We want to thank EVMS Research Incentive Fund (PI: A.E. Musto) and Dr. Jorge Jacot for his helpful suggestions with optimizing the immunofluorescence protocol.

NOTE: The overall experimental design is described in Figure 1.
1. Behavior phenotype assay
<ol>
	<li>Prepare concentrations of 1 mM and 2 mM pilocarpine dissolved in spring water as well as control with Springwater only.</li>
	<li>Pipette 3 mL of each solution into a 4 x 3 well plate, with each row representing a different concentration of pilocarpine.</li>
	<li>Place one lab-reared Dugesia&#160;dorotocephala that is about 2 weeks old in each of the 12 wells using a transfer pipette with the tip cut off. 
	NOTE: Cut the tip so the end is large enough to fit the planaria without damaging it.</li>
	<li>Record the behavior of the planaria for 1 h using any camera that records the behaviors well and is observable to the human eye, positioned over the 4 x 3 well plate in normal indoor lighting conditions.</li>
	<li>Repeat steps 1.1-1.4 with concentrations of 3 mM, 4 mM, and 6 mM pilocarpine dissolved in spring water.</li>
</ol>
2. Motility analysis
NOTE: Planaria behaviors were recorded in 2.5 cm diameter wells. The 1 h long video recordings were split into 30 min parts and cropped using commercial software to analyze planaria individually.
<ol>
	<li>Begin a new experiment using automated behavior analysis software. Open the enhanced automated behavior tracking system. Click New under New experiment. Name the experiment.</li>
	<li>Set up the experimental settings as described below.
	<ol>
		<li>Click Experiment Settings in the menu prompt. Ensure that settings are default: video source (from video file), Number of Arenas (1), Tracked Features (Center-point detection), Body Point Detection Technique (Contour-based), Analysis Options (none), Units (cm, s, deg).</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Set up the arena settings as described below.
	<ol>
		<li>Click Arena Settings under the Arena Settings tab in the top left Setup panel. When prompted to upload a video, select recorded footage of planaria from the stored file location. Once the video is selected, click Grab.</li>
		<li>Follow the prompts on the top right panel of the screen. Click on 1. Draw Scale to Calibrate. On the video image of the well, drag a scale line from edge to edge of the specimen well. Enter the real-world distance of the well (2.5 cm).</li>
		<li>Click on 2. Select Shape and Draw Arena. Ensure that Arena 1 is selected in the right panel. Move the mouse cursor to the top middle of the screen and click the Circle Icon.</li>
		<li>Create a circle in the uploaded video image by dragging from one perimeter of the arena to another. Ensure the arena is in the orange zone. Adjust the shape so that it fits the arena. Ensure that the Arena 1 label is within the bounds of the arena.</li>
		<li>At the bottom of the right panel, change the Shape, Size, and Position (Width:2.75, Height:2.75, X:0, Y:0) to the desired measurements.</li>
		<li>Click 3. Select Shape and Draw Zones (Optional). Zone Group 1 within the right panel will now be selected. Move the mouse cursor to the top middle of the screen and select the Circle Icon. Create a smaller circle in the arena image by dragging it within.</li>
		<li>In the bottom right panel, change Shape, Size, and Position to desired measurements (Width:1.75, Height:1.75, X:0, Y:0).</li>
		<li>Click the Add Zone Label button in the same menu bar as the circle. Click Within the Center of the Smaller Circle. Right-click the Zone 1 tag in the right panel to rename the Zone Center.</li>
		<li>Click the Add Zone Label button again. Click on the Perimeter of the Arena, Outside of the Center Zone. Right click Zone 2 in the right panel to rename the zone Perimeter.</li>
		<li>Click 4. Validate Setup to ensure Valid Arena Settings.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Set up the Trial control settings as described below.
	<ol>
		<li>Click Trial Control Settings under the Trial Control Settings tab in the top left Setup panel. Six component boxes will appear. Click Settings within the fourth box labeled Condition, which includes Time (1) and Infinite time (condition never met).</li>
		<li>Click the Bubble beside After, then enter the duration (30 min) in the right text box. There will also be a drop-down menu to the right of the time text box to select between h, min, and s. 
