Bu protokol şu anda bizim laboratuvarda kullanılan ve Dr David Sharp, Mijung Kwon, Patrizia Sommi, Dhanya Cheerambathur dahil olmak üzere pek çok kişi tarafından yıllar boyunca rafine olmuştur. Biz bu sistemde çalışma başlatılan erken Drosophila embriyoların manipülasyon ve mikroenjeksiyon (bkz. 13) mükemmel tavsiye bize sağladığı Dr Bill Sullivan (UCSC) teşekkür ederim. Biz tüm üyelerine Scholey laboratuvar teşekkür ediyorum. Drosophila mitoz üzerinde yaptığımız çalışma, Ulusal Sağlık Enstitüsü, hibe GM55507 tarafından destekleniyor .

Tarifler: Üzüm Suyu plakalar: <ul><li> 5.5g bacto agar </li><li> 14.5 gr dekstroz veya glukoz </li><li> 7.15 g sakaroz </li><li> 45 ml üzüm suyu konsantresi (% 100 meyve suyu). </li><li> 204.5 ml H 2 0 </li><li> 625 ul 10N NaOH </li></ul> Tüm malzemeyi ve mikrodalga kaynayana kadar karıştırın. 2.8 ml asit karışımı (20.9 ml propiyonik asit, 2.1 ml fosforik asit, 27 ml H 2 0 asit karışımı) 35 mm Petri kaplarının üzerine dökün ve karıştırın. Bir ya da iki gün boyunca oda sıcaklığında katılaşmaya edelim. Plakalar yakında olacak değilseniz, 4 parafilm mühür ve tutmak ° C (RT kullanmadan önce gelmesini izin verin). Maya yapıştırın: Kalın bir hamur oluşturmak için bir tatlı kaşığı maya (Sigma YSC2, maya Saccharomyces cerevisiae tip II) su ile ilgili çözülür. Kullanımdan hemen önce, her bir üzüm suyu plaka üzerinde bu küçük bir miktar koyun. G-PEM tampon: <ul><li> 80 mM Na-BORU, pH 6.9 </li><li> 1 mM MgCl 2 </li><li> 1 mM EGTA </li><li> 1 mM GTP </li></ul> Enjeksiyon tamponu: <ul><li> 150 mM K-Aspartat </li><li> 10 mM K-fosfat </li><li> 20 mM imidazol, pH 7.2 </li></ul> Heptan tutkal: 100ml şişe çift yapışkan bant ve yeri önüne sermek, 50ml heptan hakkında birkaç gün için şişe ve taş mühür. Tutkal, çok kalın ise kullanırken, heptan ekleyin. Dehidrasyon haznesi: 100 mm Petri kabı, bir &quot;tablo&quot; yapmak için 35 mm çanak içinde bir parçası koymak ve Drierite yüksekliği &quot;tablo&quot; ve kapak daha yüksek olmadığını, bu yüzden etrafında Drierite (susuz kalsiyum sülfat) eklemek. Embriyolar ile lamel enjeksiyondan önce dehidratasyon için bu &quot;tablo&quot; alınacaktır. Bu en azından bazı belirten Drierite kullanımı ve renk değiştirdi bunu değiştirmek için iyi bir fikirdir. Protokol: Bu protokol, hemen hemen herhangi bir çözünen reaktif Drosophila sinsityal embriyo içine enjeksiyon için kullanılan olabilir: Örneğin, bir floresan gözlem ya da bir hedef protein inhibitörü için protein ya da her ikisi. Her şey hazır: , Plastik bir şişe atın (6 oz, Uygulamalı Bilimsel Drosophila yuvarlak alt), ters tarafta iki küçük delik (2 1cm hakkında) kesme: 1 .- deneyden önce 2 ila 3 gün, üzüm suyu plakaları ve kafes kurmak yatıyordu şişe ve şişe (bu hava akışına izin verecek) bir pamuk parçası ile doldurun, içine sinek dokunun ve üzüm suyu plaka ile kaplayın. 