15 surgical blade</td>
			<td>McKesson</td>
			<td>1642</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Non-woven sponges</td>
			<td>McKesson</td>
			<td>446036</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Otoscope</td>
			<td>Welch Allyn</td>
			<td>23862</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Oxygen</td>
			<td>Airgas Healthcare</td>
			<td>UN1072</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Pulse Oximeter</td>
			<td>Nonin Medical</td>
			<td>2500A VET</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Retractor, Blunt 4x4</td>
			<td>Roboz</td>
			<td>RS6524</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Rodent Surgical Monitor</td>
			<td>Indus Instruments</td>
			<td>113970</td>
			<td>The integrated platform allows for monitoring of vital signs and surgical warming</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Scale</td>
			<td>Salter Brecknell</td>
			<td>LPS 150</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Scalpel Handle</td>
			<td>Roboz</td>
			<td>RS9843</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Silk suture 3-0</td>
			<td>McKesson</td>
			<td>220263</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Small Animal Anesthesia System</td>
			<td>Ohio Medical</td>
			<td>AKDL03882</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sterile saline (0.9%)</td>
			<td>Baxter</td>
			<td>281322</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sugical Mask</td>
			<td>McKesson</td>
			<td>188696</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Surgical cap</td>
			<td>McKesson</td>
			<td>852952</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Surgical gloves</td>
			<td>McKesson</td>
			<td>854486</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Syringe 10mL</td>
			<td>McKesson</td>
			<td>1031801</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Syringe 1mL</td>
			<td>McKesson</td>
			<td>1031817</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ultra-high frequency probe</td>
			<td>Fujifilm Visualsonics</td>
			<td>MS250</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ultrasound gel</td>
			<td>McKesson</td>
			<td>150690</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>VEVO Ultrasound System</td>
			<td>Fujifilm Visualsonics</td>
			<td>VEVO 2100</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

an image guided transapical mitral valve leaflet puncture model of controlled volume overload from mitral regurgitation in the rat

Mitral regurgitation (MR) is a widely prevalent heart valve lesion, which causes cardiac remodeling and leads to congestive heart failure. Though the risks of uncorrected MR and its poor prognosis are known, the longitudinal changes in cardiac function, structure and remodeling are incompletely understood. This knowledge gap has limited our understanding of the optimal timing for MR correction, and the benefit that early versus late MR correction may have on the left ventricle. To investigate the molecular mechanisms that underlie left ventricular remodeling in the setting of MR, animal models are necessary. Traditionally, the aorto-caval fistula model has been used to induce volume overload, which differs from clinically relevant lesions such as MR. MR represents a low-pressure volume overload hemodynamic stressor, which requires animal models that mimic this condition. Herein, we describe a rodent model of severe MR in which the anterior leaflet of the rat mitral valve is perforated with a 23G needle, in a beating heart, with echocardiographic image guidance. The severity of MR is assessed and confirmed with echocardiography, and the reproducibility of the model is reported.&#160;&#160;

Feasibility and reproducibility 
The proposed MR model is highly reproducible, with a well defined hole in the mitral leaflet achieved in 100% of the rats used in this study. Figure 6A depicts the direction of the needle as it is inserted into the mitral valve. Figure 6B depicts a hole in the mitral valve leaflet from a representative rat explanted at 2 weeks after the proce...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about An Image Guided Transapical Mitral Valve Leaflet Puncture Model of Controlled Volume Overload from Mitral Regurgitation in the Rat at JoVE.com

An Image Guided Transapical Mitral Valve Leaflet Puncture Model of Controlled Volume Overload from Mitral Regurgitation in the Rat

A rodent model of left heart volume overload from mitral regurgitation is reported. Mitral regurgitation of controlled severity is induced by advancing a needle of defined dimensions into the anterior leaflet of the mitral valve, in a beating heart, with ultrasound guidance.&#160;

Mitral regurgitation (MR) is a widely prevalent heart valve lesion, which causes cardiac remodeling and leads to congestive heart failure. Though the ...