		NOTE: Detection settings for recorded footage will depend on footage quality. The following methods can be manipulated to observe the best results, specific to individual footage.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Set up the detection settings as described below.
	<ol>
		<li>Click Detection Settings under the Detection Settings tab in the top left Setup panel. Click the Select Video button in the top right panel. Upload the desired video to base detection settings on.</li>
		<li>Click the Advanced tab in the same right panel. Now, under the Method tab, ensure it is set to Gray Scaling. Change the range (0 - 100).</li>
		<li>Under the Smoothing tab of the right panel, ensure Video pixel smoothing is None, Dropped frames correction is Off, and Track noise reduction is Off.</li>
		<li>Under the Subject Contour tab of the right panel, adjust the sequence setting and change Erosion, Dilation, and Erosion to 1, 1, and 0, respectively.</li>
		<li>Under the Subject Size tab, change Minimum (0) and Maximum (125000). Click Save in the bottom right.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Set up a sequence of video trials for observation as described below.
	<ol>
		<li>Click Trial List in the top left Setup panel. Upload video footage of specimens in the desired sequence by clicking the Ellipses under the System Video file column. To add more trials, click Add Trials near the top left of the Trial List Panel.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Set up Acquisition settings.
	<ol>
		<li>Click Acquisition under the top left Acquisition tab. Under Acquisition settings in the right panel, Click Track all planned trials.</li>
		<li>To begin acquisition, click on the Red Button in the lower middle of the screen next to Ready for Start. Video acquisition will now begin and take a certain amount of time, depending on the quantity and length of video trials uploaded.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Set up the analysis settings as described below.
	<ol>
		<li>Click Analysis Profile under the left panel Analysis tab. Click on the default selected dependent variables, Velocity and Distance Moved, and delete them.</li>
		<li>Within the dependent variables panel, under the Location tab, click In Zone. Click the Center and Perimeter Zone boxes so that they are check marked.</li>
		<li>Click the Trial Statistics tab within the In Zone box. Click to uncheck Latency to First. Click Add.</li>
		<li>Under the Body tab, click the Rotation button. Click Clockwise and leave the Threshold (50.00 degrees) and minimum distance moved (2.00 cm) at default. Click Add.</li>
		<li>Click the Rotation button again and click Counterclockwise. Click Add.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Analyze tracks as described below.
	<ol>
		<li>Under the Results tab, click Track Visualization. On the right panel, under Filter, uncheck Last. The playback control bar in the bottom middle panel of the screen will depict track visualization of specimens during specific times of observation.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Analyze and export results. Results can be found in the remainder of the bottom left panel tabs. To export data, click Raw Data or Statistics under Export within the left panel.</li>
</ol>
3. Euthanasia
<ol>
	<li>Prepare a 22 mM solution of eugenol in spring water. Place planaria into Petri dishes with 9 mL of 22 mM eugenol solution using the cut transfer pipette, keeping each concentration separate. Euthanize for 3 min or until all movement has ceased.</li>
	<li>Place planaria into a fresh Petri dish filled with 9 mL of spring water to rinse 1x-2x, and place into either the Golgi solution described below (Golgi stain) or 4% paraformaldehyde (immunofluorescence stain).</li>
</ol>
4. Histological analysis
<ol>
	<li>Golgi staining
	<ol>
		<li>After planaria are euthanized, place them into a beaker or Petri dish filled with a 1:1 mixture of Solutions A and B from the Golgi Stain Kit. Replace solutions A and B the following day by placing planaria into a new beaker filled with a mixture of solutions A and B.</li>
		<li>Allow planaria to sit for 1 week in solutions A and B.</li>
		<li>Remove planaria from solutions A and B and place it into solution C in another beaker. Replace solution C the following day. Allow planaria to sit for a minimum of 72 h and up to 1 week in solution C.</li>