25 tutun ° C (veya oda sıcaklığı) yaklaşık 10 gün boyunca, sinekler embriyolar yatıyordu. Deney enjeksiyon için iğneler çekin 2 .- en az bir gün önce, bir Kopf İğne / Pipet çektirmesi modeli 720 ve ince cidarlı cam filamentler (Dünya Hassas Aletler tw100f) kullanın. Floresan tubulin enjeksiyon için iğne tutmak, 4 ° C sıcaklığa bağlı polimerizasyonu önlemek için iğne. Tubulin hazırlanması: Not: Tüm tubulin 4 yapılmalıdır ° C polimerizasyonu önlemek için. <ol><li> Dondurucu etiketli tubulin çıkarın ve 5 ila 15 dakika buz koyun. </li><li> G-PEM (4 ila 10 kat talep yoğunluğuna bağlı olarak) tampon ile seyreltilir. </li><li> 13k rpm hızında 4 Santrifüj ° C de 10-15 dakika. </li><li> Yük 1 - 2 ul içine iğne. </li></ol> Antikor veya kimyasal inhibitörü: (Bu test edilmesi gerekebilir) uygun bir konsantrasyon iğneler kullanarak, tubulin olarak hazırlayın. Antikor, G-PEM enjeksiyon tampon tampon veya PBS olabilir. Başka bir tampon gerekiyorsa, bu tampon bu tampon kendi başına herhangi bir hasara neden olur emin olmak için bir kontrol olarak enjekte edilmesi gerekecektir. Not: İnhibitör ve floresan tubulin karıştırılır ve konsantrasyonlarının izin verirseniz birlikte enjekte edilebilir. Aksi takdirde, floresan tubulin enjekte inhibitörü enjekte etmeden önce 5 ila 10 dakika bekleyin. Az embriyolar normal iyileşir bir çift enjeksiyon yaparken, daha fazla embriyolar ile başlamak. Embriyo toplama: <ol><li> Yatıyordu kafes yeni bir üzüm suyu plaka koyun. </li><li> Bir saat sonra bu plaka kaldırın, bu günün ilk toplama ve genellikle çok iyi değildir. Bu iptal edilebilir. </li><li> Plaka, her bir saat için embriyoları toplama tutmak için her saat değiştirin. </li></ol> Lamel hazırlanması: <ol><li> Bir mikroskop lamı bir tarafında 50 x 22mm lamel koyun. Slayt bantlayın dört bir yanına taşımak değildir. </li><li> Bir pamuk uçlu bir aplikatör, lamel (yapıştırıcı viskoz olmamalı ve birkaç saniye içinde kuru olmalıdır, aksi takdirde daha heptan eklemek) tek bir satırda bir katman heptan tutkal koydu. </li><li> Bir parça koyun.lamel tarafa doğru slayt yapışkan bant çift. </li></ol> Embriyo hazırlanması: Not: Embriyolar toplama başladıktan sonra yaklaşık 2 saat görüntülü olmalıdır, bu yüzden bu zaman dilimi içinde bitirmek için yeterli zaman izin aşağıdaki adımları başlayacak. <ol><li> Nemlendirilmiş bir fırça ile dikkatlice slayt çift yapışkan bant üzüm suyu plaka ve yer embriyolar pick up. </li><li> Koryon (dış zarı) açık tatili kadar dış kısmı cımbız kullanarak, çift yapışkan bant üzerinde embriyolar rulo. </li><li> Cımbız yapışıyor ve embriyo paralel lamel uzun kenarı uzun kenarı ile lamel heptan