This work was performed with the support of a grant, 5R21HD080684-02, from the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. The author wishes to thank Ken Cho for his continuing enthusiasm and support. The author would also like to acknowledge Bruce Blumberg for use of his camera, Rebekah Charney, for the critical reading of the manuscript, and Sean McNamara and Marcin Wlizla at the National Xenopus Resource (RRID:SCR_013731), for the valuable conversations regarding X. tropicalis feeding and animal care regimens.

All methods described here have been approved by the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee of the University of California, Irvine.
1. Preparations for PGC Transplantation
<ol>
	<li>Prepare dissection tools in advance, as previously described23. 
	NOTE: Eyebrow hair knives are used to make incisions with the assistance of a hair loop to stabilize the embryo while performing the surgeries. Eyebrow hairs and hair loops are glued into borosilicate glass Pasteu...

<ol>
	<li>Gurdon, J. B., Hopwood, N. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+introduction+of+Xenopus+laevis+into+developmental+biology:+of+empire,+pregnancy+testing+and+ribosomal+genes.">The introduction of Xenopus laevis into developmental biology: of empire, pregnancy testing and ribosomal genes.</a> Int J Dev Biol. 44 (1), 43-50 (2000).</li><li>Hellsten, U., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+genome+of+the+Western+clawed+frog+Xenopus+tropicalis.">The genome of the Western clawed frog Xenopus tropicalis.</a> Science. 328 (5978), 633-636 (2010).</li><li>Session, A. M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Genome+evolution+in+the+allotetraploid+frog+Xenopus+laevis.">Genome evolution in the allotetraploid frog Xenopus laevis.</a> Nature. 538 (7625), 336-343 (2016).</li><li>Blitz, I. L., Biesinger, J., Xie, X., Cho, K. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Biallelic+genome+modification+in+F(0)+Xenopus+tropicalis+embryos+using+the+CRISPR/Cas+system.">Biallelic genome modification in F(0) Xenopus tropicalis embryos using the CRISPR/Cas system.</a> Genesis. 51 (12), 827-834 (2013).</li><li>Nakayama, T., Fish, M. B., Fisher, M., Oomen-Hajagos, J., Thomsen, G. H., Grainger, R. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Simple+and+efficient+CRISPR/Cas9-mediated+targeted+mutagenesis+in+Xenopus+tropicalis.">Simple and efficient CRISPR/Cas9-mediated targeted mutagenesis in Xenopus tropicalis.</a> Genesis. 51 (12), 835-843 (2013).</li><li>Guo, X., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Efficient+RNA/Cas9-mediated+genome+editing+in+Xenopus+tropicalis.">Efficient RNA/Cas9-mediated genome editing in Xenopus tropicalis.</a> Development. 141 (3), 707-714 (2014).</li><li>Wang, F., Shi, Z., Cui, Y., Guo, X., Shi, Y. B., Chen, Y. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Targeted+gene+disruption+in+Xenopus+laevis+using+CRISPR/Cas9.">Targeted gene disruption in Xenopus laevis using CRISPR/Cas9.</a> Cell Biosci. 5, 15 (2015).</li><li>Jaffe, K. M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=c21orf59/kurly+Controls+Both+Cilia+Motility+and+Polarization.">c21orf59/kurly Controls Both Cilia Motility and Polarization.</a> Cell Rep. 14 (8), 1841-1849 (2016).</li><li>Liu, Z., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Efficient+genome+editing+of+genes+involved+in+neural+crest+development+using+the+CRISPR/Cas9+system+in+Xenopus+embryos.">Efficient genome editing of genes involved in neural crest development using the CRISPR/Cas9 system in Xenopus embryos.</a> Cell Biosci. 6, 22 (2016).</li><li>Naert, T., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=CRISPR/Cas9+mediated+knockout+of+rb1+and+rbl1+leads+to+rapid+and+penetrant+retinoblastoma+development+in+Xenopus+tropicalis.">CRISPR/Cas9 mediated knockout of rb1 and rbl1 leads to rapid and penetrant retinoblastoma development in Xenopus tropicalis.</a> Sci Rep. 6 (35264), (2016).</li><li>Ratzan, W., Falco, R., Salanga, C., Salanga, M., Horb, M. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Generation+of+a+Xenopus+laevis+F1+albino+J+strain+by+genome+editing+and+oocyte+host-transfer.">Generation of a Xenopus laevis F1 albino J strain by genome editing and oocyte host-transfer.</a> Dev Biol. 426 (2), (2016).</li><li>Bhattacharya, D., Marfo, C. A., Li, D., Lane, M., Khokha, M. K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=CRISPR/Cas9:+An+inexpensive,+efficient+loss+of+function+tool+to+screen+human+disease+genes+in+Xenopus.">CRISPR/Cas9: An inexpensive, efficient loss of function tool to screen human disease genes in Xenopus.