Name: visualizing membrane ruffle formation using scanning electron microscopy
Uploaded: 2021-05-27T15:00:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Visualizing Membrane Ruffle Formation using Scanning Electron Microscopy at JoVE.com

The authors thank Libby Perry (Augusta University) for her help with the SEM sample preparation. This work was supported by the National Institutes of Health [R01HL139562 (G.C.) and K99HL146954 (B.S.)] and American Heart Association [17POST33661254 (B.S.)].

NOTE: The following is a general protocol used to quantify membrane ruffle formation in RAW 264.7 macrophages using SEM microscopy. Optimization may be required for different cell types.
1. Cell line and cell culture
<ol>
	<li>Grow RAW 264.7 macrophages in Dulbecco&#39;s Modified Eagle Medium (DMEM) supplemented with 10% (vol/vol) heat-inactivated Fetal Bovine Serum (FBS), 100 IU/mL of penicillin and 100 &#181;g/mL streptomycin in a humidified incubator at 37 &#176;C and 5% CO2. R...

<ol>
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A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=M-CSF-induced+macropinocytosis+increases+solute+endocytosis+but+not+receptor-mediated+endocytosis+in+mouse+macrophages.">M-CSF-induced macropinocytosis increases solute endocytosis but not receptor-mediated endocytosis in mouse macrophages.</a> Journal of Cell Science. 102, 867-880 (1992).</li><li>Yoshida, S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Differential+signaling+during+macropinocytosis+in+response+to+M-CSF+and+PMA+in+macrophages.">Differential signaling during macropinocytosis in response to M-CSF and PMA in macrophages.</a> Frontiers in Physiology. 6, 8 (2015).</li><li>Ghoshal, P., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Nox2-Mediated+PI3K+and+Cofilin+Activation+Confers+Alternate+Redox+Control+of+Macrophage+Pinocytosis.">Nox2-Mediated PI3K and Cofilin Activation Confers Alternate Redox Control of Macrophage Pinocytosis.</a> Antioxidant and Redox Signal. 26 (16), 902-916 (2017).</li><li>Bryant, D. M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=EGF+induces+macropinocytosis+and+SNX1-modulated+recycling+of+E-cadherin.">EGF induces macropinocytosis and SNX1-modulated recycling of E-cadherin.</a> Journal of Cell Science. 120, 1818-1828 (2007).</li><li>West, M. A., Bretscher, M. S., Watts, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Distinct+endocytotic+pathways+in+epidermal+growth+factor-stimulated+human+carcinoma+A431+cells.">Distinct endocytotic pathways in epidermal growth factor-stimulated human carcinoma A431 cells.</a> Journal of Cell Biology. 109 (6), 2731-2739 (1989).</li><li>Hagiwara, M., Nakase, I. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Epidermal+growth+factor+induced+macropinocytosis+directs+branch+formation+of+lung+epithelial+cells.">Epidermal growth factor induced macropinocytosis directs branch formation of lung epithelial cells.</a> Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications. 507 (1-4), 297-303 (2018).</li><li>Commisso, C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Macropinocytosis+of+protein+is+an+amino+acid+supply+route+in+Ras-transformed+cells.">Macropinocytosis of protein is an amino acid supply route in Ras-transformed cells.</a> Nature. 497 (7451), 633-637 (2013).</li><li>Bosedasgupta, S., Pieters, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Inflammatory+stimuli+reprogram+macrophage+phagocytosis+to+macropinocytosis+for+the+rapid+elimination+of+pathogens.">Inflammatory stimuli reprogram macrophage phagocytosis to macropinocytosis for the rapid elimination of pathogens.</a> PLoS Pathogens. 10 (1), 1003879 (2014).</li><li>Liu, Z., Roche, P. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Macropinocytosis+in+phagocytes:+Regulation+of+MHC+class-II-restricted+antigen+presentation+in+dendritic+cells.">Macropinocytosis in phagocytes: Regulation of MHC class-II-restricted antigen presentation in dendritic cells.</a> Frontiers in Physiology. 6, 1 (2015).</li><li>Zeineddine, R., Yerbury, J. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+role+of+macropinocytosis+in+the+propagation+of+protein+aggregation+associated+with+neurodegenerative+diseases.">The role of macropinocytosis in the propagation of protein aggregation associated with neurodegenerative diseases.</a> Frontiers in Physiology. 6, 277 (2015).</li><li>Yerbury, J. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Protein+aggregates+stimulate+macropinocytosis+facilitating+their+propagation.">Protein aggregates stimulate macropinocytosis facilitating their propagation.</a> Prion. 10 (2), 119-126 (2016).</li><li>Jayashankar, V., Edinger, A. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Macropinocytosis+confers+resistance+to+therapies+targeting+cancer+anabolism.">Macropinocytosis confers resistance to therapies targeting cancer anabolism.</a> Nature Communication. 11 (1), 1121 (2020).</li><li>Kanlaya, R., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Macropinocytosis+is+the+major+mechanism+for+endocytosis+of+calcium+oxalate+crystals+into+renal+tubular+cells.">Macropinocytosis is the major mechanism for endocytosis of calcium oxalate crystals into renal tubular cells.