Este trabalho foi apoiado pelas bolsas NIH 5R01NS051305-14 e 5R01NS076980-08 para PJS.

1. Preparação experimental
<ol><li>Recolher moscas enquanto se fecham em frascos, separando moscas machos e fêmeas. NOTA: Experimentos de sono são comumente realizados com moscas fêmeas. É importante coletar fêmeas virgens. Fêmeas acasaladas colocarão ovos que eclodem em larvas complicando a análise dos dados.</li>
	<li>House voa de um único sexo em grupos de <20. NOTA: A habitação voa em um ambiente socialmente enriquecido (grupos de >50) modula a unidade de sono6,13 medidas potencialmente confusas do sono rebote. Além disso, após o enriquecimento social, o sono diminuirá ao longo de alguns dias6. Assim, o sono de linha de base não é uma análise estável complicando o sono de recuperação. Manter moscas em grupos de <20 evita essa confusão potencial.</li>
	<li>Mantenha moscas em frascos por 3-5 dias em um ambiente controlado por luz e umidade. NOTA: A idade e a maturidade das moscas influenciam fortemente o sono. O sono é alto em moscas de um dia de idade e estabiliza em 3-5 dias de idade4. As moscas são normalmente mantidas em uma luz de 12 h: horário escuro de 12h a 50% de umidade.</li>
</ol>2. Preparação de tubos para gravação de sono
NOTA: O sono é monitorado usando monitores de atividade locomotor. Um monitor pode conter 32 moscas alojadas individualmente em tubos de 5 mm de diâmetro. Normalmente, genótipos são analisados em grupos de 16 ou 32 moscas.
<ol><li>Prepare um número apropriado de tubos com comida de mosca em uma extremidade. NOTA: A dieta e o metabolismo são conhecidos por influenciar o sono33,34, por isso é particularmente importante colocar moscas no mesmo alimento em que foram criadas.</li>
	<li>Sele a extremidade dos tubos com cera. NOTA: A privação e a recuperação do sono são um experimento de cinco dias, e a comida pode secar se não estiver devidamente selada. Em tubos devidamente selados, os alimentos podem ser mantidos por 10 dias ou mais. Assim, é fundamental garantir que as extremidades dos tubos estejam bem seladas. As moscas também podem ficar presas à comida molhada, no entanto. Assim, ajuda a fazer tubos 1-2 dias antes do início do experimento.</li>
	<li>Coloque individualmente o despertar, comportando-se voa em tubos de vidro de 65 mm de comprimento para gravação de sono usando um aspirador e tampe a extremidade dos tubos com uma rolha de espuma. NOTA: As moscas nunca são reassentadas à anestesia de CO2 ao colocar moscas em tubos para gravação de sono. O aspirador é feito de tubo de borracha com uma extremidade coberta com pano de queijo e inserida em uma ponta de pipeta de 1 mL.</li>
</ol>3. Gravar o sono
<ol><li>Carregue moscas em tubos em monitores de atividade para monitorar o sono. NOTA: As rochas SNAP monitoram para frente e para trás de -60° a +60° a cada ~10 s. Os monitores são mantidos em -60° para ~5.9s ; é preciso ~2,9 s para que a bandeja que segura os monitores se mova de -60° para +60° e ~1 s para voltar de +60° para -60°. O comprimento do ciclo pode ser alterado conforme necessário, ajustando a tensão fornecida ao motor.<ol>
<li>Tome cuidado para garantir que os tubos sejam colocados em monitores de atividade na orientação correta. Na orientação correta, a extremidade do tubo com alimentos está no topo do SNAP para garantir que as moscas não são empurradas para dentro da comida. Além disso, o fim com a comida fica na lateral do monitor com o jack de gravação de sono. Isso permite que os monitores de atividade sejam orientados corretamente no SNAP para uma privação eficiente do sono, monitorando simultaneamente a atividade.</li>
	</ol>
</li>
	<li>Coloque monitores de atividade na câmara de gravação para monitorar o sono.</li>
	<li>Monitore o sono por pelo menos dois dias completos para estimar o sono da linha de base. NOTA: O dia em que as moscas são carregadas em monitores de atividade é tipicamente excluída como um dia de adaptação para permitir que as moscas se adaptem a serem alojadas em tubos. O sono da linha de base é registrado por pelo menos dois dias completos (48hrs) começando com a manhã seguinte ao dia em que as moscas são carregadas.</li>
	<li>Salve a carga de atividade locomotor de moscas em caixas de 1 min desde o momento das luzes em um determinado dia até as luzes no dia anterior usando o software de gravação de atividades (por exemplo, das 8:00 às 8:00).</li>
	<li>Estimar o sono dos dados de atividade locomotor com macros personalizadas usando 5 min de inatividade como limiar para um ataque de sono35. NOTA: Uma série de métricas de sono são calculadas a partir da contagem de atividades locomotor. Estes incluem sono em min/h acima de 24 h, tempo total de sono em 24h, média e máximo de sono diurno e noturnocomprimentos 36.</li>
</ol>4. Privação e recuperação do sono
<ol><li>Como as moscas podem ser privadas de sono por períodos variáveis de tempo (por exemplo, 12h, 24 h e 36 h) e o sono de recuperação também pode ser avaliado em vários intervalos (por exemplo, 6h, 12h, 24 h e 48 h), determinar a duração da recuperação por necessidade experimental. A recuperação do sono pode ser visualizada usando um gráfico de ganho/perda de sono ou examinando por cento de sono recuperado em um intervalo predeterminado (por exemplo, 6 h).</li>
	<li>Se o sono estiver estável ao longo dos dois dias de linha de base, no terceiro dia, coloque monitores de atividade no SNAP para privação de sono durante a noite. NOTA: As moscas exibirão um forte rebote de sono sobre uma faixa de vezes de sono8,32,37,38, mas o sono tem que ser estável para avaliar de forma confiável o sono rebote. O sono é estável quando a diferença de sono entre os dias de base é de ± 100 min.</li>
	<li>Certifique-se de que os monitores de atividade estejam protegidos no lugar com pinos do suporte do monitor, cabos de monitor conectados e monitores orientados corretamente com a extremidade com alimentos na parte de trás e barreiras plásticas na frente(Figura 1). NOTA: O SNAP é projetado para que a câmera gire uma vez a cada 10 s(Figura 1). A inserção plástica reinicia os tubos empurrando os tubos para trás quando o aparelho está na posição "para cima". A redefinição dos tubos é importante para garantir que todos os tubos tenham toda a amplitude de movimento no início de cada ciclo.</li>
	<li>Desconecte os monitores de atividade e tire os monitores do SNAP imediatamente após as luzes acesas após a privação de sono durante a noite. NOTA: É fundamental que a privação do sono seja encerrada, e as moscas são colocadas em recuperação imediatamente após as luzes acesas após 12h de privação do sono durante a noite. Mesmo um atraso de 20-30 minutos na colocação de moscas na recuperação pode interferir na extensão do sono de recuperação.</li>
	<li>O local voa em uma câmara de gravação onde eles ficarão imperturbáveis por dois dias (48 h) para monitorar o sono de recuperação. NOTA: Se a câmara de gravação estiver sendo usada para outros experimentos, deve-se tomar cuidado extra para evitar estimular a recuperação de moscas.</li>
	<li>Calcule a quantidade de sono perdida. Para cada mosca individual, calcule a diferença horária entre o sono obtido durante a privação do sono e a hora correspondente durante a linha de base; somam as diferenças horárias para calcular o sono total perdido.</li>
	<li>Calcule a quantidade de sono recuperada. Para cada mosca individual, calcule a diferença horária entre o sono obtido durante a recuperação e a hora correspondente durante a linha de base; somam as diferenças horárias para calcular o sono total ganho. NOTA: Se uma mosca é realmente privada de sono é empírica. Assim, o experimentador deve examinar por cento de sono perdido. Se a mosca não perdeu uma quantidade suficiente de sono, pode ser excluída da análise. Embora isso possa ser necessário para outras abordagens de privação do sono, raramente é necessário para o SNAP. Mais comumente, o sono pode não ser estável em uma determinada mosca antes do início da privação do sono. Se o sono não estiver estável, a homeostase não pode ser calculada. Aceitamos uma diferença máxima de ± 100 minutos de sono calculados antes do início da privação do sono como candidatos à inclusão. Na ocasião, o sono de uma mosca individual é distribuído de forma desigual ao longo do dia de 24h (por exemplo, alguns indivíduos podem obter 60-70% de sua cota de sono durante o dia e, portanto, só perdem uma pequena proporção de sua cota de sono de 24 horas quando privados por 12 h à noite). Estas moscas podem ser avaliadas separadamente.</li>
	<li>Calcule a porcentagem média de sono recuperado (em relação à linha de base) acima de 12 h, 24 h e 48h do período de recuperação para cada genótipo.</li>
	<li>A partir dos dados de sono, calcule o comprimento médio e máximo do período de luta do sono diurno na linha de base e os dias de recuperação para cada genótipo. NOTA: O sono de recuperação em moscas é caracterizado pelo aumento da quantidade de sono e aumento da profundidade do sono nos dias de recuperação. A consolidação do sono é usada como medida de profundidade do sono. Limiares de excitação também podem ser usados como medida de profundidade do sono.</li>
</ol>