		<li>Remove planaria from solution C with a transfer pipette and embed by placing a small amount of OCT compound on a chuck, adding the planaria, and then surrounding the planaria with OCT compound. Transversally cut planaria into 5 &#181;M sections with the cryostat machine at -24&#176; C.</li>
		<li>Mount planaria onto gelatin-coated slides using a transfer pipette and solution C and allow it to dry in the dark at RT for up to 3 days.</li>
		<li>Stain slides using the staining solution (1 part solution D, 1 part solution E, 2 parts Springwater) by submerging the slides in beakers with the solutions as follows: Staining solution for 10 min, then in Spring water 2x for 4 min each, then 50% ethanol for 4 min, then 75% ethanol for 4 min, then 95% ethanol for 4 min, then in 100% ethanol 4x for 4 min, and finally in xylene 3x for 4 min.</li>
		<li>Coverslip slides with histological mounting media and observe tissue under Bright field Microscopy.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Immunofluorescence staining
	<ol>
		<li>After planaria are euthanized, place into 4% paraformaldehyde for at least 24 h. It can also be stored in a fridge after this step.</li>
		<li>Transfer planaria to 20% sucrose from 4% PFA and leave in it for 1 day. Remove planaria from sucrose and place it into PBS buffer for 5 min.</li>
		<li>Rinse with 3-4 washes of PBS buffer and transfer to 20% sucrose for storage until ready to stain.</li>
		<li>Place into 70%, 95%, and 100% alcohol solutions for 1 min each. Place in xylene for 1 min.</li>
		<li>Place in 95% and 70% alcohol for 1 min each. Place into PBS buffer 3x for 5 min each. Place into a 60:40 methanol and hydrogen peroxide solution for 10-15 min.</li>
		<li>Rinse in PBS 3x for 5 min each. Add the volume of 4% paraformaldehyde used previously in 4.2.1 into this PBS buffer.</li>
		<li>Rinse in PBS 3x for 5 min each. Block for 1 h with powdered milk, by covering the planaria with it.</li>
		<li>Dilute primary antibody (1H6) to 5 &#181;g/mL with PBS and incubate the slides overnight at 4 &#176;C in the antibody solution. The following day, rinse planaria in PBS for 10 min.</li>
		<li>Dilute secondary antibody (goat anti-mouse IgG) to 1 &#181;g/mL in PBS and incubate the slides overnight at RT in the antibody solution. The following day, rinse planaria in PBS for 15 min. 
		NOTE: Different antibodies have different optimal concentrations; determine this before starting the experiment.</li>
		<li>Mount whole planaria on the slide, cover with a coverslip, seal with aqueous mounting media, and observe the tissue under a fluorescent microscope.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
5. Image analysis
<ol>
	<li>Open the open-source image analysis software application. Install the colour_deconvolution2.jar plugin to the open-source image analysis software application by dragging the plugin to the application.</li>
	<li>Select the image to analyze and drag it to the open-source image analysis software application. Go to the Image tab. Click color. Click Colour Deconvolution2 v2.1.</li>
	<li>In the vectors option, click H DAB. In the output option click 8bit_Transmittance. Make sure the Simulated LUTs, Cross product for Colour 3, Show matrices, and Hide legend are all selected. Click OK.</li>
	<li>Select the Image in Black and White to ensure the open-source image analysis software application can effectively analyze the image.</li>
	<li>Go to the Image tab. Click Adjust. Click Threshold. Adjust the threshold so that the DAB staining or the foreground is red in color with a white background. Make sure the threshold is the same for each image if multiple images are being quantified.</li>
	<li>Click Analyze. Click Set Measurements. Select Area, Min &#38; max gray value, Limit to threshold, Display label, Median, and Mean gray value. Click OK. Click Analyze. Click Measure. Obtain the result.</li>
	<li>Repeat steps 1.2 to 1. U6ntil all the images are quantified. Click the Results Image. Click File. Click Save As. Save file as a spreadsheet and view the data on the spreadsheet software.</li>
</ol>
6. Statistical Analysis
<ol>
	<li>Calculate the mean and standard errors of the mean (SEM) for the planaria&#39;s behavior using Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) and Student&#39;s t-test for statistical significance (p &#60; 0.05).</li>
</ol>

