Name: Author Spotlight: Investigating Fungal Pathogenicity Mechanisms in Maize
Uploaded: 2023-09-15T14:20:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Investigating Fungal Pathogenicity Mechanisms in Maize at JoVE.com

The authors thank USDA-NIFA for their financial support (grant numbers 2018-67013-28489 and 2020-70410-32901). Any opinions, findings, conclusions, or recommendations expressed in this manuscript are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the U.S. Department of Agriculture. We thank Science Without Borders visiting student from Brazil, Mayara de Silva, for the images that appear in Figure 6A and in Figure 7D. We also acknowledge the Department of Plant Pathology at the University of Kentucky for providing access to the Olympus confocal microscopes.

NOTE: The workflow for the method is shown in Figure 1.
<img alt="Figure 1" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/65755/65755fig01.jpg" /> 
Figure 1: Steps in the optimized inoculation protocol using detached maize leaf sheaths. Spore suspension preparation, leaf sheath inoculation, and sample preparation for live-cell microscopy are highlighted in green (A</str...

Visualization of Cellular Interactions Between the Maize Sheaths and Fungi

<ol>
	<li>Cheng, Y., Yao, J., Zhang, H., Huang, L., Kang, Z. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cytological+and+molecular+analysis+of+nonhost+resistance+in+rice+to+wheat+powdery+mildew+and+leaf+rust+pathogens.">Cytological and molecular analysis of nonhost resistance in rice to wheat powdery mildew and leaf rust pathogens.</a> Protoplasma. 252 (4), 1167-1179 (2015).</li><li>Hickey, E. L., Coffey, M. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+fine-structural+study+of+the+pea+downy+mildew+fungus+Peronospora+pisi+in+its+host+Pisum+sativum.">A fine-structural study of the pea downy mildew fungus Peronospora pisi in its host Pisum sativum.</a> Canadian Journal of Botany. 55 (23), 2845-2858 (1977).</li><li>Wharton, P. S., Julian, A. M., O'Connell, R. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Ultrastructure+of+the+infection+of+Sorghum+bicolor+by+Colletotrichum+sublineolum.">Ultrastructure of the infection of Sorghum bicolor by Colletotrichum sublineolum.</a> Phytopathology. 91 (2), 149-158 (2001).</li><li>Latunde-Dada, A. O., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Infection+process+and+identity+of+the+hemibiotrophic+anthracnose+fungus+(Colletotrichum+destructivum+O'Gara)+from+cowpea+(Vigna+unguiculata+(L)+Walp.).">Infection process and identity of the hemibiotrophic anthracnose fungus (Colletotrichum destructivum O'Gara) from cowpea (Vigna unguiculata (L) Walp.).</a> Mycological Research. 100 (9), 1133-1141 (1996).</li><li>Bourett, T. M., Howard, R. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=In+vitro+development+of+penetration+structures+in+the+rice+blast+fungus+Magnaporthe+grisea.">In vitro development of penetration structures in the rice blast fungus Magnaporthe grisea.</a> Canadian Journal of Botany. 68 (2), 329-342 (1990).</li><li>Sakamoto, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=On+the+new+method+of+sheath+inoculation+of+rice+plants+with+blast+fungus,+Pyricularia+oryzae+Cav.,+for+the+studying+of+the+disease-resistant+nature+of+the+plant.">On the new method of sheath inoculation of rice plants with blast fungus, Pyricularia oryzae Cav., for the studying of the disease-resistant nature of the plant.</a> Bulletin of the Institute for Agricultural Research, T&#333;hoku University. 1 (3), 120-129 (1949).</li><li>Buiate, E. A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+comparative+genomic+analysis+of+putative+pathogenicity+genes+in+the+host-specific+sibling+species+Colletotrichum+graminicola+and+Colletotrichum+sublineola.">A comparative genomic analysis of putative pathogenicity genes in the host-specific sibling species Colletotrichum graminicola and Colletotrichum sublineola.</a> BMC genomics. 18 (1), 1-24 (2017).</li><li>Kankanala, P., Czymmek, K., Valent, B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Roles+for+rice+membrane+dynamics+and+plasmodesmata+during+biotrophic+invasion+by+the+blast+fungus.">Roles for rice membrane dynamics and plasmodesmata during biotrophic invasion by the blast fungus.</a> The Plant Cell. 19 (2), 706-724 (2007).</li><li>Khang, C. H., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Translocation+of+Magnaporthe+oryzae+effectors+into+rice+cells+and+their+subsequent+cell-to-cell+movement.">Translocation of Magnaporthe oryzae effectors into rice cells and their subsequent cell-to-cell movement.</a> The Plant Cell. 22 (4), 1388-1403 (2010).