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J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Essentials+of+sleep+recordings+in+Drosophila:+moving+beyond+sleep+time.">Essentials of sleep recordings in Drosophila: moving beyond sleep time.</a> Methods Enzymol. 393, 759-772 (2005).</li><li>Seugnet, L., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Identifying+sleep+regulatory+genes+using+a+Drosophila+model+of+insomnia.">Identifying sleep regulatory genes using a Drosophila model of insomnia.</a> Journal of Neuroscience. 29 (22), 7148-7157 (2009).</li><li>Bushey, D., Huber, R., Tononi, G., Cirelli, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Drosophila+Hyperkinetic+mutants+have+reduced+sleep+and+impaired+memory.">Drosophila Hyperkinetic mutants have reduced sleep and impaired memory.</a> Journal of Neuroscience. 27 (20), 5384-5393 (2007).</li><li>Geissmann, Q., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Ethoscopes:+An+open+platform+for+high-throughput+ethomics.">Ethoscopes: An open platform for high-throughput ethomics.</a> PLOS Biology. 15 (10), 2003026 (2017).</li><li>Faville, R., Kottler, B., Goodhill, G. J., Shaw, P. J., van Swinderen, B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=How+deeply+does+your+mutant+sleep?+Probing+arousal+to+better+understand+sleep+defects+in+Drosophila.">How deeply does your mutant sleep? Probing arousal to better understand sleep defects in Drosophila.</a> Scientific Reports. 5, 8454 (2015).</li><li>Huber, R., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Sleep+homeostasis+in+Drosophila+melanogaster.">Sleep homeostasis in Drosophila melanogaster.</a> Sleep. 27 (4), 628-639 (2004).</li><li>Klose, M., Shaw, P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Sleep-drive+reprograms+clock+neuronal+identity+through+CREB-binding+protein+induced+PDFR+expression.">Sleep-drive reprograms clock neuronal identity through CREB-binding protein induced PDFR expression.</a> bioRxiv. , (2019).</li><li>Dissel, S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Sleep+restores+behavioral+plasticity+to+Drosophila+mutants.">Sleep restores behavioral plasticity to Drosophila mutants.</a> Current Biology. 25 (10), 1270-1281 (2015).</li><li>Gerstner, J. R., Vanderheyden, W. M., Shaw, P. J., Landry, C. F., Yin, J. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Fatty-acid+binding+proteins+modulate+sleep+and+enhance+long-term+memory+consolidation+in+Drosophila.">Fatty-acid binding proteins modulate sleep and enhance long-term memory consolidation in Drosophila.</a> PLoS One. 6 (1), 15890 (2011).</li></ol>