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The authors have nothing to declare.

This study demonstrated pilocarpine-induced behavior in planaria at different concentrations. The most pertinent behavior was oscillating dorsal expansion, as this behavior has not been documented in other studies regarding seizure-like behavior in planaria9,10,11,12. The mechanism by which pilocarpine induces seizure-like behaviors in planaria is still unknown. However, this study demonstrates...

Epilepsy, characterized by two or more seizures within 24 h without an apparent cause, impacts ~50 million people globally1. Among them, 10-15 million individuals are reported to have drug-resistant epilepsy2. Therefore, epilepsy drug investigation is crucial. The condition entails brief episodes of either partial or generalized involuntary movement, ranging from blank staring to body stiffening and shaking, and is linked with a surge of electrical activity in the brain3.
Historically, epilepsy research has relied on rodents and other mammals due to their evolutionary similarities to humans. However, these methods can be time-consuming and expensive, necessitating an alternative approach4,5. Non-mammalian creatures like fruit flies, leeches, tadpoles, zebrafish, and roundworms have been utilized in studies and have shown promising outcomes6. Furthermore, it was shown that planaria could provide a comparative genomic study model between invertebrate and human genomes alongside the capability to test pro-convulsant, anti-seizure medications (ASM), and behavioral patterns6. Planaria (Phylum Platyhelminthes), known as flatworms and members of the Turbellaria class, are primarily renowned for their regenerative abilities; however, this investigation concentrates on their response to seizure-inducing substances.
Planaria share fundamental neurological mechanisms with humans, such as responsiveness to serotonin and dopamine, showing a 95% similarity to the nervous system-related genes in the mammalian brain and possessing a recognizable brain structure7. Additionally, they exhibit observable motions in laboratory conditions and are cost-effective, time-efficient, and ethical compared to rodents or other mammals. These observable behaviors, such as screw-like, C-like, and walnut-shaped motions, have been extensively documented for decades and are associated with substances like cocaine, nicotine, dopamine, and pilocarpine7,8,9,10,11,12,13,14. Hence, planaria emerge as a viable model for epilepsy drug research in humans.
This method aims to characterize neurons of planaria that have been exposed to pilocarpine using a Golgi stain. The Golgi stain is used to visualize neurons under light microscopy and has been used to investigate whether a change in morphology is related to seizures15,16,17. Current literature has no evidence of Golgi staining being performed on planarian brains. Although previous studies have documented pharmacological effects by observing behavioral phenotypes, this manuscript is the first to characterize the neurons of planaria exposed to pilocarpine using Golgi staining11,18. This technique proves valuable in visualizing and understanding the morphological changes associated with seizures. This study noted a significant increase in the frequency of oscillating dorsal oscillation behavior in planarian worms as the concentration of pilocarpine was increased.

<table><tbody><tr><td>1.5 mL centrifuge tubes</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>4% paraformaldehyde solution</td><td>Himedia</td><td>TCL119</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Aqueous mounting media</td><td>Clini Sciences</td><td>NB-47-02240-30ML</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Beakers (one for each concentration tested)</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Carolina Springwater</td><td>carolina</td><td>132450</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Cryostat</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Diluted primary and secondary antibodies</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Ethanol (100%)</td><td>sigma Aldrich</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>EthosVision XT 16</td><td>noldus</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Fiji Version 2.9.0</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Gelatin-coated slides</td><td>sigma Aldrich</td><td>643203</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Golgi Antibody 1H6</td><td>DSHB</td><td>AB_2619608</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Golgi stain kit_</td><td>Neuroscience Associate</td><td>PK 401/401A</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Hydrogen Peroxide</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Methanol</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Mounting media</td><td>thermo fischer scientific</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>OCT compound</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>PBS buffer</td><td>sigma Aldrich</td><td>P4417</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Powdered Milk</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Tin foil</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Transfer pipettes</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Xylene</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

planarian as an animal model for experimental acute seizure

Epilepsy is among the most prevalent neurological disorders characterized by recurring spontaneous seizures. Seizures represent a clinical manifestation of uncontrolled, excessively synchronized neural cell activity. The extent of brain damage from seizures depends on their duration and intensity. Regrettably, there is no effective remedy for epilepsy. The aim of this investigation is to assess whether the planaria worm Dugesia dorotocephala could serve as a model to aid in identifying and developing treatments for epilepsy that can target acute seizures. Currently, various models, such as marine models, are used to evaluate antiseizure medications (ASM). However, they are very expensive, and there are ethical concerns. Alternatively, invertebrate models offer a cost-effective research opportunity in the drug discovery process for ASM. Planaria belong to the flatworm family and inhabit marine freshwater and terrestrial environments. Dugesia dorotocephala&#160;is the dominant species of aquatic planaria across North America. D. dorotocephala presents as a viable invertebrate model for epilepsy studies due to its cost-effectiveness, vertebrate-like neurons, and quantifiable behaviors, unlike other invertebrates or larger animals. They have been used in various pharmacology and environmental toxicology studies related to age, memory, and regeneration. In this study, planaria were exposed to different concentrations of pilocarpine, a common chemoconvulsant to study their behavior upon exposure. Following the observation, planaria were euthanized and preserved in either formaldehyde or Golgi solution for neurohistological assessment. Six distinct behavioral phenotypes were observed in planaria: dorsal oscillations, head oscillations, tail dorsal expansion, C-shape, head flick, and tail flick. Dorsal oscillation frequencies were significantly increased among experimental groups compared to the control and exhibited dose dependence. Additionally, pilocarpine disrupted the motility of the planaria. Pilocarpine-induced seizures in planaria can serve as a model to evaluate acute seizures and antiseizure medication, which is essential in developing therapeutic interventions for human patients suffering from epilepsy.

The following behavior was observed by the planaria exposed to varying concentrations of pilocarpine: 
Dorsal oscillations: a bubble-like formation that travels from the cranial end of the planarian&#39;s body to the caudal end. 
Head oscillations: bubble-like formation by the head of the planarian that forms a tadpole-like appearance. 
C-Shape: head moving clockwise and tail moving counterclockwise to form a C. 
Head flick: the head of the planarian abruptly jerks to the left or the right. 
Tail...

