We would like to thank our student researchers over the years. In particular, Nina Meyer, Sibylle Mayer, Juliane Kaim, and Laura Jaggy, whose data have been utilized in this protocol as representative results. Research of our group presented here was funded by grants from the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (Hu 839/2-4, Hu 839/7-1) to Armin Huber.

<ol>
	<li>Wang, X., Huang, T., Bu, G., Xu, H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Dysregulation+of+protein+trafficking+in+neurodegeneration.">Dysregulation of protein trafficking in neurodegeneration.</a> Molecular Neurodegeneration. 9. 9, 31 (2014).</li><li>Schopf, K., Huber, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Membrane+protein+trafficking+in+Drosophila+photoreceptor+cells.">Membrane protein trafficking in Drosophila photoreceptor cells.</a> European Journal of Cell Biology. 96 (5), 391-401 (2017).</li><li>Hardie, R. 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J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Rhodopsin+homeostasis+and+retinal+degeneration:+lessons+from+the+fly.">Rhodopsin homeostasis and retinal degeneration: lessons from the fly.</a> Trends in Neurosciences. 36 (11), 652-660 (2013).</li><li>B&#228;hner, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Light-regulated+subcellular+translocation+of+Drosophila+TRPL+channels+induces+long-term+adaptation+and+modifies+the+light-induced+current.">Light-regulated subcellular translocation of Drosophila TRPL channels induces long-term adaptation and modifies the light-induced current.</a> Neuron. 34 (1), 83-93 (2002).</li><li>Cronin, M. A., Lieu, M. -. H., Tsunoda, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Two+stages+of+light-dependent+TRPL-channel+translocation+in+Drosophila+photoreceptors.">Two stages of light-dependent TRPL-channel translocation in Drosophila photoreceptors.</a> Journal of Cell Science. 119, 2935-2944 (2006).</li><li>Meyer, N., Joel-Almagor, T., Frechter, S., Minke, B., Huber, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Subcellular+translocation+of+the+eGFP-tagged+TRPL+channel+in+Drosophila+photoreceptors+requires+activation+of+the+phototransduction+cascade.">Subcellular translocation of the eGFP-tagged TRPL channel in Drosophila photoreceptors requires activation of the phototransduction cascade.</a> Journal of Cell Science. 119, 2592-2603 (2006).</li><li>Oberegelsbacher, C., Schneidler, C., Voolstra, O., Cerny, A., Huber, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+Drosophila+TRPL+ion+channel+shares+a+Rab-dependent+translocation+pathway+with+rhodopsin.">The Drosophila TRPL ion channel shares a Rab-dependent translocation pathway with rhodopsin.</a> European Journal of Cell Biology. 90 (8), 620-630 (2011).</li><li>Wagner, K., Smylla, T. K., Lampe, M., Krieg, J., Huber, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Phospholipase+D+and+retromer+promote+recycling+of+TRPL+ion+channel+via+the+endoplasmic+reticulum.">Phospholipase D and retromer promote recycling of TRPL ion channel via the endoplasmic reticulum.</a> Traffic. , (2021).</li><li>Franceschini, N., Kirschfeld, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Les+ph&#233;nom&#233;nes+de+pseudopupille+dans+l'oeil+compose+de+Drosophila.">Les ph&#233;nom&#233;nes de pseudopupille dans l'oeil compose de Drosophila.</a> Kybernetik. 9 (5), 159-182 (1971).</li><li>Pichaud, F., Desplan, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+new+visualization+approach+for+identifying+mutations+that+affect+differentiation+and+organization+of+the+Drosophila+ommatidia.">A new visualization approach for identifying mutations that affect differentiation and organization of the Drosophila ommatidia.</a> Development. 128 (6), 815-826 (2001).</li><li>Smylla, T. K., Wagner, K., Huber, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Application+of+fluorescent+proteins+for+functional+dissection+of+the+Drosophila+visual+system.">Application of fluorescent proteins for functional dissection of the Drosophila visual system.</a> International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 22 (16), (2021).</li><li>Meyer, N. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mechanisms+of+the+light-dependent+translocation+of+the+ion+channel+TRPL+in+the+photoreceptors+of+Drosophila+melanogaster:+Dissertation+for+obtaining+the+academic+degree+Dr.+rer.