Os autores não têm nada a revelar.

O sono em Drosophila foi caracterizado independentemente em 2000, por dois grupos4,5. Nestes estudos pioneiros, as moscas foram privadas do sono por manuseio suave (ou seja, privação de mão) e mostraram uma resposta homeostática robusta à privação do sono durante a noite. É importante ressaltar que, com qualquer experimento de privação do sono, é crucial controlar os potenciais efeitos de confusão do método usado para manter o animal acordad...

O sono é quase universal em animais, mas sua função permanece incerta. A homeostase do sono, o aumento compensatório do sono após a privação do sono, é uma propriedade definidora do sono, que tem sido usada para caracterizar estados de sono em um número de animais1,2,3,4,5.
O sono na mosca tem muitas semelhanças com o sono humano, incluindo uma resposta homeostática robusta à perda de sono4,5. Inúmeros estudos de sono na mosca têm usado a privação do sono tanto para inferir a função do sono, examinando as consequências adversas que se acumulam a partir da vigília prolongada, quanto para entender a regulação do sono, determinando os mecanismos neurobiológicos que controlam a regulação homeostática do sono. Assim, as moscas privadas de sono apresentaram prejuízos no aprendizado e na memória6,7,8,9,10,11,12, plasticidade estrutural13,14,15, atenção visual16, recuperação da lesão neuronal17,18, acasalamento e comportamentos agressivos19, 20, proliferação celular21, e respostas ao estresse oxidativo22,23 para citar alguns. Além disso, as investigações sobre os mecanismos neurobiológicos que controlam o sono de recuperação produziram insights críticos sobre a maquinaria neuronal que constitui o homeostat do sono8,9,23,24,25,26,27,28,29 . Finalmente, além de revelar insights fundamentais sobre a função do sono em animais saudáveis, estudos de privação do sono também informaram insights sobre a função do sono em estados doentes30,31.
Embora a privação do sono seja inegavelmente uma ferramenta poderosa, com qualquer experimento de privação do sono, é importante distinguir fenótipos que resultam de um aumento prolongado, daqueles induzidos pelo estímulo usado para manter o animal acordado. A privação do sono por privação manual ou manuseio suave, é geralmente considerada como estabelecendo o padrão para privação de sono minimamente disruptiva. Aqui descrevemos um protocolo para o sono privando moscas usando o Aparelho de Anulação do Sono (SNAP). O SNAP é um dispositivo que fornece um estímulo mecânico para moscas a cada 10 anos, mantendo as moscas acordadas induzindo geotaxis negativos(Figura 1). O SNAP priva eficientemente moscas de >98% do sono noturno, mesmo em moscas com alta movimentação de sono8,32. O SNAP foi calibrado em moscas sensíveis ao estrondo, a agitação das moscas no SNAP não prejudica as moscas; a privação do sono com o SNAP induz um rebote comparável ao obtido por privação manual7. O SNAP é, portanto, um método robusto para dormir privar moscas enquanto controla os efeitos do estímulo estimulante.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Locomotor activity tubes</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fisher Tissue Prep Wax</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher</td>
			<td>13404-122</td>
			<td>Wax used for sealing tubes</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glass tubes</td>
			<td>Wale Apparatus</td>
			<td>244050</td>
			<td>We cut 5mm diameter Pyrex glass&#160;tubes into 65mm long tubes&#160;to record sleep. Pre-cut tubes&#160;can also be purchased.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Nutri Fly Bloomington Formulation fly food</td>
			<td>Genesee Scientific</td>
			<td>66-113</td>
			<td>Labs might use their own fly food recipe. It is important that sleep be recorded on the same food that flies were reared in.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Rotary glass cutting tool</td>
			<td>Dremel Multi Pro</td>
			<td>395</td>
			<td>Used to cut 65mm long glass tubes&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Monitoring Sleep</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DAM System and DAMFileScan software</td>
			<td>Trikinetics</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Software used to acquire data from DAM monitors and save the acquired data in an appropriate format</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Data acquisition computer</td>
			<td>Lenovo</td>
			<td>Idea Centre AIO3</td>
			<td>A equivalent computer from any manufacturer can substitute</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Drosophila Activity Monitors</td>
			<td>Trikinetics</td>
			<td>DAM2</td>
			<td>These monitors are used to record flies&#39; locomotor activity</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Environment Monitor</td>
			<td>Trikinetics</td>
			<td>DEnM</td>
			<td>Not essential, but an easy way to monitor environmental conditions in the chamber where sleep is recorded</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Light Controller</td>
			<td>Trikinetics</td>
			<td>LC4</td>
			<td>A convenient way to control the timing of when the SNAP is turned on and off</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Power Supply Interface Unit for DAM</td>
			<td>Trikinetics</td>
			<td>PSIU-9</td>
			<td>Required for data acquisition computers to record Trikinetics locomotor acitvity data</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>RJ11 connector</td>
			<td>7001-64PC</td>
			<td>Multicomp</td>
			<td>DAM monitors accept RJ11 jacks</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Splitters</td>
			<td>Trikinetics</td>
			<td>SPLT5</td>
			<td>Used to connect upto 5 DAM monitors</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Telephone cable wire</td>
			<td>Radioshack</td>
			<td>278-367</td>
			<td>Phone cables to acquire data from DAM monitors</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sleep Deprivation</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Power supply</td>
			<td>Gw INSTEK</td>
			<td>GPS-30300</td>
			<td>Power supply for the SNAP</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sleep Nullifying Apparatus</td>
			<td>Washington University School of Medicine machine shop</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