Planarian as an Animal Model for Experimental Acute Seizure

Seizures negatively impact various functions and life quality. Planaria worms were exposed to varying concentrations of chemoconvulsants to evaluate their seizure phenotypes and disruptive motility. This study proposes using planaria worms as a model for acute seizures in humans and holds significance in drug development for epilepsy.

Epilepsy is among the most prevalent neurological disorders characterized by recurring spontaneous seizures. Seizures represent a clinical manifestation ...

planarian-as-an-animal-model-for-experimental-acute-seizure

Research

JoVE Journal

Neuroscience

762 Views.  Old Dominion University. Seizures negatively impact various functions and life quality. Planaria worms were exposed to varying concentrations of chemoconvulsants to evaluate their seizure phenotypes and disruptive motility. This study proposes using planaria worms as a model for acute seizures in humans and holds significance in drug development for epilepsy.

Video: Planarian as an Animal Model for Experimental Acute Seizure

Manipulation of Epileptiform Electrocorticograms (ECoGs) and Sleep in Rats and Mice by Acupuncture

Ancient Chinese literature has documented that acupuncture possesses efficient therapeutic effects on epilepsy and insomnia. There is, however, little research to reveal the possible mechanisms behind these effects. To investigate the effect of acupuncture on epilepsy and sleep, several issues need to be addressed. The first is to identify the acupoints, which correspond between humans, rats, and mice. Furthermore, the depth of insertion of the acupuncture needle, the degree of needle twist in manual needle acupuncture, and the stimulation parameters for electroacupuncture (EA) need to be determined. To evaluate the effects of acupuncture on epilepsy and sleep, a feasible model of epilepsy in rodents is required. We administer pilocarpine into the left central nucleus of the amygdala (CeA) to simulate focal temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE) in rats. Intraperitoneal (IP) injection of pilocarpine induces generalized epilepsy and status epilepticus (SE) in rats. Five IP injections of pentylenetetrazol (PTZ) with a one-day interval between each injection successfully induces spontaneous generalized epilepsy in mice. Recordings of electrocorticograms (ECoGs), electromyograms (EMGs), brain temperature, and locomotor activity are used for sleep analysis in rats, while ECoGs, EMGs, and locomotor activity are employed for sleep analysis in mice. ECoG electrodes are implanted into the frontal, parietal, and contralateral occipital cortices, and a thermistor is implanted above the cerebral cortex by stereotactic surgery. EMG electrodes are implanted into the neck muscles, and an infrared detector determines locomotor activity. The criteria for categorizing vigilance stages, including wakefulness, rapid eye movement (REM) sleep, and non-REM (NREM) sleep are based on information from ECoGs, EMGs, brain temperature, and locomotor activity. Detailed classification criteria are stated in the text.

Manipulation of Epileptiform Electrocorticograms ECoGs and Sleep in Rats and Mice by Acupuncture

This paper demonstrates the performance of acupuncture, epilepsy models, and the analysis of sleep in rodents. The acupuncture procedure and the identification of acupoints are described. Pilocarpine or pentylenetetrazol (PTZ) is used to induce epilepsy. Electrocorticogram (ECoG), electromyogram (EMG), brain temperature, and locomotor activity recordings are employed for sleep analysis.

Ancient Chinese literature has documented that acupuncture possesses efficient therapeutic effects on epilepsy and insomnia. There is, however, little ...

Behavior

Forebrain Electrophysiological Recording in Larval Zebrafish

Epilepsy affects nearly 3 million people in the United States and up to 50 million people worldwide. Defined as the occurrence of spontaneous unprovoked seizures, epilepsy can be acquired as a result of an insult to the brain or a genetic mutation. Efforts to model seizures in animals have primarily utilized acquired insults (convulsant drugs, stimulation or brain injury) and genetic manipulations (antisense knockdown, homologous recombination or transgenesis) in rodents. Zebrafish are a vertebrate model system1-3 that could provide a valuable alternative to rodent-based epilepsy research. Zebrafish are used extensively in the study of vertebrate genetics or development, exhibit a high degree of genetic similarity to mammals and express homologs for ~85% of known human single-gene epilepsy mutations. Because of their small size (4-6 mm in length), zebrafish larvae can be maintained in fluid volumes as low as 100 &mu;l during early development and arrayed in multi-well plates. Reagents can be added directly to the solution in which embryos develop, simplifying drug administration and enabling rapid in vivo screening of test compounds4. Synthetic oligonucleotides (morpholinos), mutagenesis, zinc finger nuclease and transgenic approaches can be used to rapidly generate gene knockdown or mutation in zebrafish5-7. These properties afford zebrafish studies an unprecedented statistical power analysis advantage over rodents in the study of neurological disorders such as epilepsy. Because the "gold standard" for epilepsy research is to monitor and analyze the abnormal electrical discharges that originate in a central brain structure (i.e., seizures), a method to efficiently record brain activity in larval zebrafish is described here. This method is an adaptation of conventional extracellular recording techniques and allows for stable long-term monitoring of brain activity in intact zebrafish larvae. Sample recordings are shown for acute seizures induced by bath application of convulsant drugs and spontaneous seizures recorded in a genetically modified fish.