+nat.">Mechanisms of the light-dependent translocation of the ion channel TRPL in the photoreceptors of Drosophila melanogaster: Dissertation for obtaining the academic degree Dr. rer. nat.</a> University of Karlsruhe (TH). , (2005).</li><li>Meyer, N., Oberegelsbacher, C., D&#252;rr, T. D., Sch&#228;fer, A., Huber, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=An+eGFP-based+genetic+screen+for+defects+in+light-triggered+subcelluar+translocation+of+the+Drosophila+photoreceptor+channel+TRPL.">An eGFP-based genetic screen for defects in light-triggered subcelluar translocation of the Drosophila photoreceptor channel TRPL.</a> Fly. 2 (1), 36-46 (2008).</li><li>Zheng, L., Carthew, R. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Lola+regulates+cell+fate+by+antagonizing+Notch+induction+in+the+Drosophila+eye.">Lola regulates cell fate by antagonizing Notch induction in the Drosophila eye.</a> Mechanisms of Development. 125 (1-2), 18-29 (2008).</li><li>Hibbard, K. L., O'Tousa, J. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+role+for+the+cytoplasmic+DEAD+box+helicase+Dbp21E2+in+rhodopsin+maturation+and+photoreceptor+viability.">A role for the cytoplasmic DEAD box helicase Dbp21E2 in rhodopsin maturation and photoreceptor viability.</a> Journal of Neurogenetics. 26 (2), 177-188 (2012).</li><li>Huang, Y., Xie, J., Wang, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+Fluorescence-based+genetic+screen+to+study+retinal+degeneration+in+Drosophila.">A Fluorescence-based genetic screen to study retinal degeneration in Drosophila.</a> PloS One. 10 (12), 0144925 (2015).</li><li>Zhao, H., Wang, J., Wang, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+V-ATPase+V1+subunit+A1+is+required+for+rhodopsin+anterograde+trafficking+in+Drosophila.">The V-ATPase V1 subunit A1 is required for rhodopsin anterograde trafficking in Drosophila.</a> Molecular Biology of the Cell. 29 (13), 1640-1651 (2018).</li><li>Xiong, L., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=ER+complex+proteins+are+required+for+rhodopsin+biosynthesis+and+photoreceptor+survival+in+Drosophila+and+mice.">ER complex proteins are required for rhodopsin biosynthesis and photoreceptor survival in Drosophila and mice.</a> Cell Death and Differentiation. 27 (2), 646-661 (2020).</li><li>Zhao, H., Wang, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=PE+homeostasis+rebalanced+through+mitochondria-ER+lipid+exchange+prevents+retinal+degeneration+in+Drosophila.">PE homeostasis rebalanced through mitochondria-ER lipid exchange prevents retinal degeneration in Drosophila.</a> PLoS Genetics. 16 (10), 1009070 (2020).</li><li>Cerny, A. C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+GTP-+and+phospholipid-binding+protein+TTD14+regulates+trafficking+of+the+TRPL+ion+channel+in+Drosophila+photoreceptor+cells.">The GTP- and phospholipid-binding protein TTD14 regulates trafficking of the TRPL ion channel in Drosophila photoreceptor cells.</a> PLoS Genetics. 11 (10), 1005578 (2015).</li><li>Richter, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Structural+and+functional+analyses+of+TRP+ion+channels+in+the+photoreceptor+cells+of+Drosophila+melanogaster:+Dissertation+for+obtaining+the+academic+degree+Dr.+rer,+nat.">Structural and functional analyses of TRP ion channels in the photoreceptor cells of Drosophila melanogaster: Dissertation for obtaining the academic degree Dr. rer, nat.</a> University of Karlsruhe (TH). , (2007).</li><li>Gambis, A., Dourlen, P., Steller, H., Mollereau, B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Two-color+in+vivo+imaging+of+photoreceptor+apoptosis+and+development+in+Drosophila.">Two-color in vivo imaging of photoreceptor apoptosis and development in Drosophila.</a> Developmental Biology. 351 (1), 128-134 (2011).</li><li>Hardie, R. C., Liu, C. -. H., Randall, A. S., Sengupta, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=In+vivo+tracking+of+phosphoinositides+in+Drosophila+photoreceptors.">In vivo tracking of phosphoinositides in Drosophila photoreceptors.</a> Journal of Cell Science. 128 (23), 4328-4340 (2015).</li><li>Chakrabarti, P., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+dPIP5K+dependent+pool+of+phosphatidylinositol+4,5+bisphosphate+(PIP2)+is+required+for+G-protein+coupled+signal+transduction+in+Drosophila+photoreceptors.">A dPIP5K dependent pool of phosphatidylinositol 4,5 bisphosphate (PIP2) is required for G-protein coupled signal transduction in Drosophila photoreceptors.</a> PLoS Genetics. 11 (1), 1004948 (2015).</li></ol>

