This project was supported by grants from the Biotechnology and Biological Science&#160;Research Council&#160;(BBSRC), awarded to PRL and YL (BB/P001262/1), and the National Center for the Replacement, Refinement and Reduction of Animals in Research (NC3Rs)&#160;awarded to PRL, SMN, BDR, and YL (NC/R001596/1).

NOTE: All work described below are to be carried out in a CL2 laboratory within a class 2 microbiological safety cabinet (MSC) following local health and safety guidelines.
1. Preparation of M. bovis BCG lux for Infection
<ol>
	<li>Defrost a frozen 1.2 mL glycerol (15%) stock of M. bovis BCG lux, the Montreal vaccine strain transformed with the shuttle plasmid pSMT1 carrying the luxAB genes from Vibrio harveyi encoding the luciferase enzyme19.</li>
	<li>Inoculate 15 mL of Middlebrook 7H9 broth containing 0.2% glycerol, 10% albumin, dextrose, catalase (ADC) enrichment and 50 &#181;g/mL hygromycin with a defrosted 1.2 mL aliquot of BCG lux, in a labelled 250 mL Erlenmeyer flask.</li>
	<li>Place the flask in a sealed biosafety container and incubate at 37 &#176;C in an orbital shaker incubator at 220 rpm for 72 h (or until the culture reaches the mid-log phase of growth).</li>
	<li>Check the growth of BCG lux culture by preparing 1:10 dilutions of the culture in luminometer tubes using phosphate buffered saline (PBS, pH 7.4, 0.01 M phosphate buffer, 0.0027 M potassium chloride and 0.137 M sodium chloride) in duplicate. Vortex, and load the luminometer tubes into the luminometer and measure the bioluminescence (relative light unit [RLU]/mL) using n-decyl aldehyde as the substrate (1% v/v in absolute ethanol)20. 
	NOTE: The ratio of RLU/colony forming units (CFU) was previously determined to be 3:1 when BCG lux was grown in vitro in Middlebrook 7H9 broth20.</li>
	<li>Centrifuge the culture at 2,175 x g for 10 min at room temperature to pellet the cells and discard the supernatant into an appropriate disinfectant with known mycobactericidal activity. Dispose all culture waste with disinfectants appropriate for mycobacteria following local guidelines.</li>
	<li>Wash the cell pellet twice in PBS containing 0.05% polysorbate 80 (PBS-T) to prevent bacterial clumping.</li>
	<li>Following the final wash, decant waste supernatant, resuspend the mycobacterial cell pellet in PBS-T and dilute the mycobacterial suspension to the desired cell density using RLU measurements.</li>
	<li>Prepare ten-fold serial dilutions of the inoculum in 24-well plates using PBS-T. Plate out 10 &#181;L onto Middlebrook 7H11 agar plates (0.5% glycerol, 50 &#181;g/mL hygromycin, 10% oleic acid, albumin, dextrose, catalase [OADC]) in duplicate to enumerate inoculum CFU counts.</li>
</ol>
2. Preparation of G. mellonella Larvae
<ol>
	<li>Purchase last instar larvae from appropriate sources and maintain the larvae in the dark at 18 &#176;C upon arrival and use within 1 week of purchase. Alternatively, larvae can be self-reared following the protocol of Joj&#257;o et al.21. For purchased larvae, discard any dead, discolored or pupating larvae prior to storage. 
	NOTE: Pupating larvae are morphologically distinguishable to the last instar larvae.</li>
	<li>Identify and select healthy larvae for experimentation, based on uniform cream color with little to no discoloration (melanization), size (2&#8722;3 cm in length), weight (approximately 250 mg), displaying a high level of motility, and possessing the ability to right themselves when turned over.</li>
	<li>Carefully count the healthy larvae (minimum of 20&#8722;30&#160;per group) into a Petri dish (94/15 mm) lined with a layer of filter paper (94/15 mm) using blunt-end tweezers to minimize contamination and store at room temperature in the dark until use.</li>
</ol>
3. Infecting G. mellonella with BCG lux
