We would like to thank Oezkan Keles, Josephine J&#252;ttner, and Prof. Botond Roska, Institute of Molecular and Clinical Ophthalmology Basel, Complex Viruses Platform for their help and support for AAV production. We also would like to thank Prof. Jean Bennett, Perelman School of Medicine, the University of Pennsylvania for the AAV8/BP2 strain. Animal work is performed at the Gebze Technical University animal facility. For that, we thank Leyla Dikmetas and Prof. Uygar Halis Tazebay for technical assistance and support for animal husbandry. We also would like to thank Dr. Fatma Ozdemir for her comments on the manuscript. This work is supported by TUBITAK, grant numbers 118C226 and 121N275, and Sabanci University Integration grant.

All experimental protocols were accepted by the Sabanci University ethics committee and experiments were conducted in accordance with the statement of &#39;The Association for Research in Vision and Ophthalmology&#39; for the use of animals in research
1. Small scale AAV production12
<ol>
	<li>Culture HEK293T cells using 15 cm plates in complete 10 mL of DMEM/10% FBS until 70-80% confluency.</li>
	<li>Prepare the transfection mixture with 20 &#181;g of helper plasmid (pHGT1-Adeno1), 7 &#181;g of capsid plasmid and 7 &#181;g of AAV2-CBA-tdTomato-WPRE vector and 136 &#181;L of PEI solution (1 mg/mL) in 5 mL of DMEM.</li>
	<li>Add the 5 mL prepared transfection mixture into to a cell culture dish containing 10 mL of culture media and incubate the transfected cells for 48-60 h at 37 &#176;C.</li>
	<li>Collect the media at 48-60 h post-transfection and digest it with DNase I at a final concentration of 250 U/mL for 30 min at 37 &#176;C.</li>
	<li>Centrifuge the digested media at 4000 x g, 4 &#176;C for 30 min and then filter it with a 0.22 &#181;m syringe filter into the pre-wetted regenerated cellulose membrane for 100 kDa.</li>
	<li>Centrifuge the regenerated cellulose membrane at 4000 x g, 4 &#176;C for 30 min and discard the media.</li>
	<li>Wash and centrifuge the regenerated cellulose membrane with PBS containing 0.001% Pluronic F-68 three times at 4000 x g, 4 &#176;C for 30 min. Discard the PBS at each step.</li>
	<li>Collect concentrated AAVs from the top part of the regenerated cellulose membrane and aliquot for further uses.</li>
	<li>Digest 5 &#181;L of freshly made AAV with DNase I (0.2U/&#181;l) for 15 min at 37 &#176;C for titering. This is followed by 10 min at 95 &#176;C incubation for both inactivating the DNase I and degrading the viral capsids.</li>
	<li>Prepare a 10-fold serial dilution from digested AAVs using 0.05% Pluronic F-68. Use AAV2-ITR and WPRE primers for titration (Table 1). The titers were calculated by multiplying dd-PCR results with the dilution factors. Results were converted to genome copy/mL (GC/mL). 
	NOTE: AAV concentrations for small scale AAV production are expected to be around 1 x 1012 GC/mL. This protocol is not applicable for AAV strains that do not efficiently release AAVs into media like AAV213.</li>
</ol>
2. Intravitreal injection of AAV
<ol>
	<li>Preparation of equipment
	<ol>
		<li>Before starting, prepare 10 &#181;L microsyringe with a 36 G blunt needle. Rinse five times with 70% EtOH, five times in ddH2O, and finally five times with PBS.</li>
		<li>Load the appropriate amount of AAV into the microsyringe for each injection.</li>
		<li>Prepare the surgical needle (suture, silk, 6/0), tape, forceps, and scissors.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Intravitreal injection
	<ol>
		<li>Apply 1 drop of 0.5% tropicamide and 2.5% phenylephrine hydrochloride (e.g., Mydfrin) containing eye drop before anesthesia to dilate pupils.</li>
		<li>Anesthetize mice with isoflurane 5% (1 L/min) and continue with 1.5% isoflurane (1 L/min) during the procedure. A small isoflurane chamber is used for the first induction.</li>
		<li>Verify the depth of anesthesia by the loss of righting reflex, the withdrawal reflex, and tail pinch response.</li>
		<li>Apply 0.3% tobramycin and 0.1% dexamethasone sterile ophthalmic solution to each eye before the injection procedure. Application of eye drop prevents dryness and exerts anti-inflammatory and anti-bacterial effects.</li>
		<li>Use the surgical hook to stabilize the upper eyelid. Slightly pull back to expose the dorsal part of the eye. Tape the hook to the bench to hold it in position.</li>
		<li>Remove conjunctiva (less than 1 mm2) with the curved iris scissors to expose the sclera of the eye under the dissecting microscope. Use a fresh and sterile insulin syringe (30 G) to puncture the sclera.</li>
		<li>Insert the needle of the microsyringe through the same puncture using a micromanipulator. Place the tip of the needle behind the lens in the middle of the eyecup.</li>
		<li>Inject 1 &#181;L of AAV2/BP2 and AAV2/PHP.S vectors having 1.63 x 1012 GC/mL and 1.7 x 1012 GC/mL concentrations slowly into the vitreous of the eye. Injection volume control is done manually. Leave the needle in place for 1 min and slowly withdraw the needle.</li>