The authors have nothing to disclose.

The applicability of fluorescence proteins and simplicity of screening by DPP imaging and retinal water immersion microscopy has been proven to be successful by many groups12. Strategies similar to the ones presented here have been used in several genetic screens to detect defects in rhodopsin expression levels, homeostasis, retinal organization, or cellular integrity with the help of Rh1::eGFP17,18,19<su...

By delivering and removing proteins to and from the plasma membrane, membrane protein trafficking in neurons controls the plasma membrane equipment with receptors as well as ion channels and, as a result, regulates neuronal function. Misregulation or defects in protein trafficking typically have detrimental effects on cells and result in neuronal degeneration. In humans, this may cause neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer&#39;s and Parkinson&#39;s disease or Retinitis pigmentosa1. Photoreceptors in the compound eye of Drosophila melanogaster have become an in vivo model system for studying membrane protein trafficking2.&#160;This is not only due to the genetic versatility of Drosophila that allows effective genetic screens, but also because all essential components of the light-absorbing photoreceptor membrane are characterized in great detail and efficient microscopic techniques are available that can be applied to the fly eye. These techniques are the focus of this article.
In Drosophila photoreceptor cells, the apical plasma membrane forms a densely packed stack of microvilli along one side of the cell, termed rhabdomere. The rhabdomeres of photoreceptor cells R1-6 are arranged in a characteristic trapezoidal pattern while photoreceptor cells R7 and R8 form a single rhabdomere in the center of this trapezoid3. Membrane protein trafficking is needed for a regulated turnover of rhabdomeral membrane proteins such as rhodopsin and the light-activated TRP (transient receptor potential) and TRPL (TRP-like) ion channels to assure the proper amount of these phototransduction proteins in the rhabdomere. Photoreceptor membrane proteins are synthesized in the endoplasmic reticulum and transported via the Golgi apparatus to the rhabdomere. Following activation of rhodopsin by light, a rhodopsin molecule can either become inactivated by absorption of a second photon or can be removed from the rhabdomere by clathrin-mediated endocytosis. Endocytosed rhodopsin either becomes degraded in the lysosome or is recycled back to the rhabdomere4,5. The ion channel TRPL is also internalized following activation of the phototransduction cascade and undergoes a light-dependent translocation between the rhabdomere (where it is located when flies are kept in the dark) and an ER-enriched storage compartment in the cell body (to which it is transported within several hours upon illumination)6,7,8,9,10. In contrast to endocytosed rhodopsin, only small amounts of TRPL are degraded via the endolysosomal pathway, and the majority is stored intracellularly instead and recycled back to the rhabdomere upon dark adaptation6. TRPL can thus be used for analyzing light-triggered trafficking of plasma membrane proteins. Drosophila photoreceptor cells are also employed for studying neuronal degeneration. Photoreceptor cell degeneration is frequently determined by assessing the structure of rhabdomeres, which disintegrate as a result of degenerative processes5.
In order to study the subcellular localization of TRPL and rhodopsin in photoreceptor cells or photoreceptor cell degeneration, two fluorescence microscopy methods that differ with respect to analysis speed and resolution have been applied here. A very fast, non-invasive method that can be used for genetic screens but with a limited spatial resolution is the detection of fluorescence in the deep pseudopupil (DPP). The DPP is an optical phenomenon of arthropod compound eyes whose geometric origin has been explained in detail by Franceschini and Kirschfeld in 197111. In short, on several optical planes below the retina overlay-images of rhabdomeres from adjacent ommatidia can be observed. On a focal plane through the center of the eye&#39;s curvature, these superimposed projections form an image that resembles the trapezoidal layout of rhabdomeres in a single ommatidium only orders of magnitude larger. This phenomenon can also be observed independently of exogenous expression of fluorescence proteins (e.g. TRPL::eGFP8), which nonetheless make the DPP easier to detect (Figure&#160;1A-A&#39;&#39;)12. A second non-invasive method is water immersion microscopy that relies on imaging fluorescently tagged proteins after optically neutralizing the eyes&#39; dioptric apparatus with water (Figure&#160;1B-C&#39;&#39;)12. Using the water immersion method, the relative amount of TRPL::eGFP in the rhabdomeres or cell body can be assessed quantitatively for individual photoreceptor cells. Furthermore, non-translocating fluorescence-tagged proteins can be utilized to evaluate rhabdomeral integrity and to determine the time course of a potential degeneration in a quantitative manner, as described here.
While recordings of the DPP are by far the easiest and fastest of these methods to perform, the spatial resolution of data they generate is limited. In addition, there are numerous reasons why a DPP may be absent, which are not necessarily discernible by DPP imaging itself. Since the DPP represents a summation of several ommatidia, information about individual cells is lost. Thus, low-resolution DPP imaging serves an important function in screening large numbers of flies but should generally be followed by higher resolution recordings by way of water immersion microscopy. Water immersion micrographs allow interpretations about individual cells, developmental defects, eye morphology, protein mislocalization or retinal degeneration as well as quantification of these effects. This Protocol describes these two techniques in detail.
<img alt="Figure 1" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/63375/63375fig01.jpg" /> 
Figure 1: Overview of microscopy variations for the Drosophila eye presented in this Protocol. Schematic representations and exemplary micrographs of (A-A&#39;&#39;) fluorescent deep pseudopupil (DPP) imaging, (B-B&#39;&#39;) lethal water immersion microscopy of fluorescent rhabdomeres, and (C-C&#39;&#39;) non-lethal water drop microscopy of fluorescent rhabdomeres. Scale bar (A&#39;&#39;): 100 &#181;m. Scale bars (B&#39;&#39;-C&#39;&#39;): 10 &#181;m. The figure has been modified from reference13. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/63375/63375fig01large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>