</a> Cell Biochemistry and Biophysics. 67 (3), 1171-1179 (2013).</li><li>Csanyi, G., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=CD47+and+Nox1+mediate+dynamic+fluid-phase+macropinocytosis+of+native+LDL.">CD47 and Nox1 mediate dynamic fluid-phase macropinocytosis of native LDL.</a> Antioxidants and Redox Signaling. 26 (16), 886-901 (2017).</li><li>Francis, C. L., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Ruffles+induced+by+Salmonella+and+other+stimuli+direct+macropinocytosis+of+bacteria.">Ruffles induced by Salmonella and other stimuli direct macropinocytosis of bacteria.</a> Nature. 364 (6438), 639-642 (1993).</li><li>Mercer, J., Helenius, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Virus+entry+by+macropinocytosis.">Virus entry by macropinocytosis.</a> Nature Cell Biology. 11 (5), 510-520 (2009).</li><li>Liu, X., Ghosh, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Intracellular+nanoparticle+delivery+by+oncogenic+KRAS-mediated+macropinocytosis.">Intracellular nanoparticle delivery by oncogenic KRAS-mediated macropinocytosis.</a> International Journal of Nanomedicine. 14, 6589-6600 (2019).</li><li>Desai, A. S., Hunter, M. R., Kapustin, A. N. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Using+macropinocytosis+for+intracellular+delivery+of+therapeutic+nucleic+acids+to+tumour+cells.">Using macropinocytosis for intracellular delivery of therapeutic nucleic acids to tumour cells.</a> Philosophical Transactions of Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences. 374 (1765), 20180156 (2019).</li><li>Lin, H. P., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Identification+of+novel+macropinocytosis+inhibitors+using+a+rational+screen+of+Food+and+Drug+Administration-approved+drugs.">Identification of novel macropinocytosis inhibitors using a rational screen of Food and Drug Administration-approved drugs.</a> British Journal of Pharmacology. 175 (18), 3640-3655 (2018).</li><li>Singla, B., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=PKC&#948;-Mediated+Nox2+Activation+Promotes+Fluid-Phase+Pinocytosis+of+Antigens+by+Immature+Dendritic+Cells.">PKC&#948;-Mediated Nox2 Activation Promotes Fluid-Phase Pinocytosis of Antigens by Immature Dendritic Cells.</a> Frontiers in Immunology. 9, 537 (2018).</li><li>Ivanov, A. I. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Pharmacological+inhibition+of+endocytic+pathways:+is+it+specific+enough+to+be+useful.">Pharmacological inhibition of endocytic pathways: is it specific enough to be useful.</a> Methods in Molecular Biology. 440, 15-33 (2008).</li><li>Araki, N., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Effect+of+3-methyladenine+on+the+fusion+process+of+macropinosomes+in+EGF-stimulated+A431+cells.">Effect of 3-methyladenine on the fusion process of macropinosomes in EGF-stimulated A431 cells.</a> Cell Structure and Function. 31 (2), 145-157 (2006).</li><li>Koivusalo, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Amiloride+inhibits+macropinocytosis+by+lowering+submembranous+pH+and+preventing+Rac1+and+Cdc42+signaling.">Amiloride inhibits macropinocytosis by lowering submembranous pH and preventing Rac1 and Cdc42 signaling.</a> Journal of Cell Biology. 188 (4), 547-563 (2010).</li><li>Fischer, E. R., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Scanning+electron+microscopy.">Scanning electron microscopy.</a> Current Protocols in Microbiology. , (2012).</li><li>Yoshida, S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Dorsal+ruffles+enhance+activation+of+Akt+by+growth+factors.">Dorsal ruffles enhance activation of Akt by growth factors.</a> Journal of Cell Science. 131 (22), (2018).</li><li>Nakase, I., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Active+macropinocytosis+induction+by+stimulation+of+epidermal+growth+factor+receptor+and+oncogenic+Ras+expression+potentiates+cellular+uptake+efficacy+of+exosomes.">Active macropinocytosis induction by stimulation of epidermal growth factor receptor and oncogenic Ras expression potentiates cellular uptake efficacy of exosomes.</a> Science Reports. 5, 10300 (2015).</li><li>Gold, S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+clathrin+independent+macropinocytosis-like+entry+mechanism+used+by+bluetongue+virus-1+during+infection+of+BHK+cells.">A clathrin independent macropinocytosis-like entry mechanism used by bluetongue virus-1 during infection of BHK cells.</a> PLoS One. 5 (6), 11360 (2010).</li><li>Mishra, R., Bhowmick, N. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Visualization+of+Macropinocytosis+in+Prostate+Fibroblasts.">Visualization of Macropinocytosis in Prostate Fibroblasts.</a> Bio- Protocols. 9 (10), (2019).</li><li>Gordon, R. 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The present SEM imaging protocol provides a tool to visualize and quantify membrane ruffle formation, circular protrusions, and macropinocytic cups on the cell surface in vitro. Although the current protocol focuses on macrophages, studies have shown that membrane ruffle formation also occurs on various other cell types including dendritic cells, fibroblasts, neurons, and cancer cells11,12,14,<sup class='xref...