		<li>Release the eyelid and apply anti-inflammatory and anti-bacterial topical gel treatment containing 0.3% tobramycin and 0.1% dexamethasone to eyecup. Monitor and evaluate the mice in the following days according to the score sheet in terms of appearance (bright eyes, groomed coat, hunching), behavior (activity, immobilization, self-mutilation), and body weight on a scale of 0 to 3. Each condition has a score from 0-3 and a total score of 3 or above is a termination criterion.</li>
		<li>Place the animals in the cage after recovery.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
3. Fluorescence and fundus imaging
<ol>
	<li>Strain the mouse and dilate the pupil by placing drops of 0.5% tropicamide and 2.5% phenylephrine hydrochloride into each eye.</li>
	<li>Anesthetize the animal with the above procedure with isoflurane. Assess the depth of anesthesia carefully by pinching the paws.</li>
	<li>Place the mouse on the imaging stage and verify the proper dilation by checking through the fundus camera. Apply topical gel (0.2% carbomer 980) onto the surface of the eyes to protect eyes from dehydrating under anesthesia and to use it as a coupling gel for imaging.</li>
	<li>Manipulate the imaging stage to line up with the nosepiece of the objective. Adjust the stage as needed to center the mouse eye. Once the eye is centered, slowly move the objective until it makes contact with the eye.</li>
	<li>Perform fundus and fluorescence imaging on both eyes to follow up tdTomato expression at 1 week and 2 weeks after intravitreal injection (Figure 3B)14. Take fundus and fluorescence images at identical settings for comparison of reporter expression.</li>
</ol>
4. Retina isolation
<ol>
	<li>Euthanize animals after fundus and fluorescence imaging by CO2 inhalation for retina collection at 2 weeks time point.</li>
	<li>Shift the eyeball forward with the help of a 13.5 cm splitter forceps.</li>
	<li>Remove the lens together with the leftover vitreous by applying gentle pressure with the forceps.</li>
	<li>Cut the connection of the eyeball to the optic nerve with precision curved forceps and gently squeeze the retina with the same curved forceps.</li>
	<li>Transfer dissected retinas into a microcentrifuge tube.</li>
	<li>Snap freeze retina by placing the tubes into the liquid nitrogen.</li>
</ol>
5. Tissue genomic DNA isolation
<ol>
	<li>Isolate genomic DNA with a commercialized Proteinase K digestion-based tissue genomic DNA kit.</li>
	<li>Digest retina at 55 &#176;C, 200 x g for 30 min with Proteinase K, which is already supplied in the kit.</li>
	<li>Perform RNase incubation step, wash steps with wash buffer I and II, and finally elution step according to the manufacturer&#39;s protocol.</li>
	<li>Add an extra spin step after the last wash to remove residual ethanol.</li>
	<li>Measure the concentration of genomic DNA and store samples at -20 &#176;C.</li>
</ol>
6. Droplet digital PCR analysis of mouse retina samples for quantification of viral genomes
<ol>
	<li>Dilute genomic DNAs from injected retinas in 0.05% Pluronic F-68 solution to reach a final concentration of 1 ng/&#181;L for each sample.</li>
	<li>Perform separate reactions for WPRE and 18S using target specific primers with a final concentration of 125 nM for each primer.</li>
	<li>Perform droplet generation in a 20 &#181;L of PCR reaction mix including 1 ng of genomic DNA, 125 nM primers, and 2x evagreen supermix.</li>
	<li>Load the sample mix in the middle part of the cartridge for droplet generation.</li>
	<li>After sample loading to cartridge was done, add 70 &#181;L of the droplet generation oil into the bottom row of the cartridge.</li>
	<li>Put the gasket on top of the cartridge and place it into the droplet generator. Make sure that there is no gap between the gasket and the cartridge.</li>
	<li>Gently take approximately 40 &#181;L of droplets that are generated in the top well. Add the droplet solution to the semi-skirted 96-well PCR reaction plate.</li>
	<li>Seal the PCR plate with PCR plate sealer by using aluminum sealing foil.</li>
	<li>Place PCR plate into 96-well heat-sealed thermal cycler. Use the PCR protocol; 95 &#176;C for 5 min, 40 cycles of 95 &#176;C for 30 s, 60 &#176;C for 1 min, 4 &#176;C for 5 min, 90 &#176;C for 5 min and 4 &#176;C infinite hold. Apply 2 &#176;C/s ramp rate at each cycle to ensure that the droplets reach the correct temperature for each step during the cycling</li>
	<li>Place PCR plate into the droplet reader to quantify droplets using dd-PCR software. A template is set up using specific settings for evagreen.</li>
	<li>Analyze data using a 1-D plot graph with each specimen for fluorescence intensity vs droplet number. The threshold value is arranged so that the droplets above the threshold are assigned as positive and the below ones as negative. This is followed by the application of the Poisson algorithm to determine the starting concentration of target DNA in units of copies/&#181;L. The ratio of WPRE versus 18S is calculated for measuring AAV transduction efficiency.</li>
</ol>