<table><tbody><tr><td>15 mL centrifuge tube</td><td>Greiner Bio-One</td><td>188271</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; anaesthesia fly pad</td><td>Flystuff</td><td>59-172</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Cold light lamp (KL 1500 LCD)</td><td>Zeiss</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Fiji/ImageJ</td><td>NIH</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Fluorescence microscope with UV lamp, camera, filter set and software (AxioImager.Z1m, Axiocam 530 mono, 38 HE, ZEN2 blue edition)</td><td>Zeiss</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Fluorescent tube (Lumilux T8, L 30W/840, 4000 K, G13)&lt;br/&gt; [1750 Lux, E&lt;sub&gt;e&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;470nm&lt;/sup&gt; = 298 &amp;micro;W cm&lt;sup&gt;-2&lt;/sup&gt;, E&lt;sub&gt;e&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;590nm&lt;/sup&gt; = 215 &amp;micro;W cm&lt;sup&gt;-2&lt;/sup&gt;]&lt;br/&gt; and [760 Lux, E&lt;sub&gt;e&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;470nm&lt;/sup&gt; = 173 &amp;micro;W cm&lt;sup&gt;-2&lt;/sup&gt;, E&lt;sub&gt;e&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;590nm&lt;/sup&gt; = 147 &amp;micro;W cm&lt;sup&gt;-2&lt;/sup&gt;]</td><td>Osram</td><td>4050300518039</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Laboratory pipette (20-200 &amp;micro;L)</td><td>Eppendorf</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Object slide</td><td>Roth</td><td>0656.1</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Petri dish (94 mm)</td><td>Greiner Bio-One</td><td>633102</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Pipette tips (200 &amp;micro;L)</td><td>Labsolute</td><td>7695844</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Plasticine (Blu-Tack)</td><td>Bostik</td><td>30811745</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Stereo microscope (SMZ445)</td><td>Nikon</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Stereo microscope with UV lamp, camera, filer set and software (MZ16F, MC170 HD, GFP3, LAS 4.12)</td><td>Leica</td><td></td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

studying membrane protein trafficking in drosophila photoreceptor cells using egfp-tagged proteins

Membrane protein trafficking regulates the incorporation and removal of receptors and ion channels into the plasma membrane. This process is fundamentally important for cell function and cell integrity of neurons. Drosophila photoreceptor cells have become a model for studying membrane protein trafficking. Besides rhodopsin, which upon illumination becomes internalized from the photoreceptor membrane and is degraded, the transient receptor potential-like (TRPL) ion channel in Drosophila exhibits a light-dependent translocation between the rhabdomeral photoreceptor membrane (where it is located in the dark) and the photoreceptor cell body (to which it is transported upon illumination). This intracellular transport of TRPL can be studied in a simple and non-invasive way by expressing eGFP-tagged TRPL in photoreceptor cells. The eGFP fluorescence can then be observed either in the deep pseudopupil or by water immersion microscopy. These methods allow detection of fluorescence in the intact eye and are therefore useful for high-throughput assays and genetic screens for Drosophila mutants defective in TRPL translocation. Here, the preparation of flies, the microscopic techniques, as well as quantification methods used to study this light-triggered translocation of TRPL are explained in detail. These methods can be applied also for trafficking studies on other Drosophila photoreceptor proteins, for example, rhodopsin. In addition, by using eGFP-tagged rhabdomeral proteins, these methods can be used to assess the degeneration of photoreceptor cells.

Transgenic Drosophila flies expressing a TRPL::eGFP fusion protein under the control of the rhodopsin 1 promoter have been generated. In these flies, TRPL::eGFP is expressed in photoreceptor cells R1-6 of the compound eye and displays an illumination-dependent localization. When flies are kept in the dark, TRPL::eGFP is incorporated into the outer rhabdomeres. After illumination for several hours, TRPL translocates into the cell body where it is stored in an ER-enriched compartment.8...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Studying Membrane Protein Trafficking in Drosophila Photoreceptor Cells Using eGFP-Tagged Proteins at JoVE.com

Studying Membrane Protein Trafficking in Drosophila Photoreceptor Cells Using eGFP-Tagged Proteins

Here, non-invasive methods are described for localization of photoreceptor membrane proteins and assessment of retinal degeneration in the Drosophila compound eye using eGFP fluorescence.

Studying Membrane Protein Trafficking in Drosophila Photoreceptor Cells Using eGFP-Tagged Proteins

Membrane protein trafficking regulates the incorporation and removal of receptors and ion channels into the plasma membrane. This process is fundamentally ...

studying-membrane-protein-trafficking-drosophila-photoreceptor-cells

Research

JoVE Journal

Biology

2.7K Views.  University of Hohenheim. Here, non-invasive methods are described for localization of photoreceptor membrane proteins and assessment of retinal degeneration in the Drosophila compound eye using eGFP fluorescence.