the sleep nullifying apparatus: a highly efficient method of sleep depriving drosophila

A homeostase do sono, o aumento do sono observado após a perda do sono, é um dos critérios definidores utilizados para identificar o sono em todo o reino animal. Como consequência, a privação do sono e a restrição do sono são ferramentas poderosas que são comumente usadas para fornecer insights sobre a função do sono. No entanto, os experimentos de privação do sono são inerentemente problemáticos, na prática, o estímulo à privação em si pode ser a causa das mudanças observadas na fisiologia e no comportamento. Assim, técnicas bem sucedidas de privação do sono devem manter os animais acordados e, idealmente, resultar em uma recuperação robusta do sono sem também induzir um grande número de consequências não intencionais. Aqui, descrevemos uma técnica de privação do sono para Drosophila melanogaster. O Aparelho de Anulação do Sono (SNAP) administra um estímulo a cada 10 anos para induzir geotaxis negativos. Embora o estímulo seja previsível, o SNAP efetivamente evita >95% do sono noturno mesmo em moscas com alta movimentação de sono. É importante ressaltar que a resposta homeostática subsequente é muito semelhante à alcançada usando privação manual. O tempo e o espaçamento dos estímulos podem ser modificados para minimizar a perda de sono e, assim, examinar efeitos não específicos do estímulo sobre fisiologia e comportamento. O SNAP também pode ser usado para restrição de sono e para avaliar limiares de excitação. O SNAP é uma poderosa técnica de interrupção do sono que pode ser usada para entender melhor a função do sono.

Canton S (Cs) foi usado como uma cepa tipo selvagem. As moscas foram mantidas em uma luz de 12 h: horário escuro de 12h e privação de sono por 12 horas durante a noite. A inspeção dos perfis de sono das moscas de Cs no dia da linha de base (bs), dia de privação do sono (sd) e dois dias de recuperação (rec1 e rec2)(Figura 2A) sugere que as moscas foram efetivamente privadas de sono no SNAP, e recuperaram o sono durante o dia consistente com os relatos...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about The Sleep Nullifying Apparatus: A Highly Efficient Method of Sleep Depriving Drosophila at JoVE.com

The Sleep Nullifying Apparatus: A Highly Efficient Method of Sleep Depriving Drosophila

A privação do sono é uma ferramenta poderosa para investigar a função e a regulação do sono. Descrevemos um protocolo para dormir privar Drosophila usando o Aparelho de Anulação do Sono, e determinar a extensão do sono de recuperação induzido pela privação.

O aparelho de anulação do sono: um método altamente eficiente de privação do sono Drosophila

Sleep homeostasis, the increase in sleep observed following sleep loss, is one of the defining criteria used to identify sleep throughout the animal ...

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Research

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Neuroscience

The Sleep Nullifying Apparatus: A Highly Efficient Method of Sleep Depriving Drosophila

3.3K visualizações.  Washington University School of Medicine. A privação do sono é uma ferramenta poderosa para investigar a função e a regulação do sono. Descrevemos um protocolo para dormir privar Drosophila usando o Aparelho de Anulação do Sono, e determinar a extensão do sono de recuperação induzido pela privação.