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C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Retinal+tropism+and+transduction+of+adeno-associated+virus+varies+by+serotype+and+route+of+delivery+(intravitreal,+subretinal,+or+suprachoroidal)+in+rats.">Retinal tropism and transduction of adeno-associated virus varies by serotype and route of delivery (intravitreal, subretinal, or suprachoroidal) in rats.</a> Human Gene Therapy. 31 (23-24), 1288-1299 (2020).</li><li>Muraine, L., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Transduction+efficiency+of+adeno-associated+virus+serotypes+after+local+injection+in+mouse+and+human+skeletal+muscle.">Transduction efficiency of adeno-associated virus serotypes after local injection in mouse and human skeletal muscle.</a> Human Gene Therapy. 31 (3-4), 233-240 (2020).</li><li>Cronin, T., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Efficient+transduction+and+optogenetic+stimulation+of+retinal+bipolar+cells+by+a+synthetic+adeno-associated+virus+capsid+and+promoter.">Efficient transduction and optogenetic stimulation of retinal bipolar cells by a synthetic adeno-associated virus capsid and promoter.</a> EMBO Molecular Medicine. 6 (9), 1175-1190 (2014).</li><li>Higashimoto, T., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+woodchuck+hepatitis+virus+post-transcriptional+regulatory+element+reduces+readthrough+transcription+from+retroviral+vectors.">The woodchuck hepatitis virus post-transcriptional regulatory element reduces readthrough transcription from retroviral vectors.</a> Gene Therapy. 14 (17), 1298-1304 (2007).</li><li>Pinheiro, L. 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The authors have nothing to disclose.

In this protocol, we generated two AAV vectors that have different capsid proteins and then titered them accordingly. One of the most crucial steps of this protocol is to produce sufficient amounts of AAVs that will yield detectable reporter expression after the transduction12,13. 
Titering of AAVs is also an important factor to adjust dosages of AAV for intravitreal injections. Once these important criteria are achieved, it is feasi...