Video: Studying Membrane Protein Trafficking in Drosophila Photoreceptor Cells Using eGFP-Tagged Proteins

Live-imaging of the Drosophila Pupal Eye

Inherent processes of Drosophila pupal development can shift and distort the eye epithelium in ways that make individual cell behavior difficult to track during live cell imaging. These processes include: retinal rotation, cell growth and organismal movement. Additionally, irregularities in the topology of the epithelium, including subtle bumps and folds often introduced as the pupa is prepared for imaging, make it challenging to acquire in-focus images of more than a few ommatidia in a single focal plane. The workflow outlined here remedies these issues, allowing easy analysis of cellular processes during Drosophila pupal eye development. Appropriately-staged pupae are arranged in an imaging rig that can be easily assembled in most laboratories. Ubiquitin-DE-Cadherin:GFP and GMR-GAL4&#8211;driven UAS-&#945;-catenin:GFP are used to visualize cell boundaries in the eye epithelium 1-3. After deconvolution is applied to fluorescent images captured at multiple focal planes, maximum projection images are generated for each time point and enhanced using image editing software. Alignment algorithms are used to quickly stabilize superfluous motion, making individual cell behavior easier to track.

Live-imaging of the Drosophila Pupal Eye

This protocol presents an efficient method for imaging the live Drosophila pupal eye neuroepithelium. This method compensates for tissue movement and uneven topology, enhances visualization of cell boundaries through the use of multiple GFP-tagged junction proteins, and uses an easily-assembled imaging rig.

Inherent processes of Drosophila pupal development can shift and distort the eye epithelium in ways that make individual cell behavior difficult to track ...

Developmental Biology

Lateral Diffusion and Exocytosis of Membrane Proteins in Cultured Neurons Assessed using Fluorescence Recovery and Fluorescence-loss Photobleaching

Membrane proteins such as receptors and ion channels undergo active trafficking in neurons, which are highly polarised and morphologically complex. This directed trafficking is of fundamental importance to deliver, maintain or remove synaptic proteins.
Super-ecliptic pHluorin (SEP) is a pH-sensitive derivative of eGFP that has been extensively used for live cell imaging of plasma membrane proteins1-2. At low pH, protonation of SEP decreases photon absorption and eliminates fluorescence emission. As most intracellular trafficking events occur in compartments with low pH, where SEP fluorescence is eclipsed, the fluorescence signal from SEP-tagged proteins is predominantly from the plasma membrane where the SEP is exposed to a neutral pH extracellular environment. When illuminated at high intensity SEP, like every fluorescent dye, is irreversibly photodamaged (photobleached)3-5. Importantly, because low pH quenches photon absorption, only surface expressed SEP can be photobleached whereas intracellular SEP is unaffected by the high intensity illumination6-10. 
FRAP (fluorescence recovery after photobleaching) of SEP-tagged proteins is a convenient and powerful technique for assessing protein dynamics at the plasma membrane. When fluorescently tagged proteins are photobleached in a region of interest (ROI) the recovery in fluorescence occurs due to the movement of unbleached SEP-tagged proteins into the bleached region. This can occur via lateral diffusion and/or from exocytosis of non-photobleached receptors supplied either by de novo synthesis or recycling (see Fig. 1). The fraction of immobile and mobile protein can be determined and the mobility and kinetics of the diffusible fraction can be interrogated under basal and stimulated conditions such as agonist application or neuronal activation stimuli such as NMDA or KCl application8,10. 
We describe photobleaching techniques designed to selectively visualize the recovery of fluorescence attributable to exocytosis. Briefly, an ROI is photobleached once as with standard FRAP protocols, followed, after a brief recovery, by repetitive bleaching of the flanking regions. This 'FRAP-FLIP' protocol, developed in our lab, has been used to characterize AMPA receptor trafficking at dendritic spines10, and is applicable to a wide range of trafficking studies to evaluate the intracellular trafficking and exocytosis.

This report describes the use of live cell imaging and photobleach techniques to determine the surface expression, transport pathways and trafficking kinetics of exogenously expressed, pH-sensitive GFP-tagged proteins at the plasma membrane of neurons.

Membrane proteins such as receptors and ion channels undergo active trafficking in neurons, which are highly polarised and morphologically complex. This ...

Neuroscience

Preparation of Developing and Adult Drosophila Brains and Retinae for Live Imaging

The Drosophila brain and visual system are widely utilized model systems to study neuronal development, function and degeneration. Here we show three preparations of the brain and visual system that cover the range from the developing eye disc-brain complex in the developing pupae to individual eye and brain dissection from adult flies. All protocols are optimized for the live culture of the preparations. However, we also present the conditions for fixed tissue immunohistochemistry where applicable. Finally, we show live imaging conditions for these preparations using conventional and resonant 4D confocal live imaging in a perfusion chamber. Together, these protocols provide a basis for live imaging on different time scales ranging from functional intracellular assays on the scale of minutes to developmental or degenerative processes on the scale of many hours.