tutkal üzerine yerleştirin yavaşça koryon üzerine yuvarlanan embriyo Pick up. 10 ila 20 embriyolar bir satır yukarı ayarlayın. </li><li> Lamel çıkarın ve 3 ila 8 dakika (oda ve enjekte edilecek miktar nem bağlıdır) dehidrasyon odasında yerleştirin. </li><li> Vakum gres metal bir odasının üzerine yerleştirin. </li><li> Kapak Halokarbon petrol 700 ile embriyolar daha ileri dehidratasyonu önlemek için. Embriyolar artık enjeksiyon için hazır. </li></ol> Embriyo enjeksiyon: <ol><li> 16x objektif altında embriyoların bulun. </li><li> Embriyolar taşıyın ve odak düzlemli hareket ettirmeden iğne bulmak. </li><li> Merkezi iğne ve x veya y yönünde hareket ettirmeden yukarı hareket ettirin. </li><li> Iğne açık değilse, görüş alanı içinde lamel kenarına koyun, ancak iğne olacak yerde ve aynı odak düzlemli iğne düşük. Iğne vurur ve yavaşça açın bozulana kadar lamel çok dikkatli hareket ettirin. Iğne açık ise, 5. adıma geçin. (İğneler doldurmadan önce hidroflorik asit ile açılabilir). </li><li> Embriyoların (ancak iğne olacak) yağı koyun, içine iğne alt ve iğne güzel sıvı damla elde emin olun. </li><li> Iğne içine dikkatlice fakat istikrarlı bir embriyo hareket ve embriyo içine bir damla enjekte embriyo ve uzağa taşıyın. (Ya da enjeksiyon aparat yönergeleri izleyin). </li><li> Tüm embriyoların enjekte edildikten sonra, bir konfokal mikroskop gözlem için hazır. </li></ol> Görüntüleme: 60 veya 100X amacı ile konfokal mikroskop Görüntü embriyoların: Notlar: <ol><li> Embriyo mitoz çok hızlı olduğundan tam sürece bağlı olarak incelenmesi gereken bir zaman atlamalı dizi zaman aralığı, en fazla bir kaç saniye olmalıdır. </li><li> 3D serisi veya tek bir düzlemde ilgi sürecine bağlı olarak elde edilebilir. </li><li> Hızlı hareket inhibitörleri, enjeksiyon mikroskop görüntüleme mikroskop transfer hızlı olmak zorundadır. </li></ol><img src="/files/ftp_upload/1382/1382fig1.jpg" alt="Şekil 1" /> Şekil 1: Drosophila sinsityal embriyo mitoz çalışılması. Erken embriyo Çekirdekler 10 13 çekirdekleri formu kortekste bir tek tabaka ile devir sırasında, sitokinez olmadan hızlı bölünmeler tabi. Kortekste çekirdekleri ile erken embriyo şematik. B. Zaman atlamalı görüntüleme GFP-tubulin ve kutup kutup ayırma RFP-histon C. Arsa 11 döngüleri ifade embriyo embriyo etiketli proteinlerin GFP ve / veya RFP ifade edebilir ve diğer etiketli proteinlerin ve / veya inhibitörleri ile microinjected olabilir. , 12 ve 13 vahşi bir tip embriyo. Mil uzunluğunda izometrik uzunluğu ve çok tutarlı ve tekrarlanabilir uzama dönemleri dönemleri sergiler. Mili mikrotübül D. Dinamiği. Rodamin tubulin düşük konsantrasyonda enjeksiyon mikrotübül dinamiklerini incelemek için kullanılan bir kaç tubulin alt birimden oluşan benekler yol açar.