Adeno associated viruses (AAVs) are now commonly used for a variety of retinal gene therapy studies. AAVs provide a safe and efficient way of gene delivery with less immunogenicity and fewer genome integrations. AAV entry into the target cell occurs through endocytosis, which requires binding of receptors and co-receptors on the cell surface1,2. Therefore, the transduction efficiency of AAVs for different cell types depends mainly on the capsid and its interactions with the host cell receptors. AAVs have serotypes and each serotype can have distinct cellular/tissue tropisms and transduction efficiencies. There are also artificial AAV serotypes and variants generated by chemical modification of the virus capsid, production of hybrid capsids, peptide insertion, capsid shuffling, directed evolution, and rational mutagenesis3. Even minor changes in amino acid sequence or capsid structure can have an influence on interactions with host cell factors and result in different tropisms4. In addition to capsid variants, other factors like injection route and batch-to-batch variation of AAV production can affect the transduction efficiency of AAVs in the neuronal retina. Therefore, reliable methods for the comparison of transduction rates for different variants are necessary.
The majority of the methods for determining AAV transduction efficiency rely on reporter gene expression. These include fluorescent imaging, immunohistochemistry, western blot, or histochemical analysis of the reporter gene product5,6,7. However, due to the size constraint of AAVs, it is not always feasible to include reporter genes to monitor the transduction efficiency. Using strong promoters like the hybrid CMV enhancer/chicken beta-actin or Woodchuck hepatitis post-transcriptional regulatory element (WPRE) as an mRNA stabilizer sequence further complicates the size problem8. Therefore, it will also be beneficial to define the transduction rate of injected AAVs with a more direct methodology.
Digital droplet PCR (dd-PCR) is a powerful technique to quantify target DNA from minute amounts of samples. dd-PCR technology depends on encapsulation of the target DNA and PCR reaction mixture by oil droplets. Each dd-PCR reaction contains thousands of droplets. Each droplet is processed and analyzed as an independent PCR reaction9. Analysis of droplets enables calculating the absolute copy number of target DNA molecules in any sample by simply using the Poisson algorithm. Since the transduction efficiency of the AAVs is correlated with the copy number of AAV genomes in the neuronal retina, we used the dd-PCR method to quantify AAV genomes.
Here, we describe a dd-PCR methodology to calculate the transduction efficiency of AAV vectors from retinal genomic DNA6,10. First, AAVs that express tdTomato reporter were generated using the small scale protocol, and titered by the dd-PCR method11. Secondly, AAVs were intravitreally injected into the neuronal retina. To demonstrate the transduction efficiency, we first quantified tdTomato expression using fluorescent microscopy and ImageJ software. This was followed by the isolation of genomic DNA for the quantification of AAV genomes in injected retinas using dd-PCR. Comparison of tdTomato expression levels with the transduced AAV genomes quantified by the dd-PCR showed that the dd-PCR method accurately quantified the transduction efficiency of AAV vectors. Our protocols demonstrated a detailed description of a dd-PCR based methodology to quantify AAV transduction efficiencies. In this protocol, we also show the absolute number of AAV genomes that are transduced after intravitreal injections by simply using the dilution factor after genomic DNA isolation and the dd-PCR results. Overall, this protocol provides a powerful method, which would be an alternative to reporter expression to quantify transduction efficiencies of AAV vectors in the retina.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>96-Well Semi-Skirted ddPCR plates</td>
			<td>BioRad</td>
			<td>12001925</td>
			<td>ddPCR</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Amicon Filter</td>
			<td>Millipore</td>
			<td>UFC910096</td>
			<td>AAV</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>C1000 TOUCH 96 DEEP WELLS</td>
			<td>BioRad</td>
			<td>1851197</td>
			<td>ddPCR</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>C57BL/6JRj mice strain</td>
			<td>Janvier</td>
			<td>C57BL/6JRj</td>
			<td>Mice</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DG8 gaskets</td>
			<td>BioRad</td>
			<td>1863009</td>
			<td>ddPCR</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DG8 Cartridges</td>
			<td>BioRad</td>
			<td>1864008</td>
			<td>ddPCR</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DMEM</td>
			<td>Lonza</td>
			<td>BE12-604Q</td>
			<td>AAV</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DPBS</td>
			<td>PAN BIOTECH</td>
			<td>L 1825</td>
			<td>AAV</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Droplet generation oil eva green</td>
			<td>BioRad</td>
			<td>1864006</td>
			<td>ddPCR</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Droplet reader oil</td>
			<td>BioRad</td>
			<td>1863004</td>
			<td>ddPCR</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>FBS</td>
			<td>PAN BIOTECH</td>
			<td>p30-3306</td>
			<td>AAV</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Foil seals for PX1 PCR Plate sealer</td>
			<td>BioRad</td>
			<td>1814040</td>
			<td>ddPCR</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Insulin Syringes</td>
			<td>BD Medical</td>
			<td>320933</td>
			<td>Intravitreal injection</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Isoflurane</td>
			<td>ADEKA <img alt="Equation 2" src="/files/ftp_upload/63038/63038eq02v2.jpg" />LA&#199; SANAY<img alt="Equation 2" src="/files/ftp_upload/63038/63038eq02v2.jpg" /> VE T<img alt="Equation 2" src="/files/ftp_upload/63038/63038eq02v2.jpg" />CARET A.<img alt="Equation 1" src="/files/ftp_upload/63038/63038eq01v2.jpg" />.</td>
			<td>N01AB06</td>
			<td>anesthetic</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microinjector MM33</td>
			<td>World Precision Instruments</td>
			<td>82-42-101-0000</td>
			<td>Intravitreal injection</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Micron IV</td>
			<td>Phoenix Research Labs</td>
			<td>Micron IV</td>
			<td>Microscopy system based on 3-CCD color camera, frame grabber, and off-the-shelf software enables researchers to image mouse retinas.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Mydfrin (%2.5 phenylephrine hydrochloride)</td>
			<td>Alcon</td>
			<td>S01FB01</td>
			<td>pupil dilation</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Nanofil Syringe 10 &#956;l</td>
			<td>World Precision Instruments</td>
			<td>NANOFIL</td>
			<td>Intravitreal injection</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Needle RN G36, 25 mm, PST 2</td>
			<td>World Precision Instruments</td>
			<td>NF36BL-2</td>
			<td>Intravitreal injection</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>PEI-MAX</td>
			<td>Polyscience</td>
			<td>24765-1</td>
			<td>AAV</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Penicillin-Streptomycin</td>
			<td>PAN BIOTECH</td>
			<td>P06-07100</td>
			<td>AAV</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Plasmid pHGT1-Adeno1</td>
			<td>PlasmidFactory</td>
			<td>PF1236</td>
			<td>AAV</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Pluronic F-68</td>
			<td>Gibco</td>
			<td>24040032</td>
			<td>AAV</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>PX1 PCR Plate Sealer system</td>
			<td>BioRad</td>
			<td>1814000</td>
			<td>ddPCR</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>QX200 ddPCR EvaGreen Supermix</td>
			<td>BioRad</td>
			<td>1864034</td>
			<td>ddPCR</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>QX200 Droplet Reader/QX200 Droplet Generator</td>
			<td>BioRad</td>
			<td>1864001</td>
			<td>ddPCR</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>SPLITTER FORCEP WATCHER 
			MAKER - LENGTH = 13.5 CM</td>
			<td>endostall medical</td>
			<td>EJN-160-0155</td>
			<td>Retina isolation</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Steril Syringe Filter</td>
			<td>AISIMO</td>
			<td>ASF33PS22S</td>
			<td>AAV</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tissue Genomic DNA Kit</td>
			<td>EcoSpin</td>
			<td>E1070</td>
			<td>gDNA isolation</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tobradex (0.3% tobramycin / 0.1% dexamethasone)</td>
			<td>Alcon</td>
			<td>S01CA01</td>
			<td>anti-inflammatory / antibiotic</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tropamid (% 0.5 tropicamide)</td>
			<td>Bilim <img alt="Equation 2" src="/files/ftp_upload/63038/63038eq02v2.jpg" />la&#231; Sanayi ve Ticaret A.<img alt="Equation 1" src="/files/ftp_upload/63038/63038eq01v2.jpg" />.</td>
			<td>S01FA06</td>
			<td>pupil dilation</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Turbonuclease</td>
			<td>Accelagen</td>
			<td>N0103L</td>
			<td>AAV</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Viscotears (carbomer 2 mg/g)</td>
			<td>Bausch+Lomb</td>
			<td>S01XA20</td>
			<td>lubricant eye drop</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

digital droplet pcr method for the quantification of aav transduction efficiency in murine retina

Many retinal cell biology laboratories now routinely use Adeno-associated viruses (AAVs) for gene editing and regulatory applications. The efficiency of AAV transduction is usually critical, which affects the overall experimental outcomes. One of the main determinants for transduction efficiency is the serotype or variant of the AAV vector. Currently, various artificial AAV serotypes and variants are available with different affinities to host cell surface receptors. For retinal gene therapy, this results in varying degrees of transduction efficiencies for different retinal cell types. In addition, the injection route and the quality of AAV production may also affect the retinal AAV transduction efficiencies. Therefore, it is essential to compare the efficiency of different variants, batches, and methodologies. The digital droplet PCR (dd-PCR) method quantifies the nucleic acids with high precision and allows performing absolute quantification of a given target without any standard or a reference. Using dd-PCR, it is also feasible to assess the transduction efficiencies of AAVs by absolute quantification of AAV genome copy numbers within an injected retina. Here, we provide a straightforward method to quantify the transduction rate of AAVs in retinal cells using dd-PCR. With minor modifications, this methodology can also be the basis for the copy number quantification of mitochondrial DNA as well as assessing the efficiency of base editing, critical for several retinal diseases and gene therapy applications.