Vídeo: The Sleep Nullifying Apparatus: A Highly Efficient Method of Sleep Depriving Drosophila

Novel Apparatus and Method for Drug Reinforcement

Animal models of reinforcement have proven to be useful for understanding the neurobiological mechanisms underlying drug addiction. Operant drug self-administration and conditioned place preference (CPP) procedures are expansively used in animal research to model various components of drug reinforcement, consumption, and addiction in humans. For this study, we used a novel approach to studying drug reinforcement in rats by combining traditional CPP and self-administration methodologies. We assembled an apparatus using two Med Associate operant chambers, sensory stimuli, and a Plexiglas-constructed neutral zone. These modifications allowed our experiments to encompass motivational aspects of drug intake through self-administration and drug-free assessment of drug/cue conditioning strength with the CPP test. In our experiments, rats self-administered cocaine (0.75 mg/kg/inj, i.v.) during either four (e.g., the "short-term") or eight (e.g., the "long-term") alternating-day sessions in an operant environment containing distinctive sensory cues (e.g., olfactory and visual). On the alternate days, in the other (differently-cued) operant environment, saline was available for self-infusion (0.1 ml, i.v.). Twenty-four hours after the last self-administration/cue-pairing session, a CPP test was conducted. Consistent with typical CPP findings, there was a significant preference for the chamber associated with cocaine self-administration. In addition, in animals undergoing the long-term experiment, a significant positive correlation between CPP magnitude and the number of cocaine-reinforced lever responses. In conclusion, this apparatus and approach is time and cost effective, can be used to examine a wide array of topics pertaining to drug abuse, and provides more flexibility in experimental design than CPP or self-administration methods alone.

Operant drug self-administration and conditioned place preference (CPP) procedures are expansively used in research to model various components of drug reinforcement, consumption, and addiction in humans. In this report, we combined traditional CPP and self-administration methods as a novel approach to studying drug reinforcement and addiction in rats.

Aparelho novo e Método para Reforço de Drogas

Animal models of reinforcement have proven to be useful for understanding the neurobiological mechanisms underlying drug addiction.  Operant drug ...

Neurociência

Assaying Locomotor Activity to Study Circadian Rhythms and Sleep Parameters in Drosophila

Most life forms exhibit daily rhythms in cellular, physiological and behavioral phenomena that are driven by endogenous circadian (&equiv;24 hr) pacemakers or clocks. Malfunctions in the human circadian system are associated with numerous diseases or disorders. Much progress towards our understanding of the mechanisms underlying circadian rhythms has emerged from genetic screens whereby an easily measured behavioral rhythm is used as a read-out of clock function. Studies using Drosophila have made seminal contributions to our understanding of the cellular and biochemical bases underlying circadian rhythms. The standard circadian behavioral read-out measured in Drosophila is locomotor activity. In general, the monitoring system involves specially designed devices that can measure the locomotor movement of Drosophila. These devices are housed in environmentally controlled incubators located in a darkroom and are based on using the interruption of a beam of infrared light to record the locomotor activity of individual flies contained inside small tubes. When measured over many days, Drosophila exhibit daily cycles of activity and inactivity, a behavioral rhythm that is governed by the animal's endogenous circadian system. The overall procedure has been simplified with the advent of commercially available locomotor activity monitoring devices and the development of software programs for data analysis. We use the system from Trikinetics Inc., which is the procedure described here and is currently the most popular system used worldwide. More recently, the same monitoring devices have been used to study sleep behavior in Drosophila. Because the daily wake-sleep cycles of many flies can be measured simultaneously and only 1 to 2 weeks worth of continuous locomotor activity data is usually sufficient, this system is ideal for large-scale screens to identify Drosophila manifesting altered circadian or sleep properties.

Assaying Locomotor Activity to Study Circadian Rhythms and Sleep Parameters in Drosophila

We describe procedures for recording daily locomotor activity rhythms of Drosophila and subsequent data analysis. Locomotor activity rhythms are a reliable behavioral output of animal circadian clocks and are used as the standard readout of clock function when studying circadian mutants or examining how the environment regulates the circadian system.

Assaying atividade locomotora para estudar ritmos circadianos e sono Parâmetros em Drosophila</em

Most life forms exhibit daily rhythms in cellular, physiological and behavioral phenomena that are driven by endogenous circadian (&equiv;24 hr) ...

Non-Laser Capture Microscopy Approach for the Microdissection of Discrete Mouse Brain Regions for Total RNA Isolation and Downstream Next-Generation Sequencing and Gene Expression Profiling

As technological platforms, approaches such as next-generation sequencing, microarray, and qRT-PCR have great promise for expanding our understanding of the breadth of molecular regulation. Newer approaches such as high-resolution RNA sequencing (RNA-Seq)1 provides new and expansive information about tissue- or state-specific expression such as relative transcript levels, alternative splicing, and micro RNAs2-4. Prospects for employing the RNA-Seq method in comparative whole transcriptome profiling5 within discrete tissues or between phenotypically distinct groups of individuals affords new avenues for elucidating molecular mechanisms involved in both normal and abnormal physiological states. Recently, whole transcriptome profiling has been performed on human brain tissue, identifying gene expression differences associated with disease progression6. However, the use of next-generation sequencing has yet to be more widely integrated into mammalian studies.
Gene expression studies in mouse models have reported distinct profiles within various brain nuclei using laser capture microscopy (LCM) for sample excision7,8. While LCM affords sample collection with single-cell and discrete brain region precision, the relatively low total RNA yields from the LCM approach can be prohibitive to RNA-Seq and other profiling approaches in mouse brain tissues and may require sub-optimal sample amplification steps. Here, a protocol is presented for microdissection and total RNA extraction from discrete mouse brain regions. Set-diameter tissue corers are used to isolate 13 tissues from 750-&mu;m serial coronal sections of an individual mouse brain. Tissue micropunch samples are immediately frozen and archived. Total RNA is obtained from the samples using magnetic bead-enabled total RNA isolation technology. Resulting RNA samples have adequate yield and quality for use in downstream expression profiling. This microdissection strategy provides a viable option to existing sample collection strategies for obtaining total RNA from discrete brain regions, opening possibilities for new gene expression discoveries.