<ol>
	<li>Brust-Mascher, I., Scholey, J. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mitotic+spindle+dynamics+in+Drosophila.">Mitotic spindle dynamics in Drosophila.</a> Int Rev Cytol. 259, 139-172 (2007).</li><li>Duffy, J. B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=GAL4+system+in+Drosophila:+a+fly+geneticist's+Swiss+army+knife.">GAL4 system in Drosophila: a fly geneticist's Swiss army knife.</a> Genesis. 34, 1-15 (2002).</li><li>Morris, R. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Microinjection+methods+for+analyzing+the+functions+of+kinesins+in+early+embryos.">Microinjection methods for analyzing the functions of kinesins in early embryos.</a> Methods Mol Biol. 164, 163-172 (2001).</li><li>Brust-Mascher, I., Sommi, P., Cheerambathur, D. K., Scholey, J. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Kinesin-5-dependent+poleward+flux+and+spindle+length+control+in+Drosophila+embryo+mitosis.">Kinesin-5-dependent poleward flux and spindle length control in Drosophila embryo mitosis.</a> Mol Biol Cell. 20, 1749-1762 (2009).</li><li>Brust-Mascher, I., Civelekoglu-Scholey, G., Kwon, M., Mogilner, A., Scholey, J. 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M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Dynamic+partitioning+of+mitotic+kinesin-5+crosslinkers+between+microtubule-bound+and+freely+diffusing+states.">Dynamic partitioning of mitotic kinesin-5 crosslinkers between microtubule-bound and freely diffusing states.</a> J Cell Biol. 182, 421-428 (2008).</li><li>Cheerambathur, D. K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Quantitative+analysis+of+an+anaphase+B+switch:+predicted+role+for+a+microtubule+catastrophe+gradient.">Quantitative analysis of an anaphase B switch: predicted role for a microtubule catastrophe gradient.</a> J Cell Biol. 177, 995-1004 (2007).</li><li>Kwon, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+chromokinesin,+KLP3A,+dives+mitotic+spindle+pole+separation+during+prometaphase+and+anaphase+and+facilitates+chromatid+motility.">The chromokinesin, KLP3A, dives mitotic spindle pole separation during prometaphase and anaphase and facilitates chromatid motility.</a> Mol Biol Cell. 15, 219-233 (2004).</li><li>Sharp, D. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Functional+coordination+of+three+mitotic+motors+in+Drosophila+embryos.">Functional coordination of three mitotic motors in Drosophila embryos.</a> Mol Biol Cell. 11, 241-253 (2000).</li><li>Sharp, D. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+bipolar+kinesin,+KLP61F,+cross-links+microtubules+within+interpolar+microtubule+bundles+of+Drosophila+embryonic+mitotic+spindles.">The bipolar kinesin, KLP61F, cross-links microtubules within interpolar microtubule bundles of Drosophila embryonic mitotic spindles.</a> J Cell Biol. 144, 125-138 (1999).</li><li>Sharp, D. J., Rogers, G. C., Scholey, J. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cytoplasmic+dynein+is+required+for+poleward+chromosome+movement+during+mitosis+in+Drosophila+embryos.">Cytoplasmic dynein is required for poleward chromosome movement during mitosis in Drosophila embryos.</a> Nat Cell Biol. 2, 922-930 (2000).</li><li>Sharp, D. J., Yu, K. R., Sisson, J. C., Sullivan, W., Scholey, J. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Antagonistic+microtubule-sliding+motors+position+mitotic+centrosomes+in+Drosophila+early+embryos.">Antagonistic microtubule-sliding motors position mitotic centrosomes in Drosophila early embryos.</a> Nat Cell Biol. 1, 51-54 (1999).</li><li>Waterman-Storer, C. M., Desai, A., Bulinski, J. C., Salmon, E. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Fluorescent+speckle+microscopy,+a+method+to+visualize+the+dynamics+of+protein+assemblies+in+living+cells.">Fluorescent speckle microscopy, a method to visualize the dynamics of protein assemblies in living cells.</a> Curr Biol. 8, 1227-1230 (1998).</li></ol>