Macropinocytosis is an endocytic process responsible for internalizing a large amount of extracellular fluid and its content via the formation of dynamic and actin-driven plasma membrane protrusions called membrane ruffles1. Many of these membrane ruffles form cups that close and fuse back onto the cell and separate from the plasma membrane as large, heterogeneous intracellular endosomes also known as macropinosomes1. Although macropinocytosis is induced by growth factors such as macrophage colony-stimulating factor (M-CSF) and epidermal growth factor (EGF) in a wide range of cell types, an additional unique, calcium-dependent process known as constitutive macropinocytosis has been also observed in innate immune cells2,3,4,5,6,7,8.
The ability of cells to internalize extracellular material via macropinocytosis has been shown to play an important role in a variety of physiological processes ranging from nutrient uptake to pathogen capture and antigen presentation9,10,11. However, because this process is non-selective and inducible, it has also been implicated in a number of pathological conditions. Indeed, previous studies suggested that macropinocytosis plays an important role in Alzheimer&#39;s disease, Parkinson&#39;s disease, cancer, nephrolithiasis and atherosclerosis12,13,14,15,16. Moreover, certain bacteria and viruses have shown to utilize macropinocytosis to gain entry into host cells and induce infection17,18. Interestingly, stimulation of macropinocytosis can be also exploited for targeted delivery of therapeutic agents in various disease conditions19,20.
Previous studies have explored macropinocytosis by quantifying internalized fluorescently-tagged fluid-phase markers in the absence and presence of pharmacological agents that inhibit macropinocytosis using flow cytometry and confocal imaging21,22. Currently available pharmacological tools that inhibit macropinocytosis are limited to and comprise of 1) actin polymerization inhibitors (cytochalasin D and latrunculins), 2) PI3K blockers (LY-290042 and wortmannin) and 3) inhibitors of sodium hydrogen exchangers (NHE) (amiloride and EIPA)5,14,15,23,24,25. However, because these inhibitors have endocytosis independent effects, it is difficult to selectively determine the contribution of macropinocytosis to solute uptake and disease pathogenesis especially in vivo21.
Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) is a type of electron microscope that produces ultra-high-resolution images of cells using a focused beam of electrons26. In macropinocytosis research, SEM imaging is regarded as the gold standard technique to visualize topographical and morphological characteristics of the plasma membrane, quantify membrane ruffle formation, and investigate their progression towards macropinosome internalization. Furthermore, scanning electron microscopy combined with the quantification of solute uptake, in the presence and absence of macropinocytosis blockers, provides a reliable strategy to examine macropinocytotic solute internalization in vitro. This paper provides a detailed protocol on how to prepare cells for SEM, visualize the cell surface, quantify ruffle formation, and examine their progress towards cup closure and macropinosome internalization.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>0.5% Trypsin-EDTA</td>
			<td>Gibco</td>
			<td>15400-054</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>2% Glutaraldehyde</td>
			<td>Electron Microscopy Sciences</td>
			<td>16320</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>4% Paraformaldehyde</td>
			<td>Santa Cruz Biotechnology</td>
			<td>281692</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>5-(N-ethyl-N-isopropyl)-Amiloride</td>
			<td>Sigma Life Science</td>
			<td>A3085</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td colspan="2">Accuri C6 Flow Cytometer</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Carbon Adhesive Tabs</td>
			<td>Electron Microscopy Sciences</td>
			<td>77825-09</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dimethyl Sulfoxide</td>
			<td>Corning</td>
			<td>25-950-CQC</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dulbecco&#39;s Modified Eagle Medium</td>
			<td>Cytiva Life Sciences</td>
			<td>SH30022.01</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Falcon 24-well Clear Flat Bottom TC-treated Multiwell Cell Culture Plate</td>
			<td>Falcon</td>
			<td>353047</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fetal Bovine Serum</td>
			<td>Gemini Bio</td>
			<td>900-108</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>FitC-dextran</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>D1823</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>FM 4-64</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>T13320</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>HERAcell 150i CO2 incubator</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>51026282</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hummer Model 6.2 Sputter Coater</td>
			<td>Anatech USA</td>
			<td>58565</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td colspan="2">JSM-IT500HR scanning electron microscope</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microscope Cover Glass</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>12-545-82</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Pen Strep</td>
			<td>Gibco</td>
			<td>15140-122</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate</td>
			<td>Millipore Sigma</td>
			<td>524400</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>RAW 264.7 macrophage</td>
			<td>ATCC</td>
			<td>ATCC TIB-71</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Recombinant Human M-CSF</td>
			<td>Peprotech</td>
			<td>300-25</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Samdri-790 Critical Point Dryer</td>
			<td>Tousimis Research Corporation</td>
			<td>8778B</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>SEM Aluminum Specimen Mounts</td>
			<td>Electron Microscopy Sciences</td>
			<td>75220</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium Cacodylate</td>
			<td>Electron Microscopy Sciences</td>
			<td>12300</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Texas red-dextra</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>D1864</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Trypan Blue Solution</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>15250061</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Zeiss LSM 780 confocal microscope</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