Small scale AAV production is a fast and efficient method that provides vectors for intravitreal injections (Figure 1). Small scale AAV production usually gives titers within the range of 1 x 1012 GC/ml which is sufficient to detect reporter expression in the retina (Figure 2). Titering of AAV using dd-PCR gives consistent results. ITR2 and WPRE specific primers are routinely used and the starting concentration of each target molecule was calculated w...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Digital Droplet PCR Method for the Quantification of AAV Transduction Efficiency in Murine Retina at JoVE.com

Digital Droplet PCR Method for the Quantification of AAV Transduction Efficiency in Murine Retina

This protocol presents how to quantify AAV transduction efficiency in mouse retina using digital droplet PCR (dd-PCR) together with small scale AAV production, intravitreal injection, retinal imaging, and retinal genomic DNA isolation.

Many retinal cell biology laboratories now routinely use Adeno-associated viruses (AAVs) for gene editing and regulatory applications. The efficiency of ...

digital-droplet-pcr-method-for-quantification-aav-transduction

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JoVE Journal

Neuroscience

4.4K Views.  Sabanci University. This protocol presents how to quantify AAV transduction efficiency in mouse retina using digital droplet PCR (dd-PCR) together with small scale AAV production, intravitreal injection, retinal imaging, and retinal genomic DNA isolation. 

Video: Digital Droplet PCR Method for the Quantification of AAV Transduction Efficiency in Murine Retina

In vivo Electroporation of Developing Mouse Retina

The functional characterization of genes expressed during mammalian retinal development remains a significant challenge. Gene targeting to generate constitutive or conditional loss of function knockouts remains cost and labor intensive, as well as time consuming. Adding to these challenges, retina expressed genes may have essential roles outside the retina leading to unintended confounds when using a knockout approach. Furthermore, the ability to ectopically express a gene in a gain of function experiment can be extremely valuable when attempting to identify a role in cell fate specification and/or terminal differentiation.
We present a method for the rapid and efficient incorporation of DNA plasmids into the neonatal mouse retina by electroporation. The application of short electrical impulses above a certain field strength results in a transient increase in plasma membrane permeability, facilitating the transfer of material across the membrane 1,2,3,4. Groundbreaking work demonstrated that electroporation could be utilized as a method of gene transfer into mammalian cells by inducing the formation of hydrophilic plasma membrane pores allowing the passage of highly charged DNA through the lipid bilayer 5. Continuous technical development has resulted in the viability of electroporation as a method for in vivo gene transfer in multiple mouse tissues including the retina, the method for which is described herein 6, 7, 8, 9, 10. 
DNA solution is injected into the subretinal space so that DNA is placed between the retinal pigmented epithelium and retina of the neonatal (P0) mouse and electrical pulses are applied using a tweezer electrode. The lateral placement of the eyes in the mouse allows for the easy orientation of the tweezer electrode to the necessary negative pole-DNA-retina-positive pole alignment. Extensive incorporation and expression of transferred genes can be identified by postnatal day 2 (P2). Due to the lack of significant lateral migration of cells in the retina, electroporated and non-electroporated regions are generated. Non-electroporated regions may serve as internal histological controls where appropriate. 
Retinal electroporation can be used to express a gene under a ubiquitous promoter, such as CAG, or to disrupt gene function using shRNA constructs or Cre-recombinase. More targeted expression can be achieved by designing constructs with cell specific gene promoters. Visualization of electroporated cells is achieved using bicistronic constructs expressing GFP or by co-electroporating a GFP expression construct. Furthermore, multiple constructs may be electroporated for the study of combinatorial gene effects or simultaneous gain and loss of function of different genes. Retinal electroporation may also be utilized for the analysis of genomic cis-regulatory elements by generating appropriate expression constructs and deletion mutants. Such experiments can be used to identify cis-regulatory regions sufficient or required for cell specific gene expression 11. Potential experiments are limited only by construct availability.

In vivo Electroporation of Developing Mouse Retina

A method for the incorporation of plasmid DNA into murine retinal cells for the purpose of performing either gain- or loss of function studies in vivo is presented. This method capitalizes on the transient increase in permeability of cell plasma membranes induced by the application of an external electrical field.

The functional characterization of genes expressed during mammalian retinal development remains a significant challenge.  Gene targeting to generate ...