Bu protokol, ancak her adım embriyoların zarar görmediğinden emin olmak için pratik gerektirir, nispeten basittir. Dikkatli kontrol deneyleri her zaman güvenilir sonuçlar elde ediliyor olmasını sağlamak için yapılması gerekir. Iyi bir şekilde başlamak için GFP-tubulin ifade mitoz embriyo yüzey (döngüleri 13 üzerinden 10) tüm döngüleri ile normal olarak devam eder emin olmak için kontrol embriyolar içine tampon veya rodamin tubulin microinjecting. Kontrolü embriyolar, genellikle çok fazla dehid...

microinjection techniques for studying mitosis in the drosophila melanogaster syncytial embryo

Bu protokol, Drosophila melanogaster sinsityal embriyo mitoz 1 eğitim için kullanımı anlatılmaktadır. Drosophila sıralı genomu ile yararlı genetik ve kolayca korunur ve manipüle edilebilir. Birçok mitotik mutantlar var ve (örneğin, GFP) floresan fonksiyonel ifade transgenik sinekler etiketli mitotik proteinler edilmiş ve üretildikten sonra. Hedeflenen gen ekspresyonu GAL4/UAS sistemi 2 ile mümkündür. Drosophila erken embriyo (hücre döngüsü süresi, ≈ 10 dk), birden mitoz çok hızlı bir şekilde yürütmektedir . Döngüleri 10-13 sırasında, çekirdeklerin, korteks hemen altında tek tek tabakalı embriyonun yüzeyindeki sitokinez müdahale olmadan hızlı bir şekilde ve eşzamanlı olarak bölmek, çünkü iyi görüntüleme mitoz için uygundur. Bu hızla bölünerek çekirdekleri, muhtemelen, diğer hücrelerin aynı mitotik makine kullanımı, ancak hız için optimize edilmiş, kontrol noktasında genellikle yokluğu güçlü bir kontrol noktasında hücreler hücre siklusu durmasına neden olur mitotik proteinlerin çalışma izin sıkı olmamalıdır inanılmaktadır . Veya GFP etiketli proteinlerin ifade Embriyolar floresan ile işaretlenmiş proteinler microinjected canlı dinamikleri takip etmek (Şekil 1) kolayca görüntülü olabilir. Buna ek olarak, embriyoların 3, işlev kaybı veya pertürbasyon etkisini araştırmak için spesifik proteinlerin fonksiyonu bloke edici antikorlar veya inhibitörleri ile microinjected olabilir. Bu reaktifler inhibitör konsantrasyonunun bir degrade, mutant alel serisi ile karşılaştırılabilir kusurları bir degrade dönüş sonuçlar üretmek için birçok iğ ulaşan embriyo boyunca diffüz İdeal olarak, hedef proteinin floresan etiketli ise inhibisyon degrade 4 direkt görüntülenebilmekte olabilir. Resmen antikorlar uygulanması gereken nadir durumlarda, bu kadar sıkı kontrol ve ihtiyatlı yorumu baskın etkileri olabileceği olasılığını dışlamak için zor olsa da, güçlü fenotip boş fenotip karşılaştırılabilir olduğu varsayılır. Enjeksiyon yerinden daha uzak, protein fonksiyonu sadece kısmen hedef proteinin diğer işlevler belirgin hale izin kaybetti.

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Microinjection Techniques for Studying Mitosis in the Drosophila melanogaster Syncytial Embryo at JoVE.com

Microinjection Techniques for Studying Mitosis in the Drosophila melanogaster Syncytial Embryo

Bu protokol, mikroenjeksiyon ve yüksek çözünürlüklü görüntüleme kullanımı açıklanır<em&gt; Drosophila melanogaster</em&gt; Sinsityal embriyo mitoz çalışma.

Mitoz incelenmesi için Mikroenjeksiyon Teknikleri Drosophila melanogaster Sinsityal Embriyo

This protocol describes the use of the Drosophila melanogaster syncytial embryo  for studying mitosis1.  Drosophila has useful genetics with a sequenced ...

microinjection-techniques-for-studying-mitosis-drosophila

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Biology

Microinjection Techniques for Studying Mitosis in the Drosophila melanogaster Syncytial Embryo

14.0K Görüntüleme.  University of California, Davis. Bu protokol, mikroenjeksiyon ve yüksek çözünürlüklü görüntüleme kullanımı açıklanır Drosophila melanogaster Sinsityal embriyo mitoz çalışma.