visualizing membrane ruffle formation using scanning electron microscopy

Membrane ruffling is the formation of motile plasma membrane protrusions containing a meshwork of newly polymerized actin filaments. Membrane ruffles may form spontaneously or in response to growth factors, inflammatory cytokines, and phorbol esters. Some of the membrane protrusions may reorganize into circular membrane ruffles that fuse at their distal margins and form cups that close and separate into the cytoplasm as large, heterogeneous vacuoles called macropinosomes. During the process, ruffles trap extracellular fluid and solutes that internalize within macropinosomes. High-resolution scanning electron microscopy (SEM) is a commonly used imaging technique to visualize and quantify membrane ruffle formation, circular protrusions, and closed macropinocytic cups on the cell surface. The following protocol describes the cell culture conditions, stimulation of the membrane ruffle formation in vitro, and how to fix, dehydrate, and prepare cells for imaging using SEM. Quantification of membrane ruffling, data normalization, and stimulators and inhibitors of membrane ruffle formation are also described. This method can help answer key questions about the role of macropinocytosis in physiological and pathological processes, investigate new targets that regulate membrane ruffle formation, and identify yet uncharacterized physiological stimulators as well as novel pharmacological inhibitors of macropinocytosis.

Here, we describe the results from the presented technique. Representative SEM images shown in Figure 1 demonstrate membrane ruffle formation in RAW 264.7 macrophages following treatment with PMA and M-CSF. Images were first captured at a magnification of 3,500x for quantification purposes and then at higher levels of magnification (8,500x to 16,000x) to show the plasma membrane at greater details. Pretreatment of macrophages with the macropinocytosis inhibitor EIPA attenuated membrane ruffl...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Visualizing Membrane Ruffle Formation using Scanning Electron Microscopy at JoVE.com

Visualizing Membrane Ruffle Formation using Scanning Electron Microscopy

Macropinocytosis is a highly conserved endocytic process initiated by the formation of F-actin-rich sheet-like membrane projections, also known as membrane ruffles. Increased rate of macropinocytotic solute internalization has been implicated in various pathological conditions. This protocol presents a method to quantify membrane ruffle formation in vitro using scanning electron microscopy.

Membrane ruffling is the formation of motile plasma membrane protrusions containing a meshwork of newly polymerized actin filaments. Membrane ruffles may ...

The present SEM imaging protocol provides a tool to visualize and quantify membrane ruffle formation, circular protrusions, and macropinocytic cups on the cell surface in vitro. SEM provides high-resolution images of the cell surface that can be used to to visualize macropinocytic membrane activities. This technique can be used to discover new signaling pathways regulating macropinocytosis, and identify novel stimulators and inhibitors of micropinocytosis.Begin by placing sterile glass cover slips in wells of a 24-well plate using autoclaved forceps. Then seed raw 264.7 macrophages onto the cover slips at a density of 10 to the sixth cells per milliliter and incubate the plate overnight in a humidified incubator at 37 degrees Celsius and 5%carbon dioxide. On the following day, replace the media in each well with 500 microliters of fresh complete media, then pretreat the macrophages for 30 minutes with a vehicle control such as DMSO or a macropinocytosis inhibitor such as EIPA.Next, to promote membrane ruffling, treat the cells for 30 minutes with macropinocytosis stimulators, such as a one-micromolar PMA solution or 100 nanograms per milliliter of macrophage colony stimulating factor. To fix the cells for scanning electron microscopy, aspirate the media from the wells and wash the cover slips twice with ice-cold PBS, then incubate the cover slips in a fixative for 30 minutes at room temperature followed by overnight incubation at four degrees Celsius. On the following day, without disturbing the cell monolayer, gently wash and then incubate the cover slips in 500 microliters of 0.1-motor sodium cacodylate for 15 minutes.Following two washes with 500 microliters of distilled water, wash the cover slips twice in 500 microliters of a graded ethanol series with a 10-minute incubation in each wash. To perform critical point drying, place the cover slips in a critical point dryer and cover them with 100%ethanol. Then, press the power button and open the carbon dioxide tank.Press the cool button for approximately 30 seconds until the temperature decreases to zero degrees Celsius. Then, press the fill button until a bubble appears in the chamber window. Next, press the purge button until the smell of ethanol from the purge exhaust disappears.Then, press the cool button again until the temperature decreases to zero degrees Celsius. Re-press the full and purge buttons to turn them off. Then, close the carbon dioxide tank.Re-press the cool bottom to turn it off, then press the heat button. Set the temperature to 42 degrees Celsius and pressure to 1, 200 pounds per square inch. Once the pressure and temperature stabilize, press the bleed button to allow the pressure to decrease slowly.Once the chamber pressure reaches 150 pounds per square inch, press the vent bottom and wait until the pressure decreases to zero pounds per square inch. Turn off the critical point dryer and remove the cover slips. Next, using carbon adhesive taps, mount the cover slips on the aluminum specimen mounts for scanning electron microscopy, then proceed to sputter coating using gold or palladium in a sputter coater.Turn on the power button of the sputter coater. After the vacuum reaches 30 millitorrs, flush the chamber to remove humidity and air by turning off the gas switch and turning the fine gas valve counterclockwise. Once the vacuum increases to 200 millitorrs, turn off the gas switch and wait until the vacuum reaches 30 millitorrs.Then, flush the chamber again to remove humidity and air as demonstrated. After flushing the chamber three times, push the timer bottom and adjust the voltage knob until the gauge reads 10 milliamperes. Then, remove the coated cover slips from the chamber.To visualize and quantify the membrane ruffles, insert the sample cover slips into the chamber of a scanning electron microscope, close the door, and press the evac button. Open the microscope operating software and set the accelerating voltage to 15 kilovolts and the working distance to 10 millimeters. Press the Coordinates button and move around the controller until the cells appear in the center of the observation screen.Set the magnification to 3, 500 X and image the sample by clicking the Photo button. Shown here are representative scanning electron microscopy images, demonstrating membrane ruffle formation in raw 264.7 macrophages following treatment with PMA and macrophage colony stimulating factor. Pretreatment of macrophages with the macropinocytosis inhibitor EIPA attenuates membrane ruffle formation.During ruffle formation, the plasma membrane undergoes distinct morphological stages, including a sheet-like membrane protrusion, a C-shaped membrane ruffle, and a macropinocytic cup. Membrane ruffle formation following PMA and macrophage colony stimulating factor treatments can be quantified using scanning electron microscopy, whereas macropinosome formation can be confirmed by alternative imaging techniques, such as confocal microscopy using Texas red dextran and FM4-64. The blue arrows indicate membrane ruffling, while the yellow and green arrows point to the micropinosomes.Finally, macropinocytosis can be confirmed and quantified through flow cytometry using a fluorescent fluid phase marker such as FITC or Texas red dextran. In addition to SEM, live cell imaging and flow cytometry analysis of fluorescently-labeled dextran internalization can also be performed to investigate and quantify macropinocytosis.