A simple method to record extracellular field potentials in the larval zebrafish forebrain is described. The method provides a robust in vivo read-out of seizure-like activity. This technique can be used with genetically modified zebrafish larvae carrying epilepsy-related genes or seizures evoked by administration of convulsant drugs.

Epilepsy affects nearly 3 million people in the United States and up to 50 million people worldwide. Defined as the occurrence of spontaneous unprovoked ...

Long-term Continuous EEG Monitoring in Small Rodent Models of Human Disease Using the Epoch Wireless Transmitter System

Many progressive neurologic diseases in humans, such as epilepsy, require pre-clinical animal models that slowly develop the disease in order to test interventions at various stages of the disease process. These animal models are particularly difficult to implement in immature rodents, a classic model organism for laboratory study of these disorders. Recording continuous EEG in young animal models of seizures and other neurological disorders presents a technical challenge due to the small physical size of young rodents and their dependence on the dam prior to weaning. Therefore, there is not only a clear need for improving pre-clinical research that will better identify those therapies suitable for translation to the clinic but also a need for new devices capable of recording continuous EEG in immature rodents. Here, we describe the technology behind and demonstrate the use of a novel miniature telemetry system, specifically engineered for use in immature rats or mice, which is also effective for use in adult animals.

Here we demonstrate the use of a wireless enabling technology for electroencephalogram (EEG) in neonatal rodent models of human disease. With telemetry, there are no encumbering connections, thus allowing natural behaviors.

Many progressive neurologic diseases in humans, such as epilepsy, require pre-clinical animal models that slowly develop the disease in order to test ...

Pentylenetetrazole-Induced Kindling Mouse Model

Pentylenetetrazole (PTZ) is a GABA-A receptor antagonist. An intraperitoneal injection of PTZ into an animal induces an acute, severe seizure at a high dose, whereas sequential injections of a subconvulsive dose have been used for the development of chemical kindling, an epilepsy model. A single low-dose injection of PTZ induces a mild seizure without convulsion. However, repetitive low-dose injections of PTZ decrease the threshold to evoke a convulsive seizure. Finally, continuous low-dose administration of PTZ induces a severe tonic-clonic seizure. This method is simple and widely applicable to investigate the pathophysiology of epilepsy, which is defined as a chronic disease that involves repetitive seizures. This chemical kindling protocol causes repetitive seizures in animals. With this method, vulnerability to PTZ-mediated seizures or the degree of aggravation of epileptic seizures was estimated. These advantages have led to the use of this method for screening anti-epileptic drugs and epilepsy-related genes. In addition, this method has been used to investigate neuronal damage after epileptic seizures because the histological changes observed in the brains of epileptic patients also appear in the brains of chemical-kindled animals. Thus, this protocol is useful for conveniently producing animal models of epilepsy.

This protocol describes a method of chemical kindling with pentylenetetrazole and provides a mouse model of epilepsy. This protocol can also be used to investigate vulnerability to seizure induction and pathogenesis after epileptic seizures in mice.

Pentylenetetrazole (PTZ) is a GABA-A receptor antagonist. An intraperitoneal injection of PTZ into an animal induces an acute, severe seizure at a high ...