A General Method for Evaluating Incubation of Sucrose Craving in Rats

For someone on a food-restricted diet, food craving in response to food-paired cues may serve as a key behavioral transition point between abstinence and relapse to food taking 1. Food craving conceptualized in this way is akin to drug craving in response to drug-paired cues. A rich literature has been developed around understanding the behavioral and neurobiological determinants of drug craving; we and others have been focusing recently on translating techniques from basic addiction research to better understand addiction-like behaviors related to food 2-4.
As done in previous studies of drug craving, we examine sucrose craving behavior by utilizing a rat model of relapse. In this model, rats self-administer either drug or food in sessions over several days. In a session, lever responding delivers the reward along with a tone+light stimulus. Craving behavior is then operationally defined as responding in a subsequent session where the reward is not available. Rats will reliably respond for the tone+light stimulus, likely due to its acquired conditioned reinforcing properties 5. This behavior is sometimes referred to as sucrose seeking or cue reactivity. In the present discussion we will use the term "sucrose craving" to subsume both of these constructs.
In the past decade, we have focused on how the length of time following reward self-administration influences reward craving. Interestingly, rats increase responding for the reward-paired cue over the course of several weeks of a period of forced-abstinence. This "incubation of craving" is observed in rats that have self-administered either food or drugs of abuse 4,6. This time-dependent increase in craving we have identified in the animal model may have great potential relevance to human drug and food addiction behaviors.
Here we present a protocol for assessing incubation of sucrose craving in rats. Variants of the procedure will be indicated where craving is assessed as responding for a discrete sucrose-paired cue following extinction of lever pressing within the sucrose self-administration context (Extinction without cues) or as responding for sucrose-paired cues in a general extinction context (Extinction with cues).

Responding for food or drug-paired cues increases over the course of a period of abstinence and this may relate to an increased susceptibility to relapse behaviors. Here we detail a procedure for evaluating this "incubation of craving" in rats that have self-administered sucrose.

For someone on a food-restricted diet, food craving in response to food-paired cues may serve as a key behavioral transition point between abstinence and ...

Electrophysiological Characterization of GFP-Expressing Cell Populations in the Intact Retina

Studying the physiological properties and synaptic connections of specific neurons in the intact tissue is a challenge for those cells that lack conspicuous morphological features or show a low population density. This applies particularly to retinal amacrine cells, an exceptionally multiform class of interneurons that comprise roughly 30 subtypes in mammals1. Though being a crucial part of the visual processing by shaping the retinal output2, most of these subtypes have not been studied up to now in a functional context because encountering these cells with a recording electrode is a rare event.
Recently, a multitude of transgenic mouse lines is available that express fluorescent markers like green fluorescent protein (GFP) under the control of promoters for membrane receptors or enzymes that are specific to only a subset of neurons in a given tissue3,4. These pre-labeled cells are therefore accessible to directed microelectrode targeting under microscopic control, permitting the systematic study of their physiological properties in situ. However, excitation of fluorescent markers is accompanied by the risk of phototoxicity for the living tissue. In the retina, this approach is additionally hampered by the problem that excitation light causes appropriate stimulation of the photoreceptors, thus inflicting photopigment bleaching and transferring the retinal circuits into a light-adapted condition. These drawbacks are overcome by using infrared excitation delivered by a mode-locked laser in short pulses of the femtosecond range. Two-photon excitation provides energy sufficient for fluorophore excitation and at the same time restricts the excitation to a small tissue volume minimizing the hazards of photodamage5. Also, it leaves the retina responsive to visual stimuli since infrared light (&gt;850 nm) is only poorly absorbed by photopigments6.
In this article we demonstrate the use of a transgenic mouse retina to attain electrophysiological in situ recordings from GFP-expressing cells that are visually targeted by two-photon excitation. The retina is prepared and maintained in darkness and can be subjected to optical stimuli which are projected through the condenser of the microscope (Figure 1). Patch-clamp recording of light responses can be combined with dye filling to reveal the morphology and to check for gap junction-mediated dye coupling to neighboring cells, so that the target cell can by studied on different experimental levels.

This article depicts the recording of individual cells from fluorescently tagged neuronal populations in the intact mouse retina. By using two-photon infrared excitation transgenetically labeled cells were targeted for patch-clamp recording to study their light responses, receptive field properties, and morphology.

Studying the physiological properties and synaptic connections of specific neurons in the intact tissue is a challenge for those cells that lack ...

Assessment of Vascular Regeneration in the CNS Using the Mouse Retina

The rodent retina is perhaps the most accessible mammalian system in which to investigate neurovascular interplay within the central nervous system (CNS). It is increasingly being recognized that several neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer&#8217;s, multiple sclerosis, and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis present elements of vascular compromise. In addition, the most prominent causes of blindness in pediatric and working age populations (retinopathy of prematurity and diabetic retinopathy, respectively) are characterized by vascular degeneration and failure of physiological vascular regrowth. The aim of this technical paper is to provide a detailed protocol to study CNS vascular regeneration in the retina. The method can be employed to elucidate molecular mechanisms that lead to failure of vascular growth after ischemic injury. In addition, potential therapeutic modalities to accelerate and restore healthy vascular plexuses can be explored. Findings obtained using the described approach may provide therapeutic avenues for ischemic retinopathies such as that of diabetes or prematurity and possibly benefit other vascular disorders of the CNS.

The rodent retina has long been recognized as an accessible window to the brain. In this technical paper we provide a protocol that employs the mouse model of oxygen-induced retinopathy to study the mechanisms that lead to failure of vascular regeneration within the central nervous system after ischemic injury. The described system can also be harnessed to explore strategies to promote regrowth of functional blood vessels within the retina and CNS.