<ol>
	<li>Minimize the clutter within the MSC to reduce the risk of contamination and needle stick injury.</li>
	<li>Prepare the injection platform by taping a circular filter paper (94 mm) to a flat raised surface. Soft or hard surfaces can be used and is entirely dependent on user preference, e.g., pipette box lids or a nylon scouring sponge.</li>
	<li>Sterilize a 25 &#181;L microsyringe (25 G) by aspirating 3 volumes of 70% ethanol and further rinse with 3 volumes of sterile PBS-T.</li>
	<li>Aspirate 10 &#181;L of BCG lux inoculum (prepared in section 1) or PBS-T into the sterilized 25 &#181;L microsyringe. Use a separate syringe for PBS-T negative control. 
	NOTE: Resuspend the BCG lux inoculum following 10 injections to ensure uniform cell suspension.</li>
	<li>Use tweezers to pick up one larva and place onto the injection platform.</li>
	<li>On the platform, flip the larva on to its back and immobilize by securing the head and tail with the tweezers. Locate the last left proleg counting down from the head of the larva and carefully insert the tip of the needle (5&#8722;6 mm) at a 10&#8722;20&#176; angle to the horizontal plane. 
	NOTE: Short and narrow tweezers allow for easy immobilization with minimum larval stress. Pay attention not to over penetrate which may puncture the gut and cause non-BCG lux specific melanization or death.</li>
	<li>Count the infected larvae into a Petri dish lined with a layer of filter paper, a single 90 mm Petri dish can accommodate up to 30 larvae.</li>
	<li>Store the Petri dish containing the larvae in a vented or non-sealed dark box inside an incubator at 37 &#176;C with 5% CO2.</li>
</ol>
4. Monitoring the Survival of G. mellonella Following Infection
<ol>
	<li>Over the time course, monitor the survival of the larvae every 24 h. Larvae are considered dead when they fail to move in response to touch.</li>
</ol>
5. Measuring the In Vivo Burden of BCG lux in G. mellonella
<ol>
	<li>At each time point, randomly select five infected larvae previously prepared in section 3 and gently sterilize the larval surfaces using&#160;cotton bud swabs soaked in 70% ethanol. 
	NOTE: This step is important when plating larval homogenate for mycobacterial CFU enumeration as non-sterilized larvae can lead to contamination.</li>
	<li>Place the larvae individually into 2 mL lysing matrix tubes containing 800 &#181;L of sterile PBS.</li>
	<li>Homogenize the larvae using a homogenizer for 60 s at 6.0 m/s.</li>
	<li>Centrifuge the lysing tubes at 3,500 x g for 5 s to remove homogenate from the lids, and carefully decant the homogenate into sterile luminometer tubes individually. 
	NOTE: For CFU enumeration (step 5.7), ensure to reserve 100 &#181;L of homogenate in a sterile 1.5 mL reaction tube.</li>
	<li>Recover any remaining homogenate by washing the lysing matrix tubes with 1 mL of PBS-T and pipette into the corresponding luminometer tubes.</li>
	<li>Vortex the luminometer tubes and measure the bioluminescence of the homogenates previously described in step 1.4.</li>
	<li>Prepare ten-fold serial dilutions of the homogenate in 24-well culture plates using PBS-T. Plate out 10 &#181;L of the dilution onto Middlebrook 7H11 agar plates containing 0.5% glycerol, 50 &#181;g/mL hygromycin, 10% OADC and 20 &#181;g/mL piperacillin, to determine the RLU/CFU ratio of BCG lux following in vivo infection. 
	NOTE: Piperacillin eliminates native G. mellonella microbiota with minimal growth inhibition of BCG lux16.</li>
</ol>
6. Statistical Analysis
<ol>
	<li>Plot the Kaplan-Meier survival curve using data collected and carry out the Mantel-Cox (Log-rank) test to determine the significance of the result, where *p &#60; 0.05, **p &#60; 0.01, ***p &#60; 0.001, and ****p &#60; 0.0001.</li>
</ol>