visualizing-membrane-ruffle-formation-using-scanning-electron

Research

JoVE Journal

Medicine

Oral Biofilm Analysis of Palatal Expanders by Fluorescence In-Situ Hybridization and Confocal Laser Scanning Microscopy

Confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) of natural heterogeneous biofilm is today facilitated by a comprehensive range of staining techniques, one of them being fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH).1,2 We performed a pilot study in which oral biofilm samples collected from fixed orthodontic appliances (palatal expanders) were stained by FISH, the objective being to assess the three-dimensional organization of natural biofilm and plaque accumulation.3,4 FISH creates an opportunity to stain cells in their native biofilm environment by the use of fluorescently labeled 16S rRNA-targeting probes.4-7,19 Compared to alternative techniques like immunofluorescent labeling, this is an inexpensive, precise and straightforward labeling technique to investigate different bacterial groups in mixed biofilm consortia.18,20 General probes were used that bind to Eubacteria (EUB338 + EUB338II + EUB338III; hereafter EUBmix),8-10 Firmicutes (LGC354 A-C; hereafter LGCmix),9,10 and Bacteroidetes (Bac303).11 In addition, specific probes binding to Streptococcus mutans (MUT590)12,13 and Porphyromonas gingivalis (POGI)13,14 were used. The extreme hardness of the surface materials involved (stainless steel and acrylic resin) compelled us to find new ways of preparing the biofilm. As these surface materials could not be readily cut with a cryotome, various sampling methods were explored to obtain intact oral biofilm. The most workable of these approaches is presented in this communication. Small flakes of the biofilm-carrying acrylic resin were scraped off with a sterile scalpel, taking care not to damage the biofilm structure. Forceps were used to collect biofilm from the steel surfaces. Once collected, the samples were fixed and placed directly on polysine coated glass slides. FISH was performed directly on these slides with the probes mentioned above. Various FISH protocols were combined and modified to create a new protocol that was easy to handle.5,10,14,15 Subsequently the samples were analyzed by confocal laser scanning microscopy. Well-known configurations3,4,16,17 could be visualized, including mushroom-style formations and clusters of coccoid bacteria pervaded by channels. In addition, the bacterial composition of these typical biofilm structures were analyzed and 2D and 3D images created.

We present a protocol for structural and compositional analysis of natural oral biofilm from orthodontic appliances with in situ hybridization (FISH) and confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM). Oral biofilm samples were collected from palatal expanders, scraping acrylic-resin flakes off their surface and referring them for molecular processing.

Confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) of natural heterogeneous biofilm is today facilitated by a comprehensive range of staining techniques, one of ...