Generation and On-Demand Initiation of Acute Ictal Activity in Rodent and Human Tissue

Controlling seizures remains a challenging issue for the medical community. To make progress, researchers need a way to extensively study seizure dynamics and investigate its underlying mechanisms. Acute seizure models are convenient, offer the ability to perform electrophysiological recordings, and can generate a large volume of electrographic seizure-like (ictal) events. The promising findings from acute seizure models can then be advanced to chronic epilepsy models and clinical trials. Thus, studying seizures in acute models that faithfully replicate the electrographic and dynamical signatures of a clinical seizure will be essential for making clinically relevant findings. Studying ictal events in acute seizure models prepared from human tissue is also important for making findings that are clinically relevant. The key focus in this paper is on the cortical 4-AP model due to its versatility in generating ictal events in both in vivo and in vitro studies, as well as in both mouse and human tissue. The methods in this paper will also describe an alternative method of seizure induction using the Zero-Mg2+ model and provide a detailed overview of the advantages and limitations of the epileptiform-like activity generated in the different acute seizure models. Moreover, by taking advantage of commercially available optogenetic mouse strains, a brief (30 ms) light pulse can be used to trigger an ictal event identical to those occurring spontaneously. Similarly, 30 - 100 ms puffs of neurotransmitters (Gamma-Amino Butyric Acid or glutamate) can be applied to the human tissue to trigger ictal events that are identical to those occurring spontaneously. The ability to trigger ictal events on-demand in acute seizure models offers the newfound ability to observe the exact sequence of events that underlie seizure initiation dynamics and efficiently evaluate potential anti-seizure therapies.

Acute seizure models are important for studying the mechanisms underlying epileptiform events. Furthermore, the ability to generate epileptiform events on-demand provides a highly efficient method to study the exact sequence of events underlying their initiation. Here, we describe the acute 4-aminopyridine cortical seizure models established in mouse and human tissue.

Controlling seizures remains a challenging issue for the medical community. To make progress, researchers need a way to extensively study seizure dynamics ...

The Pilocarpine Model of Temporal Lobe Epilepsy and EEG Monitoring Using Radiotelemetry System in Mice

Temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE) is a common neurological disorder in adulthood. For translational studies of chronic epilepsy, pilocarpine-induced status epilepticus (SE) is frequently selected to recapitulate spontaneous recurrent seizures (SRS). Here we present a protocol of SE induction by intraperitoneal (i.p.) injection of pilocarpine and monitoring of chronic recurring seizures in live animals using a wireless telemetry video and electroencephalogram (EEG) system. We demonstrated notable behavioral changes that need attention after pilocarpine injection and their correlation with hippocampal neuronal loss at 7 days and 6 weeks post-pilocarpine. We also describe the experimental procedures of electrode implantation for video and EEG recording, and analysis of the frequency and duration of chronic recurrent seizures. Finally, we discuss the possible reasons why the expected results are not achieved in each case. This provides a basic overview of modeling chronic epilepsy in mice and guidelines for troubleshooting. We believe this protocol can serve as a baseline for suitable models of chronic epilepsy and epileptogenesis.

This manuscript describes a method of inducing status epilepticus by systemic pilocarpine injection and of monitoring spontaneous recurrent seizures in live animals using a wireless telemetry video and electroencephalogram system. This protocol can be utilized for studying the pathophysiologic mechanisms of chronic epilepsy, epileptogenesis, and acute seizures.

Temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE) is a common neurological disorder in adulthood. For translational studies of chronic epilepsy, pilocarpine-induced status ...

Medicine

Microdialysis of Excitatory Amino Acids During EEG Recordings in Freely Moving Rats

Microdialysis is a well-established neuroscience technique that correlates the changes of neurologically active substances diffusing into the brain interstitial space with the behavior and/or with the specific outcome of a pathology (e.g., seizures for epilepsy). When studying epilepsy, the microdialysis technique is often combined with short-term or even long-term video-electroencephalography (EEG) monitoring to assess spontaneous seizure frequency, severity, progression and clustering. The combined microdialysis-EEG is based on the use of several methods and instruments. Here, we performed in vivo microdialysis and continuous video-EEG recording to monitor glutamate and aspartate outflow over time, in different phases of the natural history of epilepsy in a rat model. This combined approach allows the pairing of changes in the neurotransmitter release with specific stages of the disease development and progression. The amino acid concentration in the dialysate was determined by liquid chromatography. Here, we describe the methods and outline the principal precautionary measures one should take during in vivo microdialysis-EEG, with particular attention to the stereotaxic surgery, basal and high potassium stimulation during microdialysis, depth electrode EEG recording and high-performance liquid chromatography analysis of aspartate and glutamate in the dialysate. This approach may be adapted to test a variety of drug or disease induced changes of the physiological concentrations of aspartate and glutamate in the brain. Depending on the availability of an appropriate analytical assay, it may be further used to test different soluble molecules when employing EEG recording at the same time.

Here, we describe a method for in vivo microdialysis to analyze aspartate and glutamate release in the ventral hippocampus of epileptic and non-epileptic rats, in combination with EEG recordings. Extracellular concentrations of aspartate and glutamate may be correlated with the different phases of the disease.