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The authors have nothing to disclose.

The use of G. mellonella as an infection model has been established for a number of bacterial and fungal pathogens for the study of virulence, host-pathogen interaction, and as a screen for novel therapeutics10,22. The following discussion is based on the experimental procedure for&#160;the use of G. mellonella as an infection model for the MTBC. 
The health of the na&#239;ve larvae prior to experimentation c...

Tuberculosis (TB) is a major threat to global public health with 9 million new cases per year and 1.5 million deaths1. In addition, it is estimated that one quarter of the world&#8217;s population is infected with the causative agent of the disease, Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb). Amongst the infected population, 5&#8722;10% will develop active TB disease over their lifetime. Furthermore, the emergence and spread of multi-drug resistant (MDR) and extensively-drug (XDR) resistant Mtb poses a serious threat to disease control, with 123 countries reporting at least one XDR case1. Treatment of TB requires a cocktail of at least four anti-mycobacterial drugs, of which isoniazid and rifampicin are prescribed for a minimum duration of six months; treatment is often associated with complex side effects and toxicities. Protection from the only licensed vaccine against TB, Mycobacterium bovis Bacillus Calmette-Gu&#233;rin (BCG), is variable2. An incomplete understanding of the pathogenesis of TB significantly hampers the development of new therapeutic and vaccination strategies.
For decades animal infection models have been vital for TB research to understand the basic pathogenesis and host response to infection, and to evaluate novel anti-mycobacterial agents, immuno-therapeutics and new vaccine candidates3,4. However, research using animal infection models of TB is notoriously difficult as the pathogenesis and progression of TB infection are complex, and there is no single animal model that mimics the full spectrum and important features of the disease5,6. Furthermore, animal experiments are expensive, time consuming to undertake and require full ethical justification. Nevertheless, animal infection models of TB have been described in non-human primates (e.g., macaques), guinea pigs, rabbits, cattle, pigs, mice and zebrafish, with each having their limitations3,4. The murine model is the most commonly used model due to cost, availability of inbred lines, reproducibility of infection and abundance of immunological reagents. However, they do not typically form granulomas associated with areas of hypoxia that are characteristic of latent tuberculosis infection (LTBI)6. Guinea pigs are highly susceptible to Mtb infection, with pathology and early granuloma formation similar to those in humans, and are widely used in vaccine testing; yet the lack of immunological reagents hampers their use as an infection model7. Zebrafish are suitable for large-scale screening in early-stage preclinical studies due to their small size, rapid reproduction and advanced genetic tools, but are anatomically and physiologically different to humans and are only susceptible to Mycobacterium marinum infection3. The animal models most closely resembling human Mtb infection are non-human primates (e.g., the macaque), but they are expensive and have significant ethical and practical considerations which considerably limits their use8.
The insect larva of the greater wax moth or honeycomb moth, Galleria mellonella, have become increasingly popular as an infection model for a variety of bacterial and fungal pathogens9, and as a screen for novel antimicrobial drug candidates10. G. mellonella is a successful invertebrate model due to its sophisticated innate immune system (comprised of cellular and humoral defenses) that shares a high degree of structural and functional similarity to that of vertebrates11. This includes immune mechanisms such as the phagocytosis of pathogens by hemocytes (functionally similar to mammalian macrophage and neutrophils)12,13, the production and circulation of anti-microbial peptides (AMPs) and complement-like proteins within the hemolymph (analogous to mammalian blood) of G. mellonella11. Other advantages9,14,15 of G. mellonella larvae as a model include 1) their large size (20&#8722;30 mm) which allows for easy manipulation and infection, as well as the collection of tissue and hemolymph for analyses, 2) easy maintenance at 37 &#176;C, compatible for studying human pathogens, 3) precise infection by injection without the need for anesthesia, 4) efficacy of antimicrobial agents can be assessed utilizing less drug for evaluation, 5) lack of ethical constraints compared to the use of mammals, 6) large group sizes can be used compared to animal models allowing greater reproducibility, and 7) shorter times for infection experiments are required.
In a recent study, we demonstrated that G. mellonella can be used as a novel infection model for studying the pathogenesis of infection by bioluminescent M. bovis BCG lux, a genetically modified version of the vaccine strain and member of the Mtb complex (MTBC)16. While G. mellonella has previously been used as an infection model for non-tuberculous mycobacteria (NTM), mainly M. marinum and Mycobacterium abscessus17,18, studies using MTBC are limited to that of Li et al.16. Bioluminescent non-pathogenic mycobacterial strains, which can be used at containment level (CL) 2 as a surrogate for Mtb, offer the advantages of safety and practicality over pathogenic mycobacteria. Following infection with BCG lux, larvae begin to develop early granuloma-like structures, which could provide valuable insight into the role of innate immunity in the establishment of TB infection16. In addition, this simple invertebrate infection model has the potential to provide a rapid, low-cost, and reliable evaluation of TB pathogenesis incorporating controlled challenge and multiple replicates for reproducibility. Furthermore, the model has the potential to be used to screen novel anti-TB drug and vaccine candidates in early development, reducing the overall number of animals in experimentation. The ability to measure changes in host and pathogen structure, transcriptome and proteome to determine drug targets and assess mechanisms of action of novel drugs and therapeutic vaccines, are also advantageous.
Here we describe the experimental protocols for the preparation of a bioluminescent M. bovis BCG lux inoculum and G. mellonella larvae for mycobacterial infection, as well as the determination of both larval and mycobacterial survival in response to infection.