</a> Dev Biol. 408 (2), 196-204 (2015).</li><li>Shigeta, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Rapid+and+efficient+analysis+of+gene+function+using+CRISPR-Cas9+in+Xenopus+tropicalis+founders.">Rapid and efficient analysis of gene function using CRISPR-Cas9 in Xenopus tropicalis founders.</a> Genes Cells. 21 (7), 755-771 (2016).</li><li>Hontelez, S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Embryonic+transcription+is+controlled+by+maternally+defined+chromatin+state.">Embryonic transcription is controlled by maternally defined chromatin state.</a> Nat Commun. 6, 10148 (2015).</li><li>Peshkin, L., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=On+the+Relationship+of+Protein+and+mRNA+Dynamics+in+Vertebrate+Embryonic+Development.">On the Relationship of Protein and mRNA Dynamics in Vertebrate Embryonic Development.</a> Dev Cell. 35 (3), 383-394 (2015).</li><li>Owens, N. D., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Measuring+Absolute+RNA+Copy+Numbers+at+High+Temporal+Resolution+Reveals+Transcriptome+Kinetics+in+Development.">Measuring Absolute RNA Copy Numbers at High Temporal Resolution Reveals Transcriptome Kinetics in Development.</a> Cell Rep. 14 (3), 632-647 (2016).</li><li>Blitz, I. L., Fish, M. B., Cho, K. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Leapfrogging:+primordial+germ+cell+transplantation+permits+recovery+of+CRISPR/Cas9-induced+mutations+in+essential+genes.">Leapfrogging: primordial germ cell transplantation permits recovery of CRISPR/Cas9-induced mutations in essential genes.</a> Development. 143 (15), 2868-2875 (2016).</li><li>Blackler, A. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Transfer+of+germ-cells+in+Xenopus+laevis.">Transfer of germ-cells in Xenopus laevis.</a> Nature. 185, 859-860 (1960).</li><li>Blackler, A. W., Fischberg, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Transfer+of+primordial+germ-cells+in+Xenopus+laevis.">Transfer of primordial germ-cells in Xenopus laevis.</a> J Embryol. Exp Morph. 9, 634-641 (1961).</li><li>Bounoure, L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> L'origine des cellules reproductrices et le problem de la lignee germinale. , (1939).</li><li>Nieuwkoop, P. D., Sutasurya, L. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Primordial Germ Cells in the Chordates: Embryogenesis and phylogenesis. , (1979).</li><li>Heasman, J., Holwill, S., Wylie, C. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Fertilization+of+cultured+Xenopus+oocytes+and+use+in+studies+of+maternally+inherited+molecules.">Fertilization of cultured Xenopus oocytes and use in studies of maternally inherited molecules.</a> Methods Cell Biol. 36, 213-230 (1991).</li><li>Sive, H. L., Grainger, R. M., Harland, R. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Embryo+dissection+and+micromanipulation+tools.">Embryo dissection and micromanipulation tools.</a> CSH Protoc. , (2007).</li><li>Nakayama, T., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cas9-based+genome+editing+in+Xenopus+tropicalis.">Cas9-based genome editing in Xenopus tropicalis.</a> Methods Enzymol. 546, 355-375 (2014).</li><li>Ogino, H., McConnell, W. B., Grainger, R. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=High-throughput+transgenesis+in+Xenopus+using+I-SceI+meganuclease.">High-throughput transgenesis in Xenopus using I-SceI meganuclease.</a> Nat Protoc. 1 (4), 1703-1710 (2006).</li><li>Sive, H. L., Grainger, R. M., Harland, R. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Early development of Xenopus laevis.: a laboratory manual. , (2000).</li><li>Kay, B. K., Kay, B. K., Peng, H. B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Injection+of+oocytes+and+embryos.">Injection of oocytes and embryos.</a> Xenopus laevis: Practical Uses in Cell and Molecular Biology (Methods in Cell Biology Vol. 36). , (1991).</li><li>Nieuwkoop, P., Faber, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Normal Table of Xenopus laevis. (Daudin): A Systematical and Chronological Survey of the Development from the Fertilized Egg till the End of Metomorphosis. , (1994).</li><li>Brinkman, E. K., Chen, T., Amendola, M., van Steensel, B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Easy+quantitative+assessment+of+genome+editing+by+sequence+trace+decomposition.">Easy quantitative assessment of genome editing by sequence trace decomposition.</a> Nucleic Acids Res. 42 (22), e168 (2014).</li><li>Sander, V., Reversade, B., De Robertis, E. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+opposing+homeobox+genes+Goosecoid+and+Vent1/2+self-regulate+Xenopus+patterning.">The opposing homeobox genes Goosecoid and Vent1/2 self-regulate Xenopus patterning.</a> EMBO J. 26 (12), 2955-2965 (2007).</li><li>Bedell, V. M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=In+vivo+genome+editing+using+a+high-efficiency+TALEN+system.">In vivo genome editing using a high-efficiency TALEN system.</a> Nature. 491 (7422), 114-118 (2012).</li><li>Kim, J. M., Kim, D., Kim, S., Kim, J. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Genotyping+with+CRISPR-Cas-derived+RNA-guided+endonucleases.">Genotyping with CRISPR-Cas-derived RNA-guided endonucleases.</a> Nat Commun. 5, 3157 (2014).</li><li>Kim, H. J., Lee, H. J., Kim, H., Cho, S. W., Kim, J. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Targeted+genome+editing+in+human+cells+with+zinc+finger+nucleases+constructed+via+modular+assembly.">Targeted genome editing in human cells with zinc finger nucleases constructed via modular assembly.</a> Genome Res. 19 (7), 1279-1288 (2009).</li><li>Qiu, P., Shandilya, H., D'Alessio, J. M., O'Connor, K., Durocher, J., Gerard, G. F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mutation+detection+using+Surveyor+nuclease.">Mutation detection using Surveyor nuclease.</a> Biotechniques. 36 (4), 702-707 (2004).</li><li>Ota, S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Efficient+identification+of+TALEN-mediated+genome+modifications+using+heteroduplex+mobility+assays.">Efficient identification of TALEN-mediated genome modifications using heteroduplex mobility assays.</a> Genes Cells. 18 (6), 450-458 (2013).</li><li>Dahlem, T. J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Simple+Methods+for+Generating+and+Detecting+Locus-+Specific+Mutations+Induced+with+TALENs+in+the+Zebrafish+Genome.">Simple Methods for Generating and Detecting Locus- Specific Mutations Induced with TALENs in the Zebrafish Genome.</a> PLoS Genet. 8 (8), e1002861 (2012).</li><li>Ramlee, M. K., Yan, T., Cheung, A. M., Chuah, C. T., Li, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=High-throughput+genotyping+of+CRISPR/Cas9-mediated+mutants+using+fluorescent+PCR-capillary+gel+electrophoresis.">High-throughput genotyping of CRISPR/Cas9-mediated mutants using fluorescent PCR-capillary gel electrophoresis.</a> Sci Rep. 5, 15587 (2015).</li><li>Bhattacharya, D., Marfo, C. A., Li, D., Lane, M., Khokha, M. K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=CRISPR/Cas9:+An+inexpensive,+efficient+loss+of+function+tool+to+screen+human+disease+genes+in+Xenopus.">CRISPR/Cas9: An inexpensive, efficient loss of function tool to screen human disease genes in Xenopus.</a> Dev Biol. 408 (2), 196-204 (2015).</li><li>Yu, C., Zhang, Y., Yao, S., Wei, Y. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+PCR+Based+Protocol+for+Detecting+Indel+Mutations+Induced+by+TALENs+and+CRISPR/Cas9+in+Zebrafish.">A PCR Based Protocol for Detecting Indel Mutations Induced by TALENs and CRISPR/Cas9 in Zebrafish.</a> PLoS ONE. 9 (6), e98282 (2014).</li><li>Mock, U., Hauber, I., Fehse, B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Digital+PCR+to+assess+gene-editing+frequencies+(GEF-dPCR)+mediated+by+designer+nucleases.">Digital PCR to assess gene-editing frequencies (GEF-dPCR) mediated by designer nucleases.</a> Nat Protoc. 11 (3), 598-615 (2016).</li><li>Varshney, G. K., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=High-throughput+gene+targeting+and+phenotyping+in+zebrafish+using+CRISPR/Cas9.">High-throughput gene targeting and phenotyping in zebrafish using CRISPR/Cas9.</a> Genome Res. 25 (7), 1030-1042 (2015).</li><li>Shi, J., Wang, E., Milazzo, J. P., Wang, Z., Kinney, J. B., Vakoc, C. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Discovery+of+cancer+drug+targets+by+CRISPR-Cas9+screening+of+protein+domains.">Discovery of cancer drug targets by CRISPR-Cas9 screening of protein domains.</a> Nat Biotechnol. 33 (6), 661-667 (2015).</li><li>Koebernick, K., Loeber, J., Arthur, P. 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This report provides a detailed protocol for the transplantation of vegetal tissue containing PGCs. Transplantation of PGCs is used in conjunction with genome-editing technologies (e.g., CRISPR/Cas9) to modify the germline of an animal while maintaining nearly all of its somatic tissues as genetically wild type. For leapfrogging to be successful, there are a number of critical factors to consider prior to performing performing transplantations.
To ensure the complete replacement of th...