Formation of Human Prostate Epithelium Using Tissue Recombination of Rodent Urogenital Sinus Mesenchyme and Human Stem Cells

Progress in prostate cancer research is severely limited by the availability of human-derived and hormone-na&iuml;ve model systems, which limit our ability to understand genetic and molecular events underlying prostate disease initiation. Toward developing better model systems for studying human prostate carcinogenesis, we and others have taken advantage of the unique pro-prostatic inductive potential of embryonic rodent prostate stroma, termed urogenital sinus mesenchyme (UGSM). When recombined with certain pluripotent cell populations such as embryonic stem cells, UGSM induces the formation of normal human prostate epithelia in a testosterone-dependent manner. Such a human model system can be used to investigate and experimentally test the ability of candidate prostate cancer susceptibility genes at an accelerated pace compared to typical rodent transgenic studies. Since Human embryonic stem cells (hESCs) can be genetically modified in culture using inducible gene expression or siRNA knock-down vectors prior to tissue recombination, such a model facilitates testing the functional consequences of genes, or combinations of genes, which are thought to promote or prevent carcinogenesis.
The technique of isolating pure populations of UGSM cells, however, is challenging and learning often requires someone with previous expertise to personally teach. Moreover, inoculation of cell mixtures under the renal capsule of an immunocompromised host can be technically challenging. Here we outline and illustrate proper isolation of UGSM from rodent embryos and renal capsule implantation of tissue mixtures to form human prostate epithelium. Such an approach, at its current stage, requires in vivo xenografting of embryonic stem cells; future applications could potentially include in vitro gland formation or the use of induced pluripotent stem cell populations (iPSCs).

To unravel the earliest molecular mechanisms underlying prostate cancer initiation, novel and innovative human model systems and approaches are desperately needed. The potential of pre-prostatic urogenital sinus mesenchyme (UGSM) to induce pluripotent stem cell populations to form human prostate epithelium is a powerful experimental tool in prostate research.

Progress in prostate cancer research is severely  limited by the availability of human-derived and hormone-na&iuml;ve model systems,  which limit our ...

Using a Laminating Technique to Perform Confocal Microscopy of the Human Sclera

The sclera is a dense connective tissue that covers and protects the eye. It mainly consists of dense collagen bundles (types I, III, IV, V, VI, and VII). Due to its autofluorescence, opaqueness, and thickness, it has not been found suitable for confocal microscopy. An alternative approach to the one presented here, which uses formalin-fixed sclera embedded in paraffin for immunohistochemistry, has technical challenges, especially when preheating the tissue for antigen retrieval. Since the sclera is relatively poor in both cells and vessels, the use of larger tissue samples was explored to help prevent overlooking cells and to understand their localization in relation to vessels and other anatomical sites. To allow for the analysis of larger tissue samples under the confocal microscope, a laminating technique was performed to create thin layers from the sclera. Following the analysis of results of CD31 blood vessels and lymphatic vessel endothelial hyaluronan receptor 1 (LYVE1) positive cells, for which approval for scientific examination was obtained, the advantages and limitations of this method are discussed.

Human sclera tissue is mainly collagen; therefore, it is not easily usable for immunohistochemistry. To achieve the goal of performing immunohistochemistry for confocal microscopy of scleral tissue, a laminating technique was used.


The sclera is a dense connective tissue that covers and protects the eye. It mainly consists of dense collagen bundles (types I, III, IV, V, VI, and ...

Quantitative Visualization of Leukocyte Infiltrate in a Murine Model of Fulminant Myocarditis by Light Sheet Microscopy

Light-sheet fluorescence microscopy (LSFM), in combination with chemical clearing protocols, has become the gold standard for analyzing fluorescently labelled structures in large biological specimens, and is down to cellular resolution. Meanwhile, the constant refinement of underlying protocols and the enhanced availability of specialized commercial systems enable us to investigate the microstructure of whole mouse organs and even allow for the characterization of cellular behavior in various live-cell imaging approaches. Here, we describe a protocol for the spatial whole-mount visualization and quantification of the CD45+ leukocyte population in inflamed mouse hearts. The method employs a transgenic mouse strain (CD11c.DTR)that has recently been shown to serve as a robust, inducible model for the study of the development of fulminant fatal myocarditis, characterized by lethal cardiac arrhythmias. This protocol includes myocarditis induction, intravital antibody-mediated cell staining, organ preparation, and LSFM with subsequent computer-assisted image post-processing. Although presented as a highly-adapted method for our particular scientific question, the protocol represents the blueprint of an easily adjustable system that can also target completely different fluorescent structures in other organs and even in other species.

Here, we describe a light-sheet microscopy approach to visualize the cardiac CD45+ leukocyte infiltrate in a murine model of aseptic fulminant myocarditis, which is induced by the intratracheal diphtheria toxin treatment of CD11c.DTR mice.

Light-sheet fluorescence microscopy (LSFM), in combination with chemical clearing protocols, has become the gold standard for analyzing fluorescently ...