<table><tbody><tr><td>1.5 mL reaction tube (Eppendorf)</td><td>Eppendorf</td><td>22431021</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>20, 200 and 1,000 &amp;micro;L pipette and filtered tips</td><td>Any supplier</td><td>n/a</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>24 well culture plate</td><td>Greiner</td><td>662160</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>25 mL pipettes and pipette boy</td><td>Any supplier</td><td>n/a</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>3 compartment Petri dish (94/15 mm)</td><td>Greiner</td><td>637102</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Centrifuge</td><td>Any supplier</td><td>n/a</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Class II saftey cabinet</td><td>Any supplier</td><td>n/a</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Erlenmeyer flask with vented cap (250 mL)</td><td>Corning</td><td>CLS40183</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Ethanol (&gt;99.7%)</td><td>VWR</td><td>208221.321</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>&lt;em&gt;Galleria mellonella&lt;/em&gt; (250 per pk)</td><td>Livefood Direct UK</td><td>W250</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Glycerol</td><td>Sigma-Aldrich</td><td>G5150</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Homogeniser (FastPrep-24 5G )</td><td>MP Biomedicals</td><td>116005500</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Hygromycin B</td><td>Corning</td><td>30-240CR</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Luminometer (Autolumat LB 953)</td><td>Berthold</td><td>34622</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Luminometer tubes</td><td>Corning</td><td>352054</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Lysing matrix (S, 2.0 mL)</td><td>MP Biomedicals</td><td>116925500</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Micro syringe (25 &amp;micro;L, 25 G)</td><td>SGE</td><td>3000</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Microcentrifuge</td><td>Any supplier</td><td>n/a</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Middlebrook 7H11 agar</td><td>BD Bioscience</td><td>283810</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Middlebrook 7H9 broth</td><td>BD Bioscience</td><td>271310</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Middlebrook ADC enrichment</td><td>BD Bioscience</td><td>212352</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Middlebrook OADC enrichment</td><td>BD Bioscience</td><td>212240</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>&lt;em&gt;Mycobacterium bovis&lt;/em&gt; BCG &lt;em&gt;lux&lt;/em&gt;</td><td>Various</td><td>n/a</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>n-decyl aldehyde</td><td>Sigma-Aldrich</td><td>D7384-100G</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Orbital shaking incubator</td><td>Any supplier</td><td>n/a</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Phosphate buffered saline</td><td>Sigma-Aldrich</td><td>P4417-100TAB</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Polysorbate 80 (Tween-80)</td><td>Sigma-Aldrich</td><td>P8074-500ml</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Small box</td><td>Any supplier</td><td>n/a</td><td>dark vented or non-sealed box recommended</td></tr><tr><td>Tweezer</td><td>Any supplier</td><td>n/a</td><td>Short and narrow tipped/Blunt long tweezers</td></tr><tr><td>Winterm (V1.08)</td><td>Berthold</td><td>n/a</td><td>Program LB953.TTB</td></tr><tr><td>Petri dish (94/15 mm)</td><td>Greiner</td><td>633181</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Filter paper (94 mm)</td><td>Any supplier</td><td>n/a</td><td>Cut to fit</td></tr></tbody></table>

use of the invertebrate galleria mellonella as an infection model to study the mycobacterium tuberculosis complex

Tuberculosis is the leading global cause of infectious disease mortality and roughly a quarter of the world&#8217;s population is believed to be infected with Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Despite decades of research, many of the mechanisms behind the success of M. tuberculosis as a pathogenic organism remain to be investigated, and the development of safer, more effective antimycobacterial drugs are urgently needed to tackle the rise and spread of drug resistant tuberculosis. However, the progression of tuberculosis research is bottlenecked by traditional mammalian infection models that are expensive, time consuming, and ethically challenging. Previously we established the larvae of the insect Galleria mellonella (greater wax moth) as a novel, reproducible, low cost, high-throughput and ethically acceptable infection model for members of the M. tuberculosis complex. Here we describe the maintenance, preparation, and infection of G. mellonella with bioluminescent Mycobacterium bovis BCG lux. Using this infection model, mycobacterial dose dependent virulence can be observed, and a rapid readout of in vivo mycobacterial burden using bioluminescence measurements is easily achievable and reproducible. Although limitations exist, such as the lack of a fully annotated genome for transcriptomic analysis, ontological analysis against genetically similar insects can be carried out. As a low cost, rapid, and ethically acceptable model for tuberculosis, G. mellonella can be used as a pre-screen to determine drug efficacy and toxicity, and to determine comparative mycobacterial virulence prior to the use of conventional mammalian models. The use of the G. mellonella-mycobacteria model will lead to a reduction in the substantial number of animals currently used in tuberculosis research.

Here we present representative data that can be obtained using the G. mellonella &#8212; BCG lux infection model and highlight the benefits of G. mellonella as an infection model for members of the MTBC (Figure 1). Experimental procedures with key technical points are outlined in Figure 2.
<img alt="Figure 1" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_up...

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Use of the Invertebrate Galleria mellonella as an Infection Model to Study the Mycobacterium tuberculosis Complex

Galleria mellonella was recently established as a reproducible, cheap, and ethically acceptable infection model for the Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex. Here we describe and demonstrate the steps taken to establish successful infection of G. mellonella with bioluminescent Mycobacterium bovis BCG lux.

Use of the Invertebrate Galleria mellonella as an Infection Model to Study the Mycobacterium tuberculosis Complex

Tuberculosis is the leading global cause of infectious disease mortality and roughly a quarter of the world&#8217;s population is believed to be infected ...