How genotype encodes phenotype has been a major question in biology since the rediscovery of Mendel&#39;s laws. An understanding of the roles of genes, their regulation and interactions within gene networks, and the functions of encoded products promises to provide tools for uncovering new biology and ameliorating disease states. For over half a century1, the African clawed frog, Xenopus, has been a leading model for studies on a wide variety of topics in basic biology and biomedicine, including the genetic control of development. Historically, most research on Xenopus has used the allotetraploid frog, X. laevis, but more recently, due to its diploidy, X. tropicalis has been developed as an amphibian genetic model. Complete genome sequences have been assembled from both Xenopus species2,3. The &#34;frog community&#34; is now at a turning point where basic genome modification technology permits the study of gene function, virtually at will. Programmable CRISPR/Cas9 endonucleases have made the mutagenesis of genes highly efficient, with biallelic mutation possible in most cells of the animal4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11. These studies, underscored by Bhattacharya et al.12 and Shigeta et al.13, have shown that the function of many genes can be studied by mutagenesis in F0 mosaic animals. This approach has many advantages; however, Cas9-sgRNA-microinjected embryos often display variable phenotypes due to incomplete loss of function (LOF). More significantly, the generation of mutant lines is highly advantageous for some applications&#8212;in particular when studying genes that have a maternal mRNA contribution. Maternal mRNAs and proteins, and their influences on epigenetics, persist for an extended period into embryogenesis14,15,16, rendering the early developmental contributions of many genes refractory to F0 analyses. Therefore, other LOF approaches are required.
When seeking to create mutant lines, the path to obtaining homozygous LOF embryos has several obstacles. First, efficient mutagenesis to produce biallelic mutations can be disadvantageous because loss of essential gene functions results in failure to survive to sexual maturity, interfering with the production of a viable line. A common solution is the careful titration of the amount of Cas9-sgRNA delivered. Here, the goal is to achieve a balance between reducing lethality while also maximizing germline mutagenesis efficiency. A second problem arises from the standard breeding scheme, where phenotypic analyses are deferred until the F2 generation. Using the standard approach, sexually mature F0 animals that transmit mutant alleles through the germline are outcrossed to produce F1 heterozygous &#34;carriers&#34;, which are then grown to sexual maturity. Two F1 heterozygotes are then intercrossed to produce F2 mutant embryos at an expected Mendelian frequency of 25%. Thus, two generations of breeding are necessary for analysis of mutant phenotypes. Mutant animals could be either homozygotes or compound heterozygotes (i.e., progeny containing two different mutant alleles, which depends on the genotypes of the parental animals used in the F1 intercross).
These obstacles can be overcome by confining programmable nuclease-mediated mutagenesis to germ cells, which underlies a new method called leapfrogging17. Leapfrogging has two main components: (1) the microinjection of Cas mRNA together with sgRNA, or nuclease-sgRNA complexes (or, in principle, TALENs or zinc finger nucleases) at the single-cell stage to efficiently mutagenize embryonic genomes, followed by (2) the transplantation of PGCs into wildtype sibling embryos, where the endogenous PGCs were removed. When both steps are efficient, complete germline replacement with mutant germ cells can be obtained. Blackler demonstrated in the early 1960s that Xenopus PGCs could be transplanted between embryos at the late neurula and early tailbud stages18,19. For leapfrogging, Blackler&#39;s approach was modified by performing the transplantations at the blastula stage17, when PGCs are localized in the vegetal pole of the embryo20,21. Transplantation before gastrulation has two main advantages. First, the engraftment of transplants and the subsequent normal development was found to be more efficient when the transplantation is performed at the blastula stage (unpublished observations). Second, by performing blastula-stage transplantations shortly after zygotic transcription has begun, one can avoid the lethality arising from developmental gene mutations that disrupt gastrulation or that otherwise lead to malformed late neurulae. PGC transplant-bearing (&#34;leapfrogged&#34;) embryos are grown to sexual maturity, and intercrosses between these F0 animals have demonstrated that, in many cases, 100% of the F1 progeny display the LOF phenotype (most being compound heterozygotes), indicating complete germline replacement with the targeted mutations.
It is expected that leapfrogging will accelerate genetic approaches in Xenopus. Leapfrogging also provides an alternative to the &#34;host transfer&#34; method22 for the LOF analysis of maternal-effect genes (unpublished observations). In the current publication, a detailed description of the method, especially focusing on PGC transplantation, is presented in X. tropicalis (with minor modifications for X. laevis). The transplantation of PGCs is demonstrated here to facilitate a more rapid transfer of this technology to other laboratories working with Xenopus. The principles of this method should be successful in other amphibians (e.g., urodeles), and organism-specific modifications in the methodology should allow for application to many other animals in which efficient mutagenesis can be accomplished and PGCs are readily transplantable.