Non-Laser Capture Microscopy Approach for the Microdissection of Discrete Mouse Brain Regions for Total RNA Isolation and Downstream Next-Generation Sequencing and Gene Expression Profiling  |

RNA expression profiling of discrete mouse brain regions requires a precise and repeatable tissue collection strategy. A protocol that uses both coronal brain sectioning and tissue corer-assisted microdissection is described here. The yield and quality of total RNA obtained from the resulting samples confirms the utility of the outlined method.

Laser não-Abordagem Microscopia de captura para o Microdissecção de regiões cerebrais discretas Mouse para isolamento de RNA total e Seqüenciamento Next-Generation Downstream e perfil de expressão gênica

As technological platforms, approaches such as next-generation sequencing, microarray, and qRT-PCR have great promise for expanding our understanding of ...

Simultaneous Electroencephalography, Real-time Measurement of Lactate Concentration and Optogenetic Manipulation of Neuronal Activity in the Rodent Cerebral Cortex

Although the brain represents less than 5% of the body by mass, it utilizes approximately one quarter of the glucose used by the body at rest1. The function of non rapid eye movement sleep (NREMS), the largest portion of sleep by time, is uncertain. However, one salient feature of NREMS is a significant reduction in the rate of cerebral glucose utilization relative to wakefulness2-4. This and other findings have led to the widely held belief that sleep serves a function related to cerebral metabolism. Yet, the mechanisms underlying the reduction in cerebral glucose metabolism during NREMS remain to be elucidated.
	One phenomenon associated with NREMS that might impact cerebral metabolic rate is the occurrence of slow waves, oscillations at frequencies less than 4 Hz, in the electroencephalogram5,6. These slow waves detected at the level of the skull or cerebral cortical surface reflect the oscillations of underlying neurons between a depolarized/up state and a hyperpolarized/down state7. During the down state, cells do not undergo action potentials for intervals of up to several hundred milliseconds. Restoration of ionic concentration gradients subsequent to action potentials represents a significant metabolic load on the cell8; absence of action potentials during down states associated with NREMS may contribute to reduced metabolism relative to wake.
	Two technical challenges had to be addressed in order for this hypothetical relationship to be tested. First, it was necessary to measure cerebral glycolytic metabolism with a temporal resolution reflective of the dynamics of the cerebral EEG (that is, over seconds rather than minutes). To do so, we measured the concentration of lactate, the product of aerobic glycolysis, and therefore a readout of the rate of glucose metabolism in the brains of mice. Lactate was measured using a lactate oxidase based real time sensor embedded in the frontal cortex. The sensing mechanism consists of a platinum-iridium electrode surrounded by a layer of lactate oxidase molecules. Metabolism of lactate by lactate oxidase produces hydrogen peroxide, which produces a current in the platinum-iridium electrode. So a ramping up of cerebral glycolysis provides an increase in the concentration of substrate for lactate oxidase, which then is reflected in increased current at the sensing electrode. It was additionally necessary to measure these variables while manipulating the excitability of the cerebral cortex, in order to isolate this variable from other facets of NREMS.
	We devised an experimental system for simultaneous measurement of neuronal activity via the elecetroencephalogram, measurement of glycolytic flux via a lactate biosensor, and manipulation of cerebral cortical neuronal activity via optogenetic activation of pyramidal neurons. We have utilized this system to document the relationship between sleep-related electroencephalographic waveforms and the moment-to-moment dynamics of lactate concentration in the cerebral cortex. The protocol may be useful for any individual interested in studying, in freely behaving rodents, the relationship between neuronal activity measured at the electroencephalographic level and cellular energetics within the brain.

A procedure is described for manipulating the activity of cerebral cortical pyramidal neurons optogenetically while the electroencephalogram, electromyogram, and cerebral lactate concentration are monitored. Experimental recordings are performed on cable-tethered mice while they undergo spontaneous sleep/wake cycles. Optogenetic equipment is assembled in our laboratory; recording equipment is commercially available.

Eletroencefalografia simultânea, em tempo real de medição da concentração de lactato e Manipulação optogenética da atividade neuronal do córtex cerebral de roedores

Although the brain represents less than 5% of the body  by mass, it utilizes approximately one quarter of the glucose used by the body  at rest1. The ...