Mitral regurgitation is a common valve disease that leads to heart failure. This rat MR model can help to further our understanding of the underlying mechanisms of heart failure. This model can be used to induce MR in a beating heart mimicking the hemodynamics observed in patients with this valve lesion and making this model clinically relevant.Microsurgery and handling experience will help with replicating this protocol and familiarity with echocardiographic imaging and image interpretation are key aspects for successful needle placement. As this is an image-guided technique, visual demonstration of the methods can aid in understanding the procedure. After performing a left thoracotomy according to standard protocols in an anesthetized 350 to 400 gram adult Sprague-Dawley rat, use a 6-0 PROLENE suture and microneedle holder to place a pursestring suture on the apex of the left ventricle.Gently tether the apical suture to stabilize the apex and insert a 23 gauge needle flushed with saline and with a stopcock at the distal end into the center of the pursestring suture and into the left ventricular cavity. Using one hand to stably guide the needle, use the other hand to simultaneously manipulate the transesophageal echo probe to achieve an optimal echo view for visualizing the needle. Using real-time ultrasound guidance, advance the needle toward the ventricular side of the anterior mitral leaflet.Once the needle position is confirmed, advance the needle in one fine motion through the valve leaflet. Once through the leaflet, retract the needle into the left ventricular chamber away from the mitral valve and have an assistant turn on color Doppler imaging to confirm MR adjusting the echo probe as necessary to obtain a better view. Once the MR is confirmed, fully retract the needle from the left ventricular cavity and gently tie the pursestring suture.Then use a sterile gauze to absorb any blood on the apex and in the thoracic cavity. After five to 10 minutes of stable cardiac function, use an interrupted 4-0 Vicryl suture to approximate the ribs while reducing the isoflurane to 2%Next, insert a chest tube into the sixth intercostal space and secure the tube to the sterile drapes to avoid inadvertent advancement of the tube into the thoracic cavity, then finish approximating the ribs. Use a continuous suture to close the muscle layer with the isoflurane at 1.5%and the skin layer with the isoflurane at 1%Connect a 10 milliliter Luer lock valve tipped syringe to the chest tube and drain 10 to 12 milliliters of air from the chest cavity before removing the tube.Once the tube is removed, administer a final subcutaneous dose of Carprofen. After turning off the isoflurane, continue the mechanical ventilation while the rat weans from the anesthesia monitoring the vital signs. At the onset of spontaneous breathing, turn off the ventilation to test the ability of the rat to maintain such breathing and a good peripheral cavity oxygen saturation.Once the rat is able to maintain peripheral capillary oxygen saturation levels without the ventilation, cut the anchoring sutures to the endotracheal tube and extubate the animal. When the rat is ambulatory, transfer the animal to a clean cage with minimal bedding and continue to monitor the vital signs with a handheld peripheral capillary oxygen saturation monitor. Within three hours of waking, administer buprenorphine.Two weeks after surgery, place the anesthetized rat in the right decubitus position and insert an eight megahertz 8-French intracardiac ultrasound probe with a small amount of gel applied to the tip into the esophagus of the animal. Using color Doppler imaging in the two-chamber view, visualize the left ventricle and left atrium and measure the area of the left atrium and MR jet to allow calculation of the MR jet area fraction as indicated. To approximate the area of the regurgitant orifice, use the outer diameter of the needle to calculate the area of 23 gauge needle using the formula.Obtain continuous wave Doppler imaging with the Doppler gate at the orifice of the regurgitant jet and trace the waveform to compute the velocity time integral of the regurgitant jet. Use the formula to estimate the MR volume. Then rotate the echo probe laterally clockwise to obtain pulse wave Doppler imaging of the pulmonary vein and measure the systolic and diastolic wave velocities using the equation to calculate the ratio.In these images, the direction of the needle as it is inserted into the mitral valve can be observed. Here, the hole left in the mitral valve leaflet in a representative rat explanted at two weeks after the procedure is shown. At two weeks post-surgery, the hearts from rats with MR are spherical and severely dilated and a vivid MR jet is apparent with an average area of about 21 square millimeters and a mean velocity time integral of about 40 centimeters.The normalized MR fraction is typically about 42%which is considered severe according to the guidelines of the American Society of Echocardiography. The severity of the MR is adequate to induce pulmonary flow reversal with a decrease in the systolic/diastolic ratio from about 0.9 at baseline to approximately minus 0.7 at two weeks. Real-time imaging with transesophageal echocardiography and the introduction of a needle into the beating heart to puncture the mitral leaflet is a feasible surgical procedure that can be taught.Our model can be combined with ventricular cardiomyopathies to study cardiac remodeling and facilitates investigating of the impact of early onset versus late onset of MR on cardiac remodeling.

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JoVE Journal

Medicine

6.8K 조회수.  Emory University Hospital Midtown. 성모 역류는 심부전으로 이어지는 일반적인 판막 질환입니다. 이 쥐 MR 모델은 심부전의 근본적인 기계장치에 대한 이해를 증진하는 데 도움이 될 수 있습니다. 이 모델은 이 판막 병변 환자에서 관찰된 혈역학을 모방하고 이 모델을 임상적으로 관련성있게 만드는 박동 심장에서 MR을 유도하는 데 사용될 수 있다.미세 수술 및 처리 경험은 이 프로토콜을 복제하는 데 도?...