</li><li>Mosquera, G., Giraldo, M. C., Khang, C. H., Coughlan, S., Valent, B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Interaction+transcriptome+analysis+identifies+Magnaporthe+oryzae+BAS1-4+as+biotrophy-associated+secreted+proteins+in+rice+blast+disease.">Interaction transcriptome analysis identifies Magnaporthe oryzae BAS1-4 as biotrophy-associated secreted proteins in rice blast disease.</a> The Plant Cell. 21 (4), 1273-1290 (2009).</li><li>Sakulkoo, W., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+single+fungal+MAP+kinase+controls+plant+cell-to-cell+invasion+by+the+rice+blast+fungus.">A single fungal MAP kinase controls plant cell-to-cell invasion by the rice blast fungus.</a> Science. 359 (6382), 1399-1403 (2018).</li><li>Torres, M. F., Cuadros, D. F., Vaillancourt, L. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Evidence+for+a+diffusible+factor+that+induces+susceptibility+in+the+Colletotrichum-maize+disease+interaction.">Evidence for a diffusible factor that induces susceptibility in the Colletotrichum-maize disease interaction.</a> Molecular Plant Pathology. 15 (1), 80-93 (2014).</li><li>Valent, B., Khang, C. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Recent+advances+in+rice+blast+effector+research.">Recent advances in rice blast effector research.</a> Current Opinion in Plant Biology. 13 (4), 434-441 (2010).</li><li>Mims, C. W., Vaillancourt, L. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Ultrastructural+characterization+of+infection+and+colonization+of+maize+leaves+by+Colletotrichum+graminicola,+and+by+a+C.+graminicola+pathogenicity+mutant.">Ultrastructural characterization of infection and colonization of maize leaves by Colletotrichum graminicola, and by a C. graminicola pathogenicity mutant.</a> Phytopathology. 92 (7), 803-812 (2002).</li><li>Vargas, W. A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Plant+defense+mechanisms+are+activated+during+biotrophic+and+necrotrophic+development+of+Colletotricum+graminicola+in+maize.">Plant defense mechanisms are activated during biotrophic and necrotrophic development of Colletotricum graminicola in maize.</a> Plant Physiology. 158 (3), 1342-1358 (2012).</li><li>Venard, C., Vaillancourt, L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Colonization+of+fiber+cells+by+Colletotrichum+graminicola+in+wounded+maize+stalks.">Colonization of fiber cells by Colletotrichum graminicola in wounded maize stalks.</a> Phytopathology. 97 (4), 438-447 (2007).</li><li>Venard, C., Vaillancourt, L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Penetration+and+colonization+of+unwounded+maize+tissues+by+the+maize+anthracnose+pathogen+Colletotrichum+graminicola+and+the+related+nonpathogen+C.">Penetration and colonization of unwounded maize tissues by the maize anthracnose pathogen Colletotrichum graminicola and the related nonpathogen C.</a> sublineolum. Mycologia. 99 (3), 368-377 (2007).</li><li>Berruyer, R., Poussier, S., Kankanala, P., Mosquera, G., Valent, B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Quantitative+and+qualitative+influence+of+inoculation+methods+on+in+planta+growth+of+rice+blast+fungus.">Quantitative and qualitative influence of inoculation methods on in planta growth of rice blast fungus.</a> Phytopathology. 96 (4), 346-355 (2006).</li><li>Belis&#225;rio, R., Robertson, A. E., Vaillancourt, L. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Maize+anthracnose+stalk+rot+in+the+genomic+era.">Maize anthracnose stalk rot in the genomic era.</a> Plant Disease. 106 (9), 2281-2298 (2022).</li><li>Warren, H. L., Nicholson, R. L., Ullstrup, A. J., Sharvelle, E. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Observations+of+Colletotrichum+graminicola+on+sweet+corn+in+Indiana.">Observations of Colletotrichum graminicola on sweet corn in Indiana.</a> Plant Disease Reporter. 57, 143-144 (1973).</li><li>Ritchie, S. W., Hanway, J. J., Benson, G. O. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=How+a+corn+plant+develops.">How a corn plant develops.</a> Special Report, Iowa State University. 48, (1986).</li><li>Tuite, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Plant pathological methods: fungi and bacteria. , (1969).</li><li>Wicklow, D. T., Rogers, K. D., Dowd, P. F., Gloer, J. B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Bioactive+metabolites+from+Stenocarpella+maydis,+a+stalk+and+ear+rot+pathogen+of+maize.">Bioactive metabolites from Stenocarpella maydis, a stalk and ear rot pathogen of maize.</a> Fungal Biology. 115 (2), 133-142 (2011).</li><li>Daudi, A., O'Brien, J. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Detection+of+hydrogen+peroxide+by+DAB+staining+in+Arabidopsis+leaves.">Detection of hydrogen peroxide by DAB staining in Arabidopsis leaves.</a> Bio-protocol. 2 (18), e263-e263 (2012).