Video: Microinjection Techniques for Studying Mitosis in the Drosophila melanogaster Syncytial Embryo

Dissection of Larval CNS in Drosophila Melanogaster

The central nervous system (CNS) of Drosophila larvae is complex and poorly understood.  One way to investigate the CNS is to use immunohistochemistry to examine the expression of various novel and marker proteins.  Staining of whole larvae is impractical because the tough cuticle prevents antibodies from penetrating inside the body cavity.  In order to stain these tissues it is necessary to dissect the animal prior to fixing and staining.  In this article we demonstrate how to dissect Drosophila larvae without damaging the CNS.  Begin by tearing the larva in half with a pair of fine forceps, and then turn the cuticle "inside-out" to expose the CNS.  If the dissection is performed carefully the CNS will remain attached to the cuticle.  We usually keep the CNS attached to the cuticle throughout the fixation and staining steps, and only completely remove the CNS from the cuticle just prior to mounting the samples on glass slides.  We also show some representative images of a larval CNS stained with Eve, a transcription factor expressed in a subset of neurons in the CNS.  The article concludes with a discussion of some of the practical uses of this technique and the potential difficulties that may arise.

In this article we demonstrate how to dissect the central nervous system from third instar Drosophila larvae.

Drosophila melanogaster Larvaların MSS diseksiyonu

The central nervous system (CNS) of Drosophila larvae is complex and poorly understood.  One way to investigate the CNS is to use immunohistochemistry to ...

Biyoloji

High-Resolution Video Tracking of Locomotion in Adult Drosophila Melanogaster

Flies provide an important model for studying complex behavior due to the plethora of genetic tools available to researchers in this field. Studying locomotor behavior in Drosophila melanogaster relies on the ability to be able to quantify changes in motion during or in response to a given task. For this reason, a high-resolution video tracking system, such as the one we describe in this paper, is a valuable tool for measuring locomotion in real-time. Our protocol involves the use of an initial air pulse to break the flies momentum, followed by a thirty second filming period in a square chamber. A tracking program is then used to calculate the instantaneous speed of each fly within the chamber in 10 msec increments. Analysis software then compiles this data, and outputs a variety of parameters such as average speed, max speed, time spent in motion, acceleration, etc. This protocol will discuss proper feeding and management of flies for behavioral tasks, handling flies without anesthetization or immobilization, setting up a controlled environment, and running the assay from start to finish.

The study of complex locomotor behavior in Drosophila melanogaster is dependent upon the ability to quantify changes in a given fly's movement. This article demonstrates how to do this using a high-resolution tracking system.

Yetişkin Drosophila melanogaster Locomotion Yüksek Çözünürlüklü Video Takip

Flies provide an important model for studying complex behavior due to the plethora of genetic tools available to researchers in this field.  Studying ...