The rodent retina is perhaps the most accessible mammalian system in which to investigate neurovascular interplay within the central nervous system (CNS). ...

Intracerebroventricular Viral Injection of the Neonatal Mouse Brain for Persistent and Widespread Neuronal Transduction

With the pace of scientific advancement accelerating rapidly, new methods are needed for experimental neuroscience to quickly and easily manipulate gene expression in the mouse brain. Here we describe a technique first introduced by Passini and Wolfe for direct intracranial delivery of virally-encoded transgenes into the neonatal mouse brain. In its most basic form, the procedure requires only an ice bucket and a microliter syringe. However, the protocol can also be adapted for use with stereotaxic frames to improve consistency for researchers new to the technique. The method relies on the ability of adeno-associated virus (AAV) to move freely from the cerebral ventricles into the brain parenchyma while the ependymal lining is still immature during the first 12-24 hr after birth. Intraventricular injection of AAV at this age results in widespread transduction of neurons throughout the brain. Expression begins within days of injection and persists for the lifetime of the animal. Viral titer can be adjusted to control the density of transduced neurons, while co-expression of a fluorescent protein provides a vital label of transduced cells. With the rising availability of viral core facilities to provide both off-the-shelf, pre-packaged reagents and custom viral preparation, this approach offers a timely method for manipulating gene expression in the mouse brain that is fast, easy, and far less expensive than traditional germline engineering.

Here we demonstrate a technique for widespread neuronal transduction by intraventricular injection of adeno-associated virus into the neonatal mouse brain. This method provides a rapid and easy way to attain lifelong expression of virally-delivered transgenes.

With the pace of scientific advancement accelerating rapidly, new methods are needed for experimental neuroscience to quickly and easily manipulate gene ...

Imaging Ca2+ Dynamics in Cone Photoreceptor Axon Terminals of the Mouse Retina

Retinal cone photoreceptors (cones) serve daylight vision and are the basis of color discrimination. They are subject to degeneration, often leading to blindness in many retinal diseases. Calcium (Ca2+), a key second messenger in photoreceptor signaling and metabolism, has been proposed to be indirectly linked with photoreceptor degeneration in various animal models. Systematically studying these aspects of cone physiology and pathophysiology has been hampered by the difficulties of electrically recording from these small cells, in particular in the mouse where the retina is dominated by rod photoreceptors. To circumvent this issue, we established a two-photon Ca2+ imaging protocol using a transgenic mouse line that expresses the genetically encoded Ca2+ biosensor TN-XL exclusively in cones and can be crossbred with mouse models for photoreceptor degeneration. The protocol described here involves preparing vertical sections (&#8220;slices&#8221;) of retinas from mice and optical imaging of light stimulus-evoked changes in cone Ca2+ level. The protocol also allows &#8220;in-slice measurement&#8221; of absolute Ca2+ concentrations; as the recordings can be followed by calibration. This protocol enables studies into functional cone properties and is expected to contribute to the understanding of cone Ca2+ signaling as well as the potential involvement of Ca2+ in photoreceptor death and retinal degeneration.

Imaging Ca2+ Dynamics in Cone Photoreceptor Axon Terminals of the Mouse Retina

We describe a protocol to monitor Ca2+ dynamics in the axon terminals of cone photoreceptors using an ex-vivo&#160;slice preparation of the mouse retina. This protocol allows comprehensive studies of cone Ca2+ signaling in an important mammalian model system, the mouse.

Retinal cone photoreceptors (cones) serve daylight vision and are the basis of color discrimination. They are subject to degeneration, often leading to ...

Ocular Kinematics Measured by In Vitro Stimulation of the Cranial Nerves in the Turtle

After animals are euthanized, their tissues begin to die. Turtles offer an advantage because of a longer survival time of their tissues, especially when compared to warm-blooded vertebrates. Because of this, in vitro experiments in turtles can be performed for extended periods of time to investigate the neural signals and control of their target actions. Using an isolated head preparation, we measured the kinematics of eye movements in turtles, and their modulation by electrical signals carried by cranial nerves. After the brain was removed from the skull, leaving the cranial nerves intact, the dissected head was placed in a gimbal to calibrate eye movements. Glass electrodes were attached to cranial nerves (oculomotor, trochlear, and abducens) and stimulated with currents to evoke eye movements. We monitored eye movements with an infrared video tracking system and quantified rotations of the eyes. Current pulses with a range of amplitudes, frequencies, and train durations were used to observe effects on responses. Because the preparation is separated from the brain, the efferent pathway going to muscle targets can be examined in isolation to investigate neural signaling in the absence of centrally processed sensory information.

Ocular Kinematics Measured by In Vitro Stimulation of the Cranial Nerves in the Turtle

This protocol describes how to use an in vitro isolated turtle head preparation to measure the kinematics of their eye movements. After removal of the brain from the cranium, cranial nerves can be stimulated with currents to quantify rotations of the eye and changes in pupil sizes.

After animals are euthanized, their tissues begin to die. Turtles offer an advantage because of a longer survival time of their tissues, especially when ...