</li><li>Benhamou, R. I., Jaber, Q. Z., Herzog, I. M., Roichman, Y., Fridman, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Fluorescent+tracking+of+the+endoplasmic+reticulum+in+live+pathogenic+fungal+cells.">Fluorescent tracking of the endoplasmic reticulum in live pathogenic fungal cells.</a> ACS Chemical Biology. 13 (12), 3325-3332 (2018).</li><li>Lorang, J. M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=fluorescent+protein+is+lighting+up+fungal+biology.">fluorescent protein is lighting up fungal biology.</a> Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 67 (5), 1987-1994 (2001).</li><li>Liu, C. Y., Zhu, J., Xie, Z. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Visualizing+yeast+organelles+with+fluorescent+protein+markers.">Visualizing yeast organelles with fluorescent protein markers.</a> JoVE (Journal of Visualized Experiments). 182, e63846 (2022).</li><li>Westermann, B., Neupert, W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mitochondria-targeted+green+fluorescent+proteins:+convenient+tools+for+the+study+of+organelle+biogenesis+in+Saccharomyces+cerevisiae.">Mitochondria-targeted green fluorescent proteins: convenient tools for the study of organelle biogenesis in Saccharomyces cerevisiae.</a> Yeast. 16 (15), 1421-1427 (2000).</li><li>Lee, A. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+ER+chaperone+and+signaling+regulator+GRP78/BiP+as+a+monitor+of+endoplasmic+reticulum+stress.">The ER chaperone and signaling regulator GRP78/BiP as a monitor of endoplasmic reticulum stress.</a> Methods. 35 (4), 373-381 (2005).</li><li>Krishnakumar, V., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+maize+database+resource+that+captures+tissue-specific+and+subcellular-localized+gene+expression,+via+fluorescent+tags+and+confocal+imaging+(Maize+Cell+Genomics+Database).">A maize database resource that captures tissue-specific and subcellular-localized gene expression, via fluorescent tags and confocal imaging (Maize Cell Genomics Database).</a> Plant and Cell Physiology. 56 (1), e12-e12 (2015).</li><li>Wu, Q., Luo, A., Zadrozny, T., Sylvester, A., Jackson, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Fluorescent+protein+marker+lines+in+maize:+generation+and+applications.">Fluorescent protein marker lines in maize: generation and applications.</a> International Journal of Developmental Biology. 57 (6-7-8), 535-543 (2013).</li><li>O'Connell, R. J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Lifestyle+transitions+in+plant+pathogenic+Colletotrichum+fungi+deciphered+by+genome+and+transcriptome+analyses.">Lifestyle transitions in plant pathogenic Colletotrichum fungi deciphered by genome and transcriptome analyses.</a> Nature Genetics. 44 (9), 1060-1065 (2012).</li><li>Torres, M. F., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+Colletotrichum+graminicola+mutant+deficient+in+the+establishment+of+biotrophy+reveals+early+transcriptional+events+in+the+maize+anthracnose+disease+interaction.">A Colletotrichum graminicola mutant deficient in the establishment of biotrophy reveals early transcriptional events in the maize anthracnose disease interaction.</a> BMC Genomics. 17 (202), 1-24 (2016).</li><li>Andrie, R. M., Martinez, J. P., Ciuffetti, L. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Development+of+ToxA+and+ToxB+promoter-driven+fluorescent+protein+expression+vectors+for+use+in+filamentous+ascomycetes.">Development of ToxA and ToxB promoter-driven fluorescent protein expression vectors for use in filamentous ascomycetes.</a> Mycologia. 97 (5), 1152-1161 (2005).</li><li>Gordon, C. L., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Glucoamylase::+green+fluorescent+protein+fusions+to+monitor+protein+secretion+in+Aspergillus+niger.">Glucoamylase:: green fluorescent protein fusions to monitor protein secretion in Aspergillus niger.</a> Microbiology. 146 (2), 415-426 (2000).</li><li>Koga, H., Dohi, K., Nakayachi, O., Mori, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+novel+inoculation+method+of+Magnaporthe+grisea+for+cytological+observation+of+the+infection+process+using+intact+leaf+sheaths+of+rice+plants.">A novel inoculation method of Magnaporthe grisea for cytological observation of the infection process using intact leaf sheaths of rice plants.</a> Physiological and Molecular Plant Pathology. 64 (2), 67-72 (2004).</li><li>Xavier, K. V., Pfeiffer, T., Parreira, D. F., Chopra, S., Vaillancourt, L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Aggressiveness+of+Colletotrichum+sublineola+strains+from+Sorghum+bicolor+and+S.+halepense+to+sweet+sorghum+variety+Sugar+Drip,+and+their+impact+on+yield.">Aggressiveness of Colletotrichum sublineola strains from Sorghum bicolor and S. halepense to sweet sorghum variety Sugar Drip, and their impact on yield.</a> Plant Disease. 101 (9), 1578-1587 (2017).</li></ol>