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Research

JoVE Journal

Immunology and Infection

11.8K Views.  Imperial College London. Dit protocol beschrijft het gebruik van Galleria mellonella als een alternatief infectiemodel om tuberculose te bestuderen, waardoor het aantal modellen van zoogdieren dat in onderzoek wordt gebruikt, wordt verminderd. In vergelijking met conventionele zoogdiermodellen zoals muizen, is Galleria mellonella een goedkoper, ethisch aanvaardbaar en toegankelijker model om tuberculose te bestuderen. Verdere optimalisatie van dit model zal het mogelijk maken om kandidaat-antimycobacteriële geneesmi...

Video: Use of the Invertebrate Galleria mellonella as an Infection Model to Study the Mycobacterium tuberculosis Complex

Introducing Shear Stress in the Study of Bacterial Adhesion

During bacterial infections a sequence of interactions occur between the pathogen and its host. Bacterial adhesion to the host cell surface is often the initial and determining step of the pathogenesis. Although experimentally adhesion is mostly studied in static conditions adhesion actually takes place in the presence of flowing liquid. First encounters between bacteria and their host often occur at the mucosal level, mouth, lung, gut, eye, etc. where mucus flows along the surface of epithelial cells. Later in infection, pathogens occasionally access the blood circulation causing life-threatening illnesses such as septicemia, sepsis and meningitis. A defining feature of these infections is the ability of these pathogens to interact with endothelial cells in presence of circulating blood. The presence of flowing liquid, mucus or blood for instance, determines adhesion because it generates a mechanical force on the pathogen. To characterize the effect of flowing liquid one usually refers to the notion of shear stress, which is the tangential force exerted per unit area by a fluid moving near a stationary wall, expressed in dynes/cm2. Intensities of shear stress vary widely according to the different vessels type, size, organ, location etc. (0-100 dynes/cm2). Circulation in capillaries can reach very low shear stress values and even temporarily stop during periods ranging between a few seconds to several minutes 1. On the other end of the spectrum shear stress in arterioles can reach 100 dynes/cm2 2. The impact of shear stress on different biological processes has been clearly demonstrated as for instance during the interaction of leukocytes with the endothelium 3. To take into account this mechanical parameter in the process of bacterial adhesion we took advantage of an experimental procedure based on the use of a disposable flow chamber 4. Host cells are grown in the flow chamber and fluorescent bacteria are introduced in the flow controlled by a syringe pump. We initially focused our investigations on the bacterial pathogen Neisseria meningitidis, a Gram-negative bacterium responsible for septicemia and meningitis. The procedure described here allowed us to study the impact of shear stress on the ability of the bacteria to: adhere to cells 1, to proliferate on the cell surface 5and to detach to colonize new sites 6 (Figure 1). Complementary technical information can be found in reference 7. Shear stress values presented here were chosen based on our previous experience1 and to represent values found in the literature. The protocol should be applicable to a wide range of pathogens with specific adjustments depending on the objectives of the study.

During the infection process, a key step is the adhesion of pathogens with host cells. In most instances this adhesion step occurs in the presence of mechanical stress generated by flowing liquid. We describe a technique that introduces shear stress as an important parameter in the study of bacterial adhesion.

During bacterial infections a sequence of interactions occur between the pathogen and its host. Bacterial adhesion to the host cell surface is often the ...

The Insect Galleria mellonella as a Powerful Infection Model to Investigate Bacterial Pathogenesis