<table>
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Dumont #5 forceps</td>
			<td>Fine Science Tools</td>
			<td>11252-20 or 11252-30</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Eyebrow hair knife</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Homemade</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hair loop</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Homemade</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Pasteur pipettes, borosilicate glass</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>13-678-20A</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Krazy Glue (Cyanoacrylate-based)</td>
			<td>Elmer&#39;s Products, Inc.</td>
			<td>KG581</td>
			<td>To affix eyebrow hair and hair loops into Pasteur pipettes, other similar glues can be used.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Oligodeoxynucleotides, custom ordered</td>
			<td>Integrated DNA Technologies</td>
			<td>Custom ordered</td>
			<td>Template oligos for sgRNA synthesis, see Nakayama et al., 2014 for design details.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Megascript T7 kit</td>
			<td>Ambion/ThermoFisher</td>
			<td>AM1334</td>
			<td>Or use Megashortscript T7 (AM1354) kit</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Phenol, Tris buffered</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>High quality distilled phenol from any commercial supplier</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Chloroform</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>High quality chloroform from any commercial supplier</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ethanol</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>High quality ethanol from any commercial supplier</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Diethylpyrocarbonate (DEPC)</td>
			<td>Sigma Chemical Co.</td>
			<td>D5758-50ML</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cas9 protein, with nuclear localization signal</td>
			<td>PNA Bio, Inc.</td>
			<td>CP01</td>
			<td>Reconstituted using DEPC-treated water according to manufacturer&#39;s recommendations</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>10X Marc&#39;s Modified Ringers solution</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Homemade. Recipe (ref 26) for 1X MMR (lacking EDTA) is 100mM NaCl, 2 mM KCl, 1 mM MgSO4, 2 mM CaCl2, 5 mM HEPES. Solution is pH adjusted to 7.4.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Agarose</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Any Molecular Biology grade agarose is sufficient</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>60 X15 mm Petri plates</td>
			<td>Falcon</td>
			<td>351007</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>24-well plates</td>
			<td>Falcon</td>
			<td>3047</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>L-Cysteine</td>
			<td>Sigma Chemical Co.</td>
			<td>C7352-100G</td>
			<td>Free base, not HCl salt</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Proteinase K</td>
			<td>Roche</td>
			<td>03 115 828 001</td>
			<td>Typically ~20mg/ml from Roche</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>sera Micron</td>
			<td>sera</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Tadpole food. Resuspend in growth medium. Can be purchased from a variety of online retailers</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