The optimized leaf sheath inoculation method described here is modified from an original protocol that was developed for and has been applied to rice leaf sheaths6,8,36. It allows direct, detailed observations of fungal growth and development in living plant cells with either widefield or confocal microscopy. The protocol is suitable for characterization, comparison, and quantification of a variety of microscopic phenomena durin...

Spatial and temporal analyses at the cellular level are critical for understanding the physiology and cytology of fungal-plant interactions. Foliar tissues that have been chemically fixed1,2,3or cleared and stained4, as well as artificial membranes5, have been used in the past to investigate the cytology of foliar pathogen development and plant-fungal interactions. However, investigation of infection events in living host tissues in real-time without fixation or clearing is challenging due to technical issues related to the preparation of optically transparent samples for imaging.
A detached leaf sheath inoculation protocol was developed in the late 1940s for bright field microscopic investigation of resistance of living rice epidermal cells to the rice blast fungus Magnaporthe oryza6. More recently, detailed molecular, physiological, and cytological observations of host colonization by Colletotrichum and Magnaporthe species have been greatly facilitated by combining modified versions of this leaf sheath method with fungal transformants expressing fluorescent proteins, and high-performance live-cell imaging protocols, including epifluorescence and confocal microscopy7,8,9,10,11,12,13.
This paper details an optimized inoculation protocol using detached maize leaf sheaths for observation of infection processes by hemibiotrophic and necrotrophic foliar fungal pathogens. We have specifically used it to study Colletotrichum graminicola (C. graminicola), the causal agent of anthracnose leaf blight and stalk rot, and Stenocarpella maydis, which causes Diplodia leaf blight and stalk rot. However, the method should be applicable to other hemibiotrophic and necrotrophic foliar fungal pathogens. Cytological and physiological responses during infection and colonization events in these excised leaf sheaths are similar to those in entire leaf blades12,14,15. Furthermore, hemibiotrophic colonization of sheath epidermal cells by C. graminicola is similar to colonization of stalk pith cells16,17. Detached sheaths show greater synchronicity and experimental reproducibility of fungal penetration and colonization than leaf blades or stalk pith tissues14,16,17,18. Most maize varieties can be used for this protocol. However, inbreds or hybrids with excessive purple pigments in the sheaths are less suitable since the pigments interfere with imaging. Golden Jubilee sweet corn has been particularly useful for our studies because untreated seeds are commercially available, the plants are highly susceptible to many foliar diseases, and they grow well in the greenhouse. The first epidemics of anthracnose stalk rot in the United States resulted in the total loss of sweet corn crops in Indiana in the 1970s19,20. This leaf sheath inoculation method can be applied to directly observe and quantify fungal growth and development in living vs. locally killed plant cells, to demonstrate resistance reactions in compatible/incompatible responses to fungal infection, and to test interactions between fungal strains on the same sheath in real-time.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Axiocam monochrome microscope camera</td>
			<td>ZEISS</td>
			<td>426560-9010-000</td>
			<td>Compatible with the Axioplan 2 microscope; provides low read noise and high speed for live cell imaging</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Axioplan 2 epifluorescence microscope</td>
			<td>ZEISS</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td>Allows live viewing and image/video capture&#160;of biological samples&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Benchtop centrifuge 24 X 1.5/2 mL</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>75002431</td>
			<td>Sorvall Legend Micro 17; max speed: 13,300 rpm (17,000 x g)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Falcon bacteriological Petri dish with lid</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>08-757-105</td>