A Method of Nodose Ganglia Injection in Sprague-Dawley Rat

Afferent signaling via the vagus nerve transmits important general visceral information to the central nervous system from many diverse receptors located in the organs of the abdomen and thorax. The vagus nerve communicates information from stimuli such as heart rate, blood pressure, bronchopulmonary irritation, and gastrointestinal distension to the nucleus of solitary tract of the medulla. The cell bodies of the vagus nerve are located in the nodose and petrosal ganglia, of which the majority are located in the former. The nodose ganglia contain a wealth of receptors for amino acids, monoamines, neuropeptides, and other neurochemicals that can modify afferent vagus nerve activity. Modifying vagal afferents through systemic peripheral drug treatments targeted at the receptors on nodose ganglia has the potential of treating diseases such as sleep apnea, gastroesophageal reflux disease, or chronic cough. The protocol here describes a method of injection neurochemicals directly into the nodose ganglion. Injecting neurochemicals directly into the nodose ganglia allows study of effects solely on cell bodies that modulate afferent nerve activity, and prevents the complication of involving the central nervous system as seen in systemic neurochemical treatment. Using readily available and inexpensive equipment, intranodose ganglia injections are easily done in anesthetized Sprague-Dawley rats.

Afferent vagal signaling transmits important information to central nervous system from receptors located in organs of the abdomen and thorax. The nodose ganglia of vagus nerves contain many types of receptors that modulate vagal activity. This protocol describes a method of local injections of neurochemicals into the nodose ganglia.

Um método de Nodoso Gânglios Injecção em ratos Sprague-Dawley

Afferent signaling via the vagus nerve transmits important general visceral information to the central nervous system from many diverse receptors located ...

Polygraphic Recording Procedure for Measuring Sleep in Mice

Recording of the epidural electroencephalogram (EEG) and electromyogram (EMG) in small animals, like mice and rats, has been pivotal to study the homeodynamics and circuitry of sleep-wake regulation. In many laboratories, a cable-based sleep recording system is used to monitor the EEG and EMG in freely behaving mice in combination with computer software for automatic scoring of the vigilance states on the basis of power spectrum analysis of EEG data. A description of this system is detailed herein. Steel screws are implanted over the frontal cortical area and the parietal area of 1 hemisphere for monitoring EEG signals. In addition, EMG activity is monitored by the bilateral placement of wires in both neck muscles. Non-rapid eye movement (Non-REM; NREM) sleep is characterized by large, slow brain waves with delta activity below 4 Hz in the EEG, whereas a shift from low-frequency delta activity to a rapid low-voltage EEG in the theta range between 6 and 10 Hz can be observed at the transition from NREM to REM sleep. By contrast, wakefulness is identified by low- to moderate-voltage brain waves in the EEG trace and significant EMG activity.

The recording of electroencephalogram (EEG) and electromyogram (EMG) in freely behaving mice is a critical step to correlate behavior and physiology with sleep and wakefulness. The experimental protocol described herein provides a cable-based system for acquiring EEG and EMG recordings in mice.

Procedimento de gravação Polygraphic para medição Sleep in Mice

Recording of the epidural electroencephalogram (EEG) and electromyogram (EMG) in small animals, like mice and rats, has been pivotal to study the ...

Optogenetic Manipulation of Neural Circuits During Monitoring Sleep/wakefulness States in Mice

In recent years, optogenetics has been widely used in many fields of neuroscientific research. In many cases, an opsin, such as channel rhodopsin 2 (ChR2), is expressed by a virus vector in a particular type of neuronal cells in various Cre-driver mice. Activation of these opsins is triggered by application of light pulses which are delivered by laser or LED through optic cables, and the effect of activation is observed with very high time resolution. Experimenters are able to acutely stimulate neurons while monitoring behavior or another physiological outcome in mice. Optogenetics can enable useful strategies to evaluate function of neuronal circuits in the regulation of sleep/wakefulness states in mice. Here we describe a technique for examining the effect of optogenetic manipulation of neurons with a specific chemical identity during electroencephalogram (EEG) and electromyogram (EMG) monitoring to evaluate the sleep stage of mice. As an example, we describe manipulation of GABAergic neurons in the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BNST). Acute optogenetic excitation of these neurons triggers a rapid transition to wakefulness when applied during NREM sleep. Optogenetic manipulation along with EEG/EMG recording can be applied to decipher the neuronal circuits that regulate sleep/wakefulness states.

Here, we describe methods of optogenetic manipulation of particular types of neurons during monitoring of sleep/wakefulness states in mice, presenting our recent work on the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis as an example.

Manipulação optogenetic de circuitos neural durante a monitoração sono/Estados do wakefulness nos ratos

In recent years, optogenetics has been widely used in many fields of neuroscientific research. In many cases, an opsin, such as channel rhodopsin 2 ...

How to Obtain Reliable Visual Event-related Potentials in Newborns

The present study discusses the characteristics of visual event-related potentials (VEPs) and outlines methodological steps for obtaining reliable measurements in newborns. Obtaining high-quality, reliable VEPs is crucial for the early detection of abnormal development of the central nervous system in at-risk newborns, and for implementing successful early interventions. Recommendations are based on a previous study which showed that when post-conceptional age, polysomnography-identified sleep stages, and light-emitting diodes (LEDs) googles as the luminous source are controlled, no more than 4 repetitions of VEP averages are required to obtain replicable recordings, variability decreases, and reliable VEPs can be obtained. By controlling for these sources of variability and using statistical analyses, we were able to clearly and reliably identify the amplitude and latency of three main components (NII, PII and NIII) present in 100% of newborns (n = 20) during active sleep. Recording VEPs during awake states, quiet sleep and transitional sleep is not recommended because VEP morphology may differ significantly from one average to the next, leading to the risk of misleading clinical prognoses. Moreover, it is easier to obtain VEPs during active sleep because this state can be clearly and reliably identified at this stage of development, sleep cycles are short enough to allow measurements to be taken in a reasonable time, and the method does not require new o expensive equipment.