Preparation and In Vitro Characterization of Magnetized miR-modified Endothelial Cells

To date, the available surgical and pharmacological treatments for cardiovascular diseases (CVD) are limited and often palliative. At the same time, gene and cell therapies are highly promising alternative approaches for CVD treatment. However, the broad clinical application of gene therapy is greatly limited by the lack of suitable gene delivery systems. The development of appropriate gene delivery vectors can provide a solution to current challenges in cell therapy. In particular, existing drawbacks, such as limited efficiency and low cell retention in the injured organ, could be overcome by appropriate cell engineering (i.e., genetic) prior to transplantation. The presented protocol describes the efficient and safe transient modification of endothelial cells using a polyethyleneimine superparamagnetic magnetic nanoparticle (PEI/MNP)-based delivery vector. Also, the algorithm and methods for cell characterization are defined. The successful intracellular delivery of microRNA (miR) into human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) has been achieved without affecting cell viability, functionality, or intercellular communication. Moreover, this approach was proven to cause a strong functional effect in introduced exogenous miR. Importantly, the application of this MNP-based vector ensures cell magnetization, with accompanying possibilities of magnetic targeting and non-invasive MRI tracing. This may provide a basis for magnetically guided, genetically engineered cell therapeutics that can be monitored non-invasively with MRI.

Preparation and In Vitro Characterization of Magnetized miR-modified Endothelial Cells

This manuscript describes the efficient, non-viral delivery of miR to endothelial cells by a PEI/MNP vector and their magnetization. Thus, in addition to genetic modification, this approach allows for magnetic cell guidance and MRI detectability. The technique can be used to improve the characteristics of therapeutic cell products.

To date, the available surgical and pharmacological treatments for cardiovascular diseases (CVD) are limited and often palliative. At the same time, gene ...

Scanning Skeletal Remains for Bone Mineral Density in Forensic Contexts

The purpose of this paper is to introduce a promising, novel method to aid in the assessment of bone quality in forensically relevant skeletal remains. BMD is an important component of bone&#39;s nutritional status and in skeletal remains of both juveniles and adults, and it can provide information about bone quality. For adults remains, it can provide information on pathological conditions or when bone insufficiency may have occurred. In juveniles, it provides a useful metric to elucidate cases of fatal starvation or neglect, which are generally difficult to identify. This paper provides a protocol for the anatomical orientation and analysis of skeletal remains for scanning via dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA). Three case studies are presented to illustrate when DXA scans can be informative to the forensic practitioner. The first case study presents an individual with observed longitudinal fractures in the weight bearing bones and DXA is used to assess bone insufficiency. BMD is found to be normal suggesting another etiology for the fracture pattern present. The second case study employed DXA to investigate suspected chronic malnutrition. The BMD results are consistent with results from long bone lengths and suggest the juvenile had suffered from chronic malnutrition. The final case study provides an example where fatal starvation in a fourteen-month infant is suspected, which supports autopsy findings of fatal starvation. DXA scans showed low bone mineral density for chronological age and is substantiated by traditional assessments of infant health. However, when dealing with skeletal remains taphonomic alterations should be considered before applying this method.

Bone mineral density (BMD) is an important factor in understanding nutritional intake. For human skeletal remains, it is a useful metric to assess quality of life in both juveniles and adults, particularly in fatal starvation and neglect cases. This paper provides guidelines for scanning human skeletal remains for forensic purposes.

The purpose of this paper is to introduce a promising, novel method to aid in the assessment of bone quality in forensically relevant skeletal remains. ...

Micro-dissection of Enamel Organ from Mandibular Incisor of Rats Exposed to Environmental Toxicants

Enamel defects resulting from environmental conditions and ways of life are public health concerns because of their high prevalence. These defects result from altered activity of cells responsible for enamel synthesis named ameloblasts, which present in enamel organ. During amelogenesis, ameloblasts follow a specific and precise sequence of events of proliferation, differentiation, and death. A rat continually growing incisors is a suitable experimental model to study ameloblast activity and differentiation stages in physiological and pathological conditions. Here, we describe a reliable and consistent method to micro-dissect enamel organ of rats exposed to environmental toxicants. The micro-dissected dental epithelia contain secretion- and maturation-stage ameloblasts that may be used for qualitative experiments, such as immunohistochemistry assays and in situ hybridization, as well as for quantitative analyses such as RT-qPCR, RNA-seq, and Western blotting.

Understanding enamel formation and possible alterations requires the study of ameloblast activity. Here, we describe a reliable and consistent method to micro-dissect enamel organs containing secretion- and maturation-stage ameloblasts that may be used for further quantitative and qualitative experimental procedures.

Enamel defects resulting from environmental conditions and ways of life are public health concerns because of their high prevalence. These defects result ...

Noninvasive Determination of Vortex Formation Time Using Transesophageal Echocardiography During Cardiac Surgery