Preparation of Developing and Adult Drosophila Brains and Retinae for Live Imaging

This protocol describes three Drosophila preparations: 1) adult brain dissection, 2) adult retina dissection and 3) developing eye disc- brain complexes dissection. Emphasis is laid on special preparation techniques and conditions for live imaging, although all preparations can be used for fixed tissue immunohistochemistry.

The Drosophila brain and visual system are widely utilized model systems to study neuronal development, function and degeneration. Here we show three ...

Visualizing Cytoskeleton-Dependent Trafficking of Lipid-Containing Organelles in Drosophila Embryos

Early Drosophila embryos are large cells containing a vast array of conventional and embryo-specific organelles. During the first three hours of embryogenesis, these organelles undergo dramatic movements powered by actin-based cytoplasmic streaming and motor-driven trafficking along microtubules. The development of a multitude of small, organelle-specific fluorescent probes (FPs) makes it possible to visualize a wide range of different lipid-containing structures in any genotype, allowing live imaging without requiring a genetically encoded fluorophore. This protocol shows how to inject vital dyes and molecular probes into Drosophila embryos to monitor the trafficking of specific organelles by live imaging. This approach is demonstrated by labeling lipid droplets (LDs) and following their bulk movement by particle image velocimetry (PIV). This protocol provides a strategy amenable to the study of other organelles, including lysosomes, mitochondria, yolk vesicles, and the ER, and for tracking the motion of individual LDs along microtubules. Using commercially available dyes brings the benefits of separation into the violet/blue and far-red regions of the spectrum. By multiplex co-labeling of organelles and/or cytoskeletal elements via microinjection, all the genetic resources in Drosophila are available for trafficking studies without the need to introduce fluorescently tagged proteins. Unlike genetically encoded fluorophores, which have low quantum yields and bleach easily, many of the available dyes allow for rapid and simultaneous capture of several channels with high photon yields.

Visualizing Cytoskeleton-Dependent Trafficking of Lipid-Containing Organelles in Drosophila Embryos

In the early Drosophila embryo, many organelles are motile. In principle, they can be imaged live via specific fluorescent probes, but the eggshell prevents direct application to the embryo. This protocol describes how to introduce such probes via microinjection, and then analyze bulk organelle motion via particle image velocimetry.

Early Drosophila embryos are large cells containing a vast array of conventional and embryo-specific organelles. During the first three hours of ...

Confocal and Super-Resolution Imaging of Polarized Intracellular Trafficking and Secretion of Basement Membrane Proteins During Drosophila Oogenesis

The basement membrane (BM) - a specialized sheet of extracellular matrix present at the basal side of epithelial cells - is critical for the establishment and maintenance of epithelial tissue morphology and organ morphogenesis. Moreover, the BM is essential for tissue modeling, serving as a signaling platform, and providing external forces to shape tissues and organs. Despite the many important roles that the BM plays during normal development and pathological conditions, the biological pathways controlling the intracellular trafficking of BM-containing vesicles and how basal secretion leads to the polarized deposition of BM proteins are poorly understood. The follicular epithelium of the Drosophila ovary is an excellent model system to study the basal deposition of BM membrane proteins, as it produces and secretes all major components of the BM. Confocal and super-resolution imaging combined with image processing in fixed tissues allows for the identification and characterization of cellular factors specifically involved in the intracellular trafficking and deposition of BM proteins. This article presents a detailed protocol for staining and imaging BM-containing vesicles and deposited BM using endogenously tagged proteins in the follicular epithelium of the Drosophila ovary. This protocol can be applied to address both qualitative and quantitative questions and it was developed to accommodate high-throughput screening, allowing for the rapid and efficient identification of factors involved in the polarized intracellular trafficking and secretion of vesicles during epithelial tissue development.

Confocal and Super-Resolution Imaging of Polarized Intracellular Trafficking and Secretion of Basement Membrane Proteins During Drosophila Oogenesis

The basement membrane is essential for tissue and organ morphogenesis during development. To better understand the mechanisms leading to proper placement of this structure, the protocol presented describes methods to visualize and characterize the intracellular trafficking and secretion of basement membrane proteins in epithelial cells using confocal and super-resolution microscopy.

The basement membrane (BM) - a specialized sheet of extracellular matrix present at the basal side of epithelial cells - is critical for the establishment ...