primordial germ cell transplantation for crispr/cas9-based leapfrogging in xenopus

The creation of mutant lines by genome editing is accelerating genetic analysis in many organisms. CRISPR/Cas9 methods have been adapted for use in the African clawed frog, Xenopus, a longstanding model organism for biomedical research. Traditional breeding schemes for creating homozygous mutant lines with CRISPR/Cas9-targeted mutagenesis have several time-consuming and laborious steps. To facilitate the creation of mutant embryos, particularly to overcome the obstacles associated with knocking out genes that are essential for embryogenesis, a new method called leapfrogging was developed. This technique leverages the robustness of Xenopus embryos to &#34;cut and paste&#34; embryological methods. Leapfrogging utilizes the transfer of primordial germ cells (PGCs) from efficiently-mutagenized donor embryos into PGC-ablated wildtype siblings. This method allows for the efficient mutation of essential genes by creating chimeric animals with wildtype somatic cells that carry a mutant germline. When two F0 animals carrying &#34;leapfrog transplants&#34; (i.e., mutant germ cells) are intercrossed, they produce homozygous, or compound heterozygous, null F1 embryos, thus saving a full generation time to obtain phenotypic data. Leapfrogging also provides a new approach for analyzing maternal effect genes, which are refractory to F0 phenotypic analysis following CRISPR/Cas9 mutagenesis. This manuscript details the method of leapfrogging, with special emphasis on how to successfully perform PGC transplantation.

Following transplantation, the qualitative determination of the efficacy of CRISPR/Cas9 mutagenesis should be performed before expending the effort in animal husbandry to grow and maintain the animals to sexual maturity. Because animals carrying leapfrog transplants are somatically wildtype and the germline is difficult to access for direct measurements, saving the carcasses of donor embryos becomes important. DNA analysis from the carcasses serves as a proxy for the extent of mutagenesis...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Primordial Germ Cell Transplantation for CRISPR/Cas9-based Leapfrogging in Xenopus at JoVE.com

Primordial Germ Cell Transplantation for CRISPR/Cas9-based Leapfrogging in Xenopus

Genes essential for survival pose technical hurdles for creating mutant lines. Leapfrogging circumvents lethality by combining genome editing with primordial germ cell transplantation to create wild-type animals carrying germline mutations. Leapfrogging also permits the efficient generation of homozygous null mutants in the F1 generation. Here, the transplantation step is demonstrated.

Primordial Germ Cell Transplantation for CRISPR/Cas9-based Leapfrogging in Xenopus

The creation of mutant lines by genome editing is accelerating genetic analysis in many organisms. CRISPR/Cas9 methods have been adapted for use in the ...