Trans-mitral blood flow produces a three-dimensional rotational body of fluid, known as a vortex ring, that enhances the efficiency of left ventricular (LV) filling compared with a continuous linear jet. Vortex ring development is most often quantified with vortex formation time (VFT), a dimensionless parameter based on fluid ejection from a rigid tube. Our group is interested in factors that affect LV filling efficiency during cardiac surgery. In this report, we describe how to use standard two-dimensional (2D) and Doppler transesophageal echocardiography (TEE) to noninvasively derive the variables needed to calculate VFT. We calculate atrial filling fraction (&#946;) from velocity-time integrals of trans-mitral early LV filling and atrial systole blood flow velocity waveforms measured in the mid-esophageal four-chamber TEE view. Stroke volume (SV) is calculated as the product of the diameter of the LV outflow track measured in the mid-esophageal long axis TEE view and the velocity-time integral of blood flow through the outflow track determined in the deep transgastric view using pulse-wave Doppler. Finally, mitral valve diameter (D) is determined as the average of major and minor axis lengths measured in orthogonal mid-esophageal bicommissural and long axis imaging planes, respectively. VFT is then calculated as 4 &#215; (1-&#946;) &#215; SV/(&#960;D3). We have used this technique to analyze VFT in several groups of patients with differing cardiac abnormalities. We discuss our application of this technique and its potential limitations and also review our results to date. Noninvasive measurement of VFT using TEE is straightforward in anesthetized patients undergoing cardiac surgery. The technique may allow cardiac anesthesiologists and surgeons to assess the impact of pathological conditions and surgical interventions on LV filling efficiency in real time.

We describe a protocol to measure vortex formation time, an index of left ventricular filling efficiency, using standard transesophageal echocardiography techniques in patients undergoing cardiac surgery. We apply this technique to analyze vortex formation time in several groups of patients with differing cardiac pathologies.

Trans-mitral blood flow produces a three-dimensional rotational body of fluid, known as a vortex ring, that enhances the efficiency of left ventricular ...

Immunofluorescence Labelling of Human and Murine Neutrophil Extracellular Traps in Paraffin-Embedded Tissue

Neutrophil granulocytes, also called polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMN) due to their lobulated nucleus, are the most abundant type of leukocytes. They mature in the bone marrow and are released into the peripheral blood, where they circulate for about 6&#8722;8 h; however, in tissue, they can survive for days. By diapedesis through the endothelium, they leave the blood stream, enter tissues, and migrate towards the site of an infection following chemotactic gradients.&#160;Neutrophils can combat invading microorganisms by phagocytosis,&#160;degranulation, and generation of neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs). This protocol will help to detect NETs in paraffin-embedded tissue. NETs are the result of a process called NETosis, which leads to the release of nuclear, granular, and cytoplasmic components either from living (vital NETosis) or dying (suicidal NETosis) neutrophils. In vitro, NETs form cloud-like structures, which occupy a space several times larger than that of the cells from which they descended. The backbone of NETs is chromatin, to which a selection of proteins and peptides originating from granules and cytoplasm are bound. Thereby, a high local concentration of toxic compounds is maintained so that NETs can capture and inactivate a variety of pathogens including bacteria, fungi, viruses, and parasites, while diffusion of the highly active NET components leading to damage in neighboring tissue is limited. Nevertheless, in recent years it has become apparent that NETs, if generated in abundance or cleared insufficiently, do have pathological potential ranging from autoimmune diseases to cancer. Thus, detection of NETs in tissue samples may have diagnostic significance, and the detection of NETs in diseased tissue can influence the treatment of patients. Since paraffin-embedded tissue samples are the standard specimen used for pathological analysis, it was sought to establish a protocol for fluorescent staining of NET components in paraffin-embedded tissue using commercially available antibodies.

Neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) are three-dimensional structures generated by stimulated neutrophil granulocytes. It has become clear in recent years that NETs are involved in a wide variety of diseases. Detection of NETs in tissue may have diagnostic relevance, so standardized protocols for labelling NET components are required.

Neutrophil granulocytes, also called polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMN) due to their lobulated nucleus, are the most abundant type of leukocytes. They ...

Using Q Suture to Enhance Resistance to Gap Formation and Tensile Strength of Repaired Flexor Tendons

Peripheral epitendinous sutures are believed to enhance core suture strength in tendon repair and decrease the risk of gapping between tendon ends. Here Q suture, an alternative to peripheral sutures, is presented for the use in tendon repair. Its effects on gap formation and tensile strength of the repaired tendons were compared with conventional running peripheral sutures. Three 2-strand sutures and three 4-strand sutures were used in repairing porcine tendons. The time required for performing 2Q and running sutures were recorded. The repaired tendons were subjected to a cyclic loading test, and the cycle number, during which a 2-mm gap was formed, was determined. After the cyclic loading, the gap size at the tendon ends and the ultimate strength of the repaired tendons were measured. Augmentation with the Q sutures reduced the number of tendons showing 2-mm gaps at tendon ends during cyclic loading. With addition of Q sutures 2-strand sutures significantly increased the ultimate strength of the repaired tendons and 4-strand sutures decreased the gap distance at the repair site of tendons. The time required for performing 2Q sutures was significantly less than that for running sutures. Therefore, we conclude that the Q suture is efficient in enhancing the tensile resistance and tendon repair strength and can be an alternative to conventional peripheral sutures.

Here, we present a &#8220;Q&#8221; suture technique that can be performed in tendon repair and its effects on the gap formation and tensile strength of the repaired tendons. Q suture is shown to be efficient in enhancing the tensile resistance and tendon repair strength.

Peripheral epitendinous sutures are believed to enhance core suture strength in tendon repair and decrease the risk of gapping between tendon ends. Here Q ...