The study of bacterial virulence often requires a suitable animal model. Mammalian models of infection are costly and may raise ethical issues. The use of insects as infection models provides a valuable alternative. Compared to other non-vertebrate model hosts such as nematodes, insects have a relatively advanced system of antimicrobial defenses and are thus more likely to produce information relevant to the mammalian infection process. Like mammals, insects possess a complex innate immune system1. Cells in the hemolymph are capable of phagocytosing or encapsulating microbial invaders, and humoral responses include the inducible production of lysozyme and small antibacterial peptides2,3. In addition, analogies are found between the epithelial cells of insect larval midguts and intestinal cells of mammalian digestive systems. Finally, several basic components essential for the bacterial infection process such as cell adhesion, resistance to antimicrobial peptides, tissue degradation and adaptation to oxidative stress are likely to be important in both insects and mammals1. Thus, insects are polyvalent tools for the identification and characterization of microbial virulence factors involved in mammalian infections.
Larvae of the greater wax moth Galleria mellonella have been shown to provide a useful insight into the pathogenesis of a wide range of microbial infections including mammalian fungal (Fusarium oxysporum, Aspergillus fumigatus, Candida albicans) and bacterial pathogens, such as Staphylococcus aureus, Proteus vulgaris, Serratia marcescens Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Listeria monocytogenes or Enterococcus faecalis4-7. Regardless of the bacterial species, results obtained with Galleria larvae infected by direct injection through the cuticle consistently correlate with those of similar mammalian studies: bacterial strains that are attenuated in mammalian models demonstrate lower virulence in Galleria, and strains causing severe human infections are also highly virulent in the Galleria model8-11. Oral infection of Galleria is much less used and additional compounds, like specific toxins, are needed to reach mortality.
G. mellonella larvae present several technical advantages: they are relatively large (last instar larvae before pupation are about 2 cm long and weight 250 mg), thus enabling the injection of defined doses of bacteria; they can be reared at various temperatures (20 &deg;C to 30 &deg;C) and infection studies can be conducted between 15 &deg;C to above 37 &deg;C12,13, allowing experiments that mimic a mammalian environment. In addition, insect rearing is easy and relatively cheap. Infection of the larvae allows monitoring bacterial virulence by several means, including calculation of LD5014, measurement of bacterial survival15,16 and examination of the infection process17. Here, we describe the rearing of the insects, covering all life stages of G. mellonella. We provide a detailed protocol of infection by two routes of inoculation: oral and intra haemocoelic. The bacterial model used in this protocol is Bacillus cereus, a Gram positive pathogen implicated in gastrointestinal as well as in other severe local or systemic opportunistic infections18,19.

The Insect Galleria mellonella as a Powerful Infection Model to Investigate Bacterial Pathogenesis

Oral and intra haemocolic infection of larvae of the greater wax moth Galleria mellonella is described. This insect can be used to study virulence factors of entomopathogenic as well as mammalian opportunistic bacteria. Rearing of the insects, methods of infection and examples of in vivo analysis are described.

The study of bacterial virulence often requires a suitable animal model. Mammalian models of infection are costly and may raise ethical issues. The use of ...

An Experimental Model to Study Tuberculosis-Malaria Coinfection upon Natural Transmission of Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Plasmodium berghei

Coinfections naturally occur due to the geographic overlap of distinct types of pathogenic organisms. Concurrent infections most likely modulate the respective immune response to each single pathogen and may thereby affect pathogenesis and disease outcome. Coinfected patients may also respond differentially to anti-infective interventions. Coinfection between tuberculosis as caused by mycobacteria and the malaria parasite Plasmodium, both of which are coendemic in many parts of sub-Saharan Africa, has not been studied in detail. In order to approach the challenging but scientifically and clinically highly relevant question how malaria-tuberculosis coinfection modulate host immunity and the course of each disease, we established an experimental mouse model that allows us to dissect the elicited immune responses to both pathogens in the coinfected host. Of note, in order to most precisely mimic naturally acquired human infections, we perform experimental infections of mice with both pathogens by their natural routes of infection, i.e. aerosol and mosquito bite, respectively.

An Experimental Model to Study Tuberculosis-Malaria Coinfection upon Natural Transmission of Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Plasmodium berghei

Tuberculosis and malaria are two of the most prevalent infections in humans and major causes of morbidity and mortality in impoverished populations in the tropics. We established an experimental model system to study outcome of malaria-tuberculosis coinfection in mice after challenge with both pathogens via their natural route of infection.

Coinfections naturally occur due to the geographic overlap of distinct types of pathogenic organisms. Concurrent infections most likely modulate the ...

Use of Galleria mellonella as a Model Organism to Study Legionella pneumophila Infection

Legionella pneumophila, the causative agent of a severe pneumonia named Legionnaires&#39; disease, is an important human pathogen that infects and replicates within alveolar macrophages. Its virulence depends on the Dot/Icm type IV secretion system (T4SS), which is essential to establish a replication permissive vacuole known as the Legionella containing vacuole (LCV). L. pneumophila infection can be modeled in mice however most mouse strains are not permissive, leading to the search for novel infection models. We have recently shown that the larvae of the wax moth Galleria mellonella are suitable for investigation of L. pneumophila infection. G. mellonella is increasingly used as an infection model for human pathogens and a good correlation exists between virulence of several bacterial species in the insect and in mammalian models. A key component of the larvae&#39;s immune defenses are hemocytes, professional phagocytes, which take up and destroy invaders. L. pneumophila is able to infect, form a LCV and replicate within these cells. Here we demonstrate protocols for analyzing L. pneumophila virulence in the G. mellonella model, including how to grow infectious L. pneumophila, pretreat the larvae with inhibitors, infect the larvae and how to extract infected cells for quantification and immunofluorescence microscopy. We also describe how to quantify bacterial replication and fitness in competition assays. These approaches allow for the rapid screening of mutants to determine factors important in L. pneumophila virulence, describing a new tool to aid our understanding of this complex pathogen.