Microdialysis is a well-established neuroscience technique that correlates the changes of neurologically active substances diffusing into the brain ...

A Model for Epilepsy of Infectious Etiology using Theiler's Murine Encephalomyelitis Virus

One of the main causes of epilepsy is an infection of the central nervous system (CNS); approximately 8% of patients who survive such an infection develop epilepsy as a consequence, with rates being significantly higher in less economically developed countries. This work provides an overview of modeling epilepsy of infectious etiology and using it as a platform for novel antiseizure compound testing. A protocol of epilepsy induction by non-stereotactic intracerebral injection of Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis virus (TMEV) in C57BL/6 mice is presented, which replicates many of the early and chronic clinical symptoms of viral encephalitis and subsequent epilepsy in human patients. The clinical evaluation of mice during encephalitis to monitor seizure activity and detect the potential antiseizure effects of novel compounds is described. Furthermore, histopathological consequences of viral encephalitis and seizures such as hippocampal damage and neuroinflammation are shown, as well as long-term consequences such as spontaneous epileptic seizures. The TMEV model is one of the first translational, infection-driven, experimental platforms to allow for the investigation of the mechanisms of epilepsy development as a consequence of CNS infection. Thus, it also serves to identify potential therapeutic targets and compounds for patients at risk of developing epilepsy following a CNS infection.

Intracerebral infection with the Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis virus (TMEV) in C57BL/6 mice replicates many of the early and chronic clinical symptoms of viral encephalitis and subsequent epilepsy in human patients. This paper describes the virus infection, symptoms, and histopathology of the TMEV model.

One of the main causes of epilepsy is an infection of the central nervous system (CNS); approximately 8% of patients who survive such an infection develop ...

Cerebrospinal Fluid and Blood Withdrawal from Rats with Concurrent EEG Recording

Sampling Cerebrospinal Fluid and Blood from Lateral Tail Vein in Rats During EEG Recordings

Because the composition of body fluids reflects many physiological and pathological dynamics, biological liquid samples are commonly obtained in many experimental contexts to measure molecules of interest, such as hormones, growth factors, proteins, or small non-coding RNAs. A specific example is the sampling of biological liquids in the research of biomarkers for epilepsy. In these studies, it is desirable to compare the levels of molecules in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and in plasma, by withdrawing CSF and plasma in parallel and considering the time distance of the sampling from and to seizures. The combined CSF and plasma sampling, coupled with video-EEG monitoring in epileptic animals, is a promising approach for the validation of putative diagnostic and prognostic biomarkers. Here, a procedure of combined CSF withdrawal from cisterna magna and blood sampling from the lateral tail vein in epileptic rats that are continuously video-EEG monitored is described. This procedure offers significant advantages over other commonly used techniques. It permits rapid sampling with minimal pain or invasiveness, and reduced time of anesthesia. Additionally, it can be used to obtain CSF and plasma samples in both tethered and telemetry EEG recorded rats, and it may be used repeatedly across multiple days of experiment. By minimizing the stress due to sampling by shortening isoflurane anesthesia, measures are expected to reflect more accurately the true levels of investigated molecules in biofluids. Depending on the availability of an appropriate analytical assay, this technique may be used to measure the levels of multiple, different molecules while performing EEG recording at the same time.

Author Spotlight: Obtaining High-Quality CSF and Blood Samples for Epilepsy Biomarker Discovery 

The protocol shows repeated cerebrospinal fluid and blood collections from epileptic rats performed in parallel with continuous video-electroencephalogram (EEG) monitoring. These are instrumental for exploring possible links between changes in various body fluid molecules and seizure activity.

Because the composition of body fluids reflects many physiological and pathological dynamics, biological liquid samples are commonly obtained in many ...

Establishing a Pentylenetetrazole-Induced Epileptic Seizure Model in Mice

Source: Shimada, T., et al. <a href="https://app.jove.com/v/56573">Pentylenetetrazole-Induced Kindling Mouse Model.</a> J. Vis. Exp. (2018).
This video demonstrates the process of inducing epilepsy in mice using pentylenetetrazole (PTZ) injections, a GABA-A receptor antagonist. Repeated intraperitoneal administration of PTZ progressively lowers the seizure threshold by inhibiting chloride ion influx, disrupting inhibitory neurotransmission, and leading to hyperexcitability in neurons that trigger seizures. This process results in kindling and the development of spontaneous seizures, mimicking chronic epilepsy.

Source: Shimada, T., et al. Pentylenetetrazole-Induced Kindling Mouse Model. J. Vis. Exp. (2018).
This video demonstrates the process of inducing epilepsy ...