Enhancing Protein Visualization with Antibody-Mediated Live Imaging

Visualizing Low-Abundance Proteins and Post-Translational Modifications in Living Drosophila Embryos via Fluorescent Antibody Injection

Visualization of proteins in living cells using GFP (Green Fluorescent Protein) and other fluorescent tags has greatly improved understanding of protein localization, dynamics, and function. Compared to immunofluorescence, live imaging more accurately reflects protein localization without potential artifacts arising from tissue fixation. Importantly, live imaging enables quantitative and temporal characterization of protein levels and localization, crucial for understanding dynamic biological processes such as cell movement or division. However, a major limitation of fluorescent tagging approaches is the need for sufficiently high protein expression levels to achieve successful visualization. Consequently, many endogenously tagged fluorescent proteins with relatively low expression levels cannot be detected. On the other hand, ectopic expression using viral promoters can sometimes lead to protein mislocalization or functional alterations in physiological contexts. To address these limitations, an approach is presented that utilizes highly sensitive antibody-mediated protein detection in living embryos, essentially performing immunofluorescence without the need for tissue fixation. As proof of principle, endogenously GFP-tagged Notch receptor that is barely detectable&#160;in living embryos can be successfully visualized after antibody injection. Furthermore, this approach was adapted to visualize post-translational modifications (PTMs) in living embryos, allowing the detection of temporal changes in tyrosine phosphorylation patterns during early embryogenesis and revealing a novel subpopulation of phosphotyrosine (p-Tyr) underneath apical membranes. This approach can be modified to accommodate other protein-specific, tag-specific, or PTM-specific antibodies and should be compatible with other injection-amenable model organisms or cell lines. This protocol opens new possibilities for live imaging of low-abundance proteins or PTMs that were previously challenging to detect using traditional fluorescent tagging methods.

Author Spotlight: Unveiling the Dynamics of Mechanical and Biochemical Signals in Animal Morphogenesis Research 

This protocol describes the customized antibody-based fluorescence labeling and injection into early Drosophila embryos to enable live imaging of low-abundance proteins or post-translational modifications that are challenging to detect using traditional GFP/mCherry-tag approaches.

Visualization of proteins in living cells using GFP (Green Fluorescent Protein) and other fluorescent tags has greatly improved understanding of protein ...

In Vivo Single-Molecule Tracking at the Drosophila Presynaptic Motor Nerve Terminal

An increasing number of super-resolution microscopy techniques are helping to uncover the mechanisms that govern the nanoscale cellular world. Single-molecule imaging is gaining momentum as it provides exceptional access to the visualization of individual molecules in living cells. Here, we describe a technique that we developed to perform single-particle tracking photo-activated localization microscopy (sptPALM) in Drosophila larvae. Synaptic communication relies on key presynaptic proteins that act by docking, priming, and promoting the fusion of neurotransmitter-containing vesicles with the plasma membrane. A range of protein-protein and protein-lipid interactions tightly regulates these processes and the presynaptic proteins therefore exhibit changes in mobility associated with each of these key events. Investigating how mobility of these proteins correlates with their physiological function in an intact live animal is essential to understanding their precise mechanism of action. Extracting protein mobility with high resolution in vivo requires overcoming limitations such as optical transparency, accessibility, and penetration depth. We describe how photoconvertible fluorescent proteins tagged to the presynaptic protein Syntaxin-1A can be visualized via slight oblique illumination and tracked at the motor nerve terminal or along the motor neuron axon of the third instar Drosophila larva.

In Vivo Single-Molecule Tracking at the Drosophila Presynaptic Motor Nerve Terminal

Here we illustrate how single molecule photo-activated localization microscopy can be carried out on the motor nerve terminal of a live Drosophila melanogaster third instar larva.

An increasing number of super-resolution microscopy techniques are helping to uncover the mechanisms that govern the nanoscale cellular world. ...

The Tomato/GFP-FLP/FRT Method for Live Imaging of Mosaic Adult Drosophila Photoreceptor Cells

The Drosophila eye is widely used as a model for studies of development and neuronal degeneration. With the powerful mitotic recombination technique, elegant genetic screens based on clonal analysis have led to the identification of signaling pathways involved in eye development and photoreceptor (PR) differentiation at larval stages. We describe here the Tomato/GFP-FLP/FRT method, which can be used for rapid clonal analysis in the eye of living adult Drosophila. Fluorescent photoreceptor cells are imaged with the cornea neutralization technique, on retinas with mosaic clones generated by flipase-mediated recombination. This method has several major advantages over classical histological sectioning of the retina: it can be used for high-throughput screening and has proved an effective method for identifying the factors regulating PR survival and function. It can be used for kinetic analyses of PR degeneration in the same living animal over several weeks, to demonstrate the requirement for specific genes for PR survival or function in the adult fly. This method is also useful for addressing cell autonomy issues in developmental mutants, such as those in which the establishment of planar cell polarity is affected.

The Tomato/GFP-FLP/FRT Method for Live Imaging of Mosaic Adult Drosophila Photoreceptor Cells

The Tomato/GFP-FLP/FRT method involves visualizing mosaic photoreceptor cells in living Drosophila. It can be used to follow individual photoreceptor cell fates in the retina for days or weeks. This method is ideal for studies of retinal degeneration and neurodegenerative diseases or photoreceptor cell development.

The Drosophila eye is widely used as a model  for studies of development and neuronal degeneration. With the powerful mitotic  recombination technique, ...