			<td>Polystyrene material; hydrophobic surface</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Filter paper&#160;</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>09-920-115</td>
			<td>Whatman grade 1 for Petri plate moist chambers</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>FV 3000 laser scanning confocal microscope</td>
			<td>Olympus</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td>For visualization of fungal transformants&#39;&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Germination paper</td>
			<td>Anchor Paper Co.</td>
			<td>SD7615L</td>
			<td>76# heavy weight for plastic box moist chambers</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glass Petri dishes</td>
			<td>VWR International</td>
			<td>75845-542</td>
			<td>Type 1 class A, 33 expansion borosilicate glass; 
			complete set (cover + bottom), for Petri plate moist chambers</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glass wool&#160;</td>
			<td>Ohio Valley Specialty Chemical&#160;</td>
			<td>3350</td>
			<td>For glass-wool filter units</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hemocytometer/Neubauer counting chamber and cover glass</td>
			<td>VWR International</td>
			<td>15170-172</td>
			<td>0.1 mm chamber depth; comes with two 0.4 mm cover glasses</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microscope coverslips</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>12-553-457&#160;</td>
			<td>Borosilicate glass; 100/Pk.; 22 mm length, 22 mm width</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Maize cultivar Golden Jubilee seeds</td>
			<td>West Coast Seeds Ltd., Delta, BC, Canada</td>
			<td>CN361</td>
			<td>Matures&#160;in 95-105 days; seed type: F1</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microcentrifuge tubes&#160;</td>
			<td>USA Scientific&#160;&#160;</td>
			<td>1415-2500</td>
			<td>1.5 mL capacity</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microscope slides&#160;</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>12-550-123&#160;</td>
			<td>Superfrost white tab slide; 76 mm length, 25 mm width</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Oatmeal Agar (OA)</td>
			<td>VWR International</td>
			<td>255210</td>
			<td>Difco Oatmeal Agar, BD; 500 g</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Nail polish</td>
			<td>Revlon</td>
			<td>43671</td>
			<td>Clear nail polish for sealing microscope slides; color 771 Clear</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Non-skirted 96-well PCR plate</td>
			<td>USA Sientific</td>
			<td>1402-9500</td>
			<td>100 uL plate volume</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Pestle for microcentrifuge tubes</td>
			<td>USA Scientific&#160;</td>
			<td>1415-5390</td>
			<td>Conical tip; polypropylene material</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>PlanApo 60X/1,00 WLSM water objective&#160;</td>
			<td>Olympus</td>
			<td>1-UB933</td>
			<td>Compatible with the Olympus FV 3000 confocal microscope</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Potato Dextrose Agar (PDA)</td>
			<td>VWR International</td>
			<td>90000-758</td>
			<td>Difco Potato Dextrose Media, BD; 500 g</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Pro-Mix BX</td>
			<td>Premium Horticulture Supply Co.</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td>Premium general-purpose growing medium formulated to provide 
			a&#160;balance of water retention and proper drainage</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>SC10 cone-tainers&#160;</td>
			<td>Greenhouse Megastore&#160;</td>
			<td>CN-SS-SC-10B</td>
			<td>1.5 inch diameter, 8.25 inch depth, and a volume of 164 mL</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>SC10 cone-tainers tray</td>
			<td>Greenhouse Megastore&#160;</td>
			<td>CN-SS-SCTR98</td>
			<td>24 inch length x 12 inch width x 6.75 inch height; holds up to 98 of SC10 cone-tainers</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Single edge razor blade</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>17-989-145</td>
			<td>AccuTec blade; steel material; 38 mm length blade</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Storage containers/boxes with latch closure</td>
			<td>Target</td>
			<td>002-02-0405</td>
			<td>Clear view storage boxes for rmoist chamber; 
			outside dimensions: 23 5/8 inch x 16 3/8 inch x 6 1/2 inch; 32 qt. capacity</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