Use of Galleria mellonella as a Model Organism to Study Legionella pneumophila Infection

The larva of the wax moth Galleria mellonella was recently established as an in vivo model to study Legionella pneumophila infection. Here, we demonstrate fundamental techniques to characterize the pathogenesis of Legionella in the larvae, including inoculation, measurement of bacterial virulence and replication as well as extraction and analysis of infected hemocytes.

Legionella pneumophila, the causative agent of a severe pneumonia named Legionnaires&#39; disease, is an important human pathogen that infects and ...

A 3D Human Lung Tissue Model for Functional Studies on Mycobacterium tuberculosis Infection

Tuberculosis (TB) still holds a major threat to the health of people worldwide, and there is a need for cost-efficient but reliable models to help us understand the disease mechanisms and advance the discoveries of new treatment options. In vitro cell cultures of monolayers or co-cultures lack the three-dimensional (3D) environment and tissue responses. Herein, we describe an innovative in vitro model of a human lung tissue, which holds promise to be an effective tool for studying the complex events that occur during infection with Mycobacterium tuberculosis (M. tuberculosis). The 3D tissue model consists of tissue-specific epithelial cells and fibroblasts, which are cultured in a matrix of collagen on top of a porous membrane. Upon air exposure, the epithelial cells stratify and secrete mucus at the apical side. By introducing human primary macrophages infected with M. tuberculosis to the tissue model, we have shown that immune cells migrate into the infected-tissue and form early stages of TB granuloma. These structures recapitulate the distinct feature of human TB, the granuloma, which is fundamentally different or not commonly observed in widely used experimental animal models. This organotypic culture method enables the 3D visualization and robust quantitative analysis that provides pivotal information on spatial and temporal features of host cell-pathogen interactions. Taken together, the lung tissue model provides a physiologically relevant tissue micro-environment for studies on TB. Thus, the lung tissue model has potential implications for both basic mechanistic and applied studies. Importantly, the model allows addition or manipulation of individual cell types, which thereby widens its use for modelling a variety of infectious diseases that affect the lungs.

A 3D Human Lung Tissue Model for Functional Studies on Mycobacterium tuberculosis Infection

Human tuberculosis infection is a complex process, which is difficult to model in vitro. Here we describe a novel 3D human lung tissue model that recapitulates the dynamics that occur during infection, including the migration of immune cells and early granuloma formation in a physiological environment.

Tuberculosis (TB) still holds a major threat to the health of people worldwide, and there is a need for cost-efficient but reliable models to help us ...

The Galleria mellonella Waxworm Infection Model for Disseminated Candidiasis

Candida species are common fungal commensals of humans colonizing the skin, mucosal surfaces, and gastrointestinal tract. Under certain conditions, Candida can overgrow their natural niches resulting in debilitating mucosal infections as well as life-threatening systemic infections, which are a major focus of investigation due to their associated high mortality rates. Animal models of disseminated infection exist for studying disease progression and dissecting the characteristics of Candida pathogenicity. Of these, the Galleria mellonella waxworm infection model provides a cost-effective experimental tool for high-throughput investigations of systemic virulence. Many other bacterial and eukaryotic infectious agents have been effectively studied in G. mellonella to understand pathogenicity, making it a widely accepted model system. Yet, variation in the method used to infect G. mellonella can alter phenotypic outcomes and complicate interpretation of the results. Here, we outline the benefits and drawbacks of the waxworm model to study systemic Candida pathogenesis and detail an approach to improve reproducibility. Our results highlight the range of mortality kinetics in G. mellonella and describe the variables which can modulate these kinetics. Ultimately, this method stands as an ethical, rapid, and cost-effective approach to study virulence in a model of disseminated candidiasis.

The Galleria mellonella Waxworm Infection Model for Disseminated Candidiasis

Galleria mellonella serves as an invertebrate model for disseminated candidiasis. Here, we detail the infection protocol and provide supporting data for the model&#39;s effectiveness.

Candida species are common fungal commensals of humans colonizing the skin, mucosal surfaces, and gastrointestinal tract. Under certain conditions, ...

A Galleria mellonella Oral Administration Model to Study Commensal-Induced Innate Immune Responses

The investigation of the immunogenic potential of commensal bacteria on the host immune system is one essential component when studying intestinal host-microbe interactions. It is well established that different commensals exhibit a different potential to stimulate the host intestinal immune system. Such investigations involve vertebrate animals, especially rodents. Since increasing ethical concerns are linked with experiments involving vertebrates, there is a high demand for invertebrate replacements models. 
Here, we provide a Galleria mellonella oral administration model using commensal non-pathogenic bacteria and the possible assessment of the immunogenic potential of commensals on the G. mellonella immune system. We demonstrate that G. mellonella is a useful alternative invertebrate replacement model that allows the analysis of commensals with different immunogenic potential such as Bacteroides vulgatus and Escherichia coli. Interestingly, the bacteria exhibited no killing effect on the larvae, which is similar to mammals. The immune responses of G. mellonella were comparable with vertebrate innate immune responses and involve recognition of the bacteria and production of antimicrobial molecules. We propose that G. mellonella was able to restore previous microbiota balance, which is well known from healthy mammalian individuals. Although providing comparable innate immune responses in both G. mellonella and vertebrates, G. mellonella does not harbor an adaptive immune system. Since the investigated components of the innate immune system are evolutionary conserved, the model allows a prescreening and first analysis of bacterial immunogenic properties.