A Volumetric Method for Quantification of Cerebral Vasospasm in a Murine Model of Subarachnoid Hemorrhage

Subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH) is a subtype of hemorrhagic stroke. Cerebral vasospasm that occurs in the aftermath of the bleeding is an important factor determining patient outcome and is therefore frequently taken as a study endpoint. However, in small animal studies on SAH, quantification of cerebral vasospasm is a major challenge. Here, an ex vivo method is presented that allows quantification of volumes of entire vessel segments, which can be used as an objective measure to quantify cerebral vasospasm. In a first step, endovascular casting of the cerebral vasculature is performed using a radiopaque casting agent. Then, cross-sectional imaging data are acquired by micro computed tomography. The final step involves 3-dimensional reconstruction of the virtual vascular tree, followed by an algorithm to calculate center lines and volumes of the selected vessel segments. The method resulted in a highly accurate virtual reconstruction of the cerebrovascular tree shown by a diameter-based comparison of anatomical samples with their virtual reconstructions. Compared with vessel diameters alone, the vessel volumes highlight the differences between vasospastic and non-vasospastic vessels shown in a series of SAH and sham-operated mice.

The goal of this article is to present a method that allows a 3-dimensional reconstruction of the cerebrovascular tree in mice after micro computed tomography and determination of volumes of entire vessel segments that can be used to quantify cerebral vasospasm in murine models of subarachnoid hemorrhage.

Subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH) is a subtype of hemorrhagic stroke. Cerebral vasospasm that occurs in the aftermath of the bleeding is an important factor ...

Transpupillary Two-Photon In Vivo Imaging of the Mouse Retina

The retina transforms light signals from the environment into electrical signals that are propagated to the brain. Diseases of the retina are prevalent and cause visual impairment and blindness. Understanding how such diseases progress is critical to formulating new treatments. In vivo&#160;microscopy in animal models of disease is a powerful tool for understanding neurodegeneration and has led to important progress towards treatments of conditions ranging from Alzheimer&#39;s disease to stroke. Given that the retina is the only central nervous system structure inherently accessible by optical approaches, it naturally lends itself towards in vivo imaging. However, the native optics of the lens and cornea present some challenges for effective imaging access.
This protocol outlines methods for in vivo two-photon imaging of cellular cohorts and structures in the mouse retina at cellular resolution, applicable for both acute- and chronic-duration imaging experiments. It presents examples of retinal ganglion cell (RGC), amacrine cell, microglial, and vascular imaging using a suite of labeling techniques including adeno-associated virus (AAV) vectors, transgenic mice, and inorganic dyes. Importantly, these techniques extend to all cell types of the retina, and suggested methods for accessing other cellular populations of interest are described. Also detailed are example strategies for manual image postprocessing for display and quantification. These techniques are directly applicable to studies of retinal function in health and disease.

In vivo imaging is a powerful tool for the study of biology in health and disease. This protocol describes transpupillary imaging of the mouse retina with a standard two-photon microscope. It also demonstrates different in vivoimaging methods to fluorescently label multiple cellular cohorts of the retina.

The retina transforms light signals from the environment into electrical signals that are propagated to the brain. Diseases of the retina are prevalent ...

Two Peeling Methods for the Isolation of Photoreceptor Cell Compartments in the Mouse Retina for Protein Analysis

Rod photoreceptors are highly polarized sensory neurons with distinct compartments. Mouse rods are long (~80 &#181;m) and thin (~2 &#181;m) and are laterally packed in the outermost layer of the retina, the photoreceptor layer, resulting in alignment of analogous subcellular compartments. Traditionally, tangential sectioning of the frozen flat-mounted retina has been used to study the movement and localization of proteins within different rod compartments. However, the high curvature of the rod-dominant mouse retina makes tangential sectioning challenging. Motivated by the study of protein transport between compartments, we developed two peeling methods that reliably isolate the rod outer segment (ROS) and other subcellular compartments for western blots. Our relatively quick and simple techniques deliver enriched and subcellular-specific fractions to quantitatively measure the distribution and redistribution of important photoreceptor proteins in normal rods. Moreover, these isolation techniques can also be easily adapted to isolate and quantitatively investigate the protein composition of other cellular layers within both healthy and degenerating retinae.

This protocol presents two techniques to isolate the subcellular compartments of murine rod photoreceptors for protein analysis. The first method utilizes live retinae and cellulose filter paper to separate rod outer segments, while the second employs lyophilized retinae and adhesive tape to peel away rod inner and outer segment layers.

Rod photoreceptors are highly polarized sensory neurons with distinct compartments. Mouse rods are long (~80 &#181;m) and thin (~2 &#181;m) and are ...

Digital Droplet PCR Method for the Quantification of AAV Transduction Efficiency in Murine Retina

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In vivo Electroporation of Developing Mouse Retina

A General Method for Evaluating Incubation of Sucrose Craving in Rats

Electrophysiological Characterization of GFP-Expressing Cell Populations in the Intact Retina

Assessment of Vascular Regeneration in the CNS Using the Mouse Retina

Intracerebroventricular Viral Injection of the Neonatal Mouse Brain for Persistent and Widespread Neuronal Transduction

Imaging Ca²⁺ Dynamics in Cone Photoreceptor Axon Terminals of the Mouse Retina

Ocular Kinematics Measured by In Vitro Stimulation of the Cranial Nerves in the Turtle

A Volumetric Method for Quantification of Cerebral Vasospasm in a Murine Model of Subarachnoid Hemorrhage

Transpupillary Two-Photon In Vivo Imaging of the Mouse Retina

Two Peeling Methods for the Isolation of Photoreceptor Cell Compartments in the Mouse Retina for Protein Analysis