detached maize sheaths for live-cell imaging of infection by fungal foliar maize pathogens

We have optimized a protocol to inoculate maize leaf sheaths with hemibiotrophic and necrotrophic foliar pathogenic fungi. The method is modified from one originally applied to rice leaf sheaths and allows direct microscopic observation of fungal growth and development in living plant cells. Leaf sheaths collected from maize seedlings with two fully emerged leaf collars are inoculated with 20 &#181;L drops of 5 x 105 spores/mL fungal spore suspensions and incubated in humidity chambers at 23 &#176;C under continuous fluorescent light. After 24-72 h, excess tissue is removed with a razor blade to leave a single layer of epidermal cells, an optically clear sample that can be imaged directly without the necessity for chemical fixation or clearing. Plant and fungal cells remain alive for the duration of the experiment and interactions can be visualized in real-time. Sheaths can be stained or subjected to plasmolysis to study the developmental cytology and viability of host and pathogen cells during infection and colonization. Fungal strains transformed to express fluorescent proteins can be inoculated or co-inoculated on the sheaths for increased resolution and to facilitate the evaluation of competitive or synergistic interactions. Fungal strains expressing fluorescent fusion proteins can be used to track and quantify the production and targeting of these individual proteins in planta. Inoculated sheath tissues can be extracted to characterize nucleic acids, proteins, or metabolites. The use of these sheath assays has greatly advanced the detailed studies of the mechanisms of fungal pathogenicity in maize and also of fungal protein effectors and secondary metabolites contributing to pathogenicity.

Author Spotlight: Investigating Fungal Pathogenicity Mechanisms in Maize 

Detached Maize Sheaths for Live-Cell Imaging of Infection by Fungal Foliar Maize Pathogens

The examples below describe representative outcomes following the use of the maize leaf sheath inoculation method. These examples demonstrate the ease, speed, and precision with which observation and comparison of maize-fungus interactions can be accomplished in real-time with this optimized assay. Live-cell imaging also allows the extraction of quantitative information, providing a useful tool for comparative molecular, cytological, and physiological studies. Further details may be found in the original publications cit...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Investigating Fungal Pathogenicity Mechanisms in Maize at JoVE.com

This manuscript details an optimized inoculation protocol that uses detached maize leaf sheaths for reproducible cytological, physiological, and molecular studies of maize interactions with fungal plant pathogens. The leaf sheaths facilitate real-time observation of cellular interactions between the living plant and fungus in unfixed tissues.

We have optimized a protocol to inoculate maize leaf sheaths with hemibiotrophic and necrotrophic foliar pathogenic fungi. The method is modified from one ...

So our team aims to understand fungal pathogenicity mechanisms in plants to improve disease management. We are currently exploring how the maize autochthonous fungus regulates protein secretion beyond its housekeeping function. Our protocol shows high synchronicity across replications and reproducibility of fungal colonization.Also, with our assays, there is no need for clearing or fixating samples before imaging them in real-time. The method offers a variety of applications in plant-pathogen interactions and contributed to detailed studies on the mechanisms of fungal pathogenicity in maize and comparative genomic analysis.