Several important points for obtaining high-quality reliable visual evoked potentials (VEPs) in newborns while minimizing variability and the risk of misleading prognoses are presented.

Como obter potenciais confiáveis relacionados a eventos visuais em recém-nascidos

The present study discusses the characteristics of visual event-related potentials (VEPs) and outlines methodological steps for obtaining reliable ...

Measuring Neural Mechanisms Underlying Sleep-Dependent Memory Consolidation During Naps in Early Childhood

Sleep is critical for daily functioning. One important function of sleep is the consolidation of memories, a process that makes them stronger and less vulnerable to interference. The neural mechanisms underlying the benefit of sleep for memory can be investigated using polysomnography (PSG). PSG is a combination of physiological recordings including signals from the brain (EEG), eyes (EOG), and muscles (EMG) that are used to classify sleep stages. In this protocol, we describe how PSG can be used in conjunction with behavioral memory assessments, actigraphy, and parent-report to examine sleep-dependent memory consolidation. The focus of this protocol is on early childhood, a period of significance as children transition from biphasic sleep (consisting of a nap and overnight sleep) to monophasic sleep (overnight sleep only). The effects of sleep on memory performance are measured using a visuospatial memory assessment across periods of sleep and wakeful-rest. A combination of actigraphy and parent report is used to assess sleep rhythms (i.e., characterizing children as habitual or non-habitual nappers). Finally, PSG is used to characterize sleep stages and qualities of those stages (such as frequencies and the presence of spindles) during naps. The advantage of using PSG is that it is the only tool currently available to assess sleep quality and sleep architecture, pointing to the relevant brain state that supports memory consolidation. The main limitations of PSG are the length of time it takes to prepare the recording montage and that recordings are typically taken over one sleep bought. These limitations can be overcome by engaging young participants in distracting tasks during application and combining PSG with actigraphy and self/parent-report measures to characterize sleep cycles. Together, this unique combination of methods allows for investigations into how naps support learning in preschool children.

This protocol describes methods used to examine neural mechanisms underlying sleep-dependent memory consolidation during naps in early childhood. It includes procedures for examining the effect of sleep on behavioral memory performance, as well as the application and recording of both polysomnography and actigraphy.

Medição de mecanismos neurais subjacentes à consolidação da memória dependente do sono durante cochilos na primeira infância

Sleep is critical for daily functioning. One important function of sleep is the consolidation of memories, a process that makes them stronger and less ...

Electrocorticographic Recording of Cerebral Cortex Areas Manipulated Using an Adeno-Associated Virus Targeting Cofilin in Mice

The use of electrocorticographic (ECoG) recordings in rodents is relevant to sleep research and to the study of a wide range of neurological conditions. Adeno-associated viruses (AAVs) are increasingly used to improve understanding of brain circuits and their functions. The AAV-mediated manipulation of specific cell populations and/or of precise molecular components has been tremendously useful to identify new sleep regulatory circuits/molecules and key proteins contributing to the adverse effects of sleep loss. For instance, inhibiting activity of the filamentous actin-severing protein&#160;cofilin&#160;using AAV prevents sleep deprivation-induced memory impairment. Here, a protocol is&#160;described that combines the manipulation of cofilin function in a cerebral cortex area with the recording of ECoG activity to examine whether cortical cofilin modulates the wakefulness and sleep ECoG signals. AAV injection is performed during the same surgical procedure as the implantation of ECoG and electromyographic (EMG) electrodes in adult male and female mice. Mice are anesthetized, and their heads are shaved. After skin cleaning and incision, stereotaxic coordinates of the motor cortex are determined, and the skull is pierced at this location. A cannula prefilled with an AAV expressing cofilinS3D, an inactive form of cofilin, is slowly positioned in the cortical tissue. After AAV infusion, gold-covered screws (ECoG electrodes) are screwed through the skull and cemented to the skull with gold wires inserted in the neck muscles (EMG electrodes). The animals are allowed three weeks to recover and to ensure sufficient expression of cofilinS3D. The infected area and cell type are verified using immunohistochemistry, and the ECoG is analyzed using visual identification of vigilance states and spectral analysis. In summary, this combined methodological approach allows the investigation of the precise contribution of molecular components regulating neuronal morphology and connectivity to the regulation of synchronized cerebral cortex activity during wakefulness and sleep.

This article describes a protocol for the manipulation of molecular targets in the cerebral cortex using adeno-associated viruses and for monitoring the effects of this manipulation during wakefulness and sleep using electrocorticographic recordings.

Registro eletrocorticográfico de áreas do córtex cerebral manipulado usando um vírus associado ao Adeno visando cofilina em camundongos

The use of electrocorticographic (ECoG) recordings in rodents is relevant to sleep research and to the study of a wide range of neurological conditions. ...