The overall goal of leapfrogging is to facilitate the creation of mutant lines for genes that are essential for embryogenesis. This method can help answer key questions in Developmental Genetics and other fields. The main advantage of this technique is that one can obtain mutants in essential genes in the F1 generation.To begin this procedure, microinject to Xenopus embryos at the one cell stage with Cas9-sgRNA complexes as outlined in the text protocol. When the embryos reach 4.5 hours post-fertilization, at early blastula stage nine, remove them from the 25 degree Celsius incubator to allow them to continue development at room temperature. To begin the transplantation at five hours post-fertilization, use a pasteur pipette to transfer one uninjected embryo to a 60 millimeter agarose dish containing depressions, which will serve as the graft recipient.Also transfer one PGC donor embryo to the dish. Use forceps to manually remove the vitelline envelopes from each embryo. And rotate both embryos so that their vegetal poles are in view and accessible for surgery.Next, while stabilizing the recipient embryo with the hair loop, insert the sharp tip of an eyebrow hair knife into the vegetal pole, just below the surface. And with rapid, upwards slicing movements, make four shallow incisions in the shape of a square, inside the zone where future bottle cells will form that mark the blastopore. Once the four sides of the square are delineated, use the eyebrow hair knife to deepen each incision using similar cutting motions to a depth of approximately 1/3 to 1/2 the distance to the blastocoel floor.Free the vegetal tissue explant from the recipient embryo by making one or more horizontal cuts in the deep vegetal region. Then, working quickly, repeat this procedure on the PGC donor embryo to create a similarly sized vegetal tissue fragment for transplantation. Once the tissue containing PGCs is removed from the donor embryo, use the eyebrow hair knife and hair loop to position the explant in the opening created in the recipient embryo.Use the shaft of the eyebrow hair knife, held parallel to the surface of the graft, to gently press the graft into the opening in the vegetal surface of the recipient embryo. Use the hair loop to gently slide the carcass of the donor embryo across the agarose surface and into a well. Make sure that the open wound of the carcass is facing the bulk liquid.Slide the recipient embryo into an adjacent well, and likewise, make sure that the grafted vegetal pole tissue is facing the bulk liquid. Repeat the transplantation of PGCs with additional embryos to create more transplant carcass pairs, until the embryos reach approximately early gastrula stage 10, transferring embryos to empty wells as the transplants are made. Once grafts have healed into place, typically 30 to 45 minutes after transplantation, use a pasteur pipette to very gently transfer embryos from the depressions to individual wells in an agarose-coated 24-well plate.Rotate the embryos so that they are positioned with the vegetal pole up, facing the bulk solution. Place the donor carcasses and graft recipients in adjacent wells to assist in keeping track of embryo pairs and record this information. Then, transfer the 24-well plate containing embryos to a 25 degree Celsius incubator overnight.The next day, move each graft recipient, now at the early tail bud stage, to an individual well of a fresh, agarose-coated, six-well plate. Raise the leapfrogged embryos and carry out analysis of donor DNA obtained from the carcasses according to the text protocol. Because leapfrogging produces animals that have efficient replacement of their germline with mutant alleles, mutant phenotypes can be obtained in the F1 generation.As presented in this table, Blitz et al. reported that a majority of F0 animals, targeted at the tyrosinase locus, which is required for melanocyte and retinal pigementation, show 100%germline transmission of donor-derived mutant genomes, as measured by outcrossing with tyr minus albino animals. Having watched this video, you should have a good understanding of how to transplant Xenopus primordial germ cells.

primordial-germ-cell-transplantation-for-crisprcas9-based

Research

JoVE Journal

Genetics

8.3K visualizações.  University of California, Irvine. The overall goal of leapfrogging is to facilitate the creation of mutant lines for genes that are essential for embryogenesis. This method can help answer key questions in Developmental Genetics and other fields. The main advantage of this technique is that one can obtain mutants in essential genes in the F1 generation.To begin this procedure, microinject to Xenopus embryos at the one cell stage with Cas9-sgRNA complexes as outlined in the text protocol. When the embryos reach 4.5 hour...