Imaging the Intracellular Trafficking of APP with Photoactivatable GFP

Beta-amyloid (A&#946;) is the major constituent of senile plaques found in the brains of Alzheimer&#8217;s disease patients. A&#946; is derived from the sequential cleavage of Amyloid Precursor Protein (APP) by &#946; and &#947;-secretases. Despite the importance of A&#946; to AD pathology, the subcellular localization of these cleavages is not well established. Work in our laboratory and others implicate the endosomal/lysosomal system in APP processing after internalization from the cell surface. However, the intracellular trafficking of APP is relatively understudied.
While cell-surface proteins are amendable to many labeling techniques, there are no simple methods for following the trafficking of membrane proteins from the Golgi. To this end, we created APP constructs that were tagged with photo-activatable GFP (paGFP) at the C-terminus. After synthesis, paGFP has low basal fluorescence, but it can be stimulated with 413 nm light to produce a strong, stable green fluorescence. By using the Golgi marker Galactosyl transferase coupled to Cyan Fluorescent Protein (GalT-CFP) as a target, we are able to accurately photoactivate APP in the trans-Golgi network. Photo-activated APP-paGFP can then be followed as it traffics to downstream compartments identified with fluorescently tagged compartment marker proteins for the early endosome (Rab5), the late endosome (Rab9) and the lysosome (LAMP1). Furthermore, using inhibitors to APP processing including chloroquine or the &#947;-secretase inhibitor L685, 458, we are able to perform pulse-chase experiments to examine the processing of APP in single cells.
We find that a large fraction of APP moves rapidly to the lysosome without appearing at the cell surface, and is then cleared from the lysosome by secretase-like cleavages. This technique demonstrates the utility of paGFP for following the trafficking and processing of intracellular proteins from the Golgi to downstream compartments.

While the transport of cell surface proteins is relatively easily studied, visualizing the trafficking of intracellular proteins is much more difficult. Here, we use constructs incorporating photoactivatable GFP and demonstrate a method to accurately follow the amyloid precursor protein from the Golgi apparatus to down-stream compartments and follow its clearance.

Beta-amyloid (A&#946;) is the major constituent of senile plaques found in the brains of Alzheimer&#8217;s disease patients. A&#946; is derived from the ...

Enhancing Axonal Transport Analysis in Living C. elegans Using GFP-Tagged RAB-3

Optimizing Visualization of Axonal Transport of Endogenous Cargo by Fluorescence Microscopy in Living Caenorhabditis elegans

Axonal transport is a prerequisite to deliver axonal proteins from their site of synthesis in the neuronal cell body to their destination in the axon. Consequently, loss of axonal transport impairs neuronal growth and function. Studying axonal transport therefore improves our understanding of neuronal cell biology. With recent improvements in CRISPR Cas9 genome editing, endogenous labeling of axonal cargos has become accessible, enabling to move beyond ectopic expression-based visualization of transport. However, endogenous labeling often comes at the cost of low signal intensity and necessitates optimization strategies to obtain robust data. Here, we describe a protocol to optimize the visualization of axonal transport by discussing acquisition parameters and a bleaching approach to improve the signal of endogenous labeled cargo over diffuse cytoplasmic background. We apply our protocol to optimize the visualization of synaptic vesicle precursors (SVPs) labeled by green fluorescent protein (GFP)-tagged RAB-3 to highlight how fine-tuning acquisition parameters can improve the analysis of endogenously labeled axonal cargo in Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans).

Author Spotlight: Advanced Techniques for Visualizing Endogenous Axonal Transport Dynamics

The paper describes the optimization of fluorescence microscopy acquisition parameters to visualize the axonal transport of endogenous labeled cargos at single-neuron resolution in a living nematode.

Axonal transport is a prerequisite to deliver axonal proteins from their site of synthesis in the neuronal cell body to their destination in the axon. ...

Studying Membrane Protein Trafficking in Drosophila Photoreceptor Cells Using eGFP-Tagged Proteins

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Live-imaging of the Drosophila Pupal Eye

Lateral Diffusion and Exocytosis of Membrane Proteins in Cultured Neurons Assessed using Fluorescence Recovery and Fluorescence-loss Photobleaching

Preparation of Developing and Adult Drosophila Brains and Retinae for Live Imaging

Visualizing Cytoskeleton-Dependent Trafficking of Lipid-Containing Organelles in Drosophila Embryos

Confocal and Super-Resolution Imaging of Polarized Intracellular Trafficking and Secretion of Basement Membrane Proteins During Drosophila Oogenesis

Visualizing Low-Abundance Proteins and Post-Translational Modifications in Living Drosophila Embryos via Fluorescent Antibody Injection

In Vivo Single-Molecule Tracking at the Drosophila Presynaptic Motor Nerve Terminal

The Tomato/GFP-FLP/FRT Method for Live Imaging of Mosaic Adult Drosophila Photoreceptor Cells

Imaging the Intracellular Trafficking of APP with Photoactivatable GFP

Optimizing Visualization of Axonal Transport of Endogenous Cargo by Fluorescence Microscopy in Living Caenorhabditis elegans