A Galleria mellonella Oral Administration Model to Study Commensal-Induced Innate Immune Responses

Here, we provide a detailed protocol for an oral administration model using Galleria mellonella larvae and how to characterize induced innate immune responses. Using this protocol, researchers without practical experience will be able to use the G. mellonella force-feeding method.

The investigation of the immunogenic potential of commensal bacteria on the host immune system is one essential component when studying intestinal ...

Standardized Galleria mellonella Models for Preclinical Antimicrobial Testing

Galleria mellonella as an Antimicrobial Screening Model

To combat the rising global issue of antibiotic resistance, the accelerated development of novel antibiotics is essential. Current preclinical antimicrobial development yields a significant number of leads that prove unsuitable either prior to or during clinical trials. To increase the efficiency of preclinical development, relevant, standardized, accessible, and cost-effective models must be developed. Galleria mellonella (greater wax moth) larvae are widely used as an infection model to assess microbial virulence, conduct drug toxicity testing, and serve as a preliminary means of evaluating the in vivo efficacy of novel antimicrobial compounds. These infection models have greater biological relevance than many in vitro screens of comparable throughput and decrease reliance on mammalian models when used as a pre-screen for antimicrobial testing. This protocol describes a standardized methodology for the optimization of G. mellonella infection models, which can be applied to bacterial species and antimicrobial therapeutics of choice. Using the WHO priority pathogen Pseudomonas aeruginosa as an exemplar, we outline steps that can be undertaken to develop a reproducible model of infection and therapeutic testing. This includes recommendations on experimental setup, sample preparation, and infection and treatment protocols. Integration of this model within preclinical antimicrobial development pipelines would decrease reliance on mammalian models, reduce the number of ineffective compounds reaching clinical trials, and ultimately increase the efficiency of preclinical antimicrobial development.

Author Spotlight: Characterizing Airway Environments to Advance Model Systems and Antimicrobial Discovery in Cystic Fibrosis and Chronic Respiratory Infections

This study presents a standardized framework for optimizing G. mellonella infection models for use in preclinical antimicrobial assessment. The application of a G. mellonella model as part of a preclinical antimicrobial development pipeline could decrease the number of ineffective compounds progressing to clinical trials.

To combat the rising global issue of antibiotic resistance, the accelerated development of novel antibiotics is essential. Current preclinical ...

Biology

Preparation and Quantification of Mycobacterium bovis BCG lux Inoculum for Infection

Source: Asai, M. et al., <a href="https://app.jove.com/v/59703">Use of the Invertebrate Galleria mellonella as an Infection Model to Study the Mycobacterium tuberculosis Complex.</a> J. Vis. Exp. (2019)
This video demonstrates the preparation and quantification of Mycobacterium bovis Bacillus Calmette-Gu&#233;rin lux inoculum using bioluminescence assay and the enumeration of colony-forming units. The prepared inoculum can be used for infection studies.

Source: Asai, M. et al., Use of the Invertebrate Galleria mellonella as an Infection Model to Study the Mycobacterium tuberculosis Complex. J. Vis. Exp. ...

JoVE Encyclopedia of Experiments

Immunology

Immunopathology

Assay and Analysis

A Technique to Establish a Bacterial Infection Model in Insect Larvae

Source: Asai, M., et al. <a href="https://app.jove.com/v/59703">Use of the Invertebrate Galleria mellonella as an Infection Model to Study the Mycobacterium tuberculosis Complex.</a> J. Vis. Exp. (2019).
This video demonstrates a method to establish a Mycobacterium bovis infection model in the larvae of the greater wax moth, Galleria mellonella. A bioluminescent strain of Mycobacterium bovis BCG is injected into the hemolymph of the larva to establish infection, and the bioluminescence is measured at predefined intervals to study the progress of infection.

Source: Asai, M., et al. Use of the Invertebrate Galleria mellonella as an Infection Model to Study the Mycobacterium tuberculosis Complex. J. Vis. Exp. ...

Use of the Invertebrate Galleria mellonella as an Infection Model to Study the Mycobacterium tuberculosis Complex

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