Electrophysiological Recording in the Drosophila Embryo

Drosophila is a premier genetic model for the study of both embryonic development and functional neuroscience. Traditionally, these fields are quite isolated from each other, with largely independent histories and scientific communities. However, the interface between these usually disparate fields is the developmental programs underlying acquisition of functional electrical signaling properties and differentiation of functional chemical synapses during the final phases of neural circuit formation. This interface is a critically important area for investigation. In Drosophila, these phases of functional development occur during a period of &lt;8 hours (at 25&deg;C) during the last third of embryogenesis. This late developmental period was long considered intractable to investigation owing to the deposition of a tough, impermeable epidermal cuticle. A breakthrough advance was the application of water-polymerizing surgical glue that can be locally applied to the cuticle to enable controlled dissection of late-stage embryos. With a dorsal longitudinal incision, the embryo can be laid flat, exposing the ventral nerve cord and body wall musculature to experimental investigation. Whole-cell patch-clamp techniques can then be employed to record from individually-identifiable neurons and somatic muscles. These recording configurations have been used to track the appearance and maturation of ionic currents and action potential propagation in both neurons and muscles. Genetic mutants affecting these electrical properties have been characterized to reveal the molecular composition of ion channels and associated signaling complexes, and to begin exploration of the molecular mechanisms of functional differentiation. A particular focus has been the assembly of synaptic connections, both in the central nervous system and periphery. The glutamatergic neuromuscular junction (NMJ) is most accessible to a combination of optical imaging and electrophysiological recording. A glass suction electrode is used to stimulate the peripheral nerve, with excitatory junction current (EJC) recordings made in the voltage-clamped muscle. This recording configuration has been used to chart the functional differentiation of the synapse, and track the appearance and maturation of presynaptic glutamate release properties. In addition, postsynaptic properties can be assayed independently via iontophoretic or pressure application of glutamate directly to the muscle surface, to measure the appearance and maturation of the glutamate receptor fields. Thus, both pre- and postsynaptic elements can be monitored separately or in combination during embryonic synaptogenesis. This system has been heavily used to isolate and characterize genetic mutants that impair embryonic synapse formation, and thus reveal the molecular mechanisms governing the specification and differentiation of synapse connections and functional synaptic signaling properties.

Electrophysiological Recording in the Drosophila Embryo

Electrophysiological recordings from Drosophila embryos allow analyses of developing muscle and neuron electrical properties, as well as characterization of functional synaptogenesis at the glutamatergic neuromuscular junction and central cholinergic and GABAergic synapses.

Elektrofizyolojik Kayıt Drosophila Embriyo

Drosophila is a premier genetic model for the study of both embryonic development and functional neuroscience. Traditionally, these fields are quite ...

Monitoring Heart Function in Larval Drosophila melanogaster for Physiological Studies

We present various methods to record cardiac function in the larval Drosophila. The approaches allow heart rate to be measured in unrestrained and restrained whole larvae. For direct control of the environment around the heart another approach utilizes the dissected larvae and removal of the internal organs in order to bathe the heart in desired compounds. The exposed heart also allows membrane potentials to be monitored which can give insight of the ionic currents generated by the myocytes and for electrical conduction along the heart tube. These approaches have various advantages and disadvantages for future experiments that are discussed. The larval heart preparation provides an additional model besides the Drosophila skeletal NMJ to investigate the role of intracellular calcium regulation on cellular function. Learning more about the underlying ionic currents that shape the action potentials in myocytes in various species, one can hope to get a handle on the known ionic dysfunctions associated to specific genes responsible for various diseases in mammals.

Monitoring Heart Function in Larval Drosophila melanogaster for Physiological Studies

We present various ways to monitor heart function in the larva of Drosophila for assessing questions dealing with the function of gap junctions, ion channel mutations, modulation of pacemaker activity and pharmacological studies.

Larvaların olarak izlenmesi Kalp Fonksiyonu Drosophila melanogaster Fizyolojik Çalışmaları

We present various methods to record cardiac function in the larval Drosophila. The approaches allow heart rate to be measured in unrestrained  and  ...

Patch Clamp and Perfusion Techniques for Studying Ion Channels Expressed in Xenopus oocytes

The protocol presented here is designed to study the activation of the large conductance, voltage- and Ca2+-activated K+ (BK) channels. The protocol may also be used to study the structure-function relationship for other ion channels and neurotransmitter receptors1. BK channels are widely expressed in different tissues and have been implicated in many physiological functions, including regulation of smooth muscle contraction, frequency tuning of inner hair cells and regulation of neurotransmitter release2-6. BK channels are activated by membrane depolarization and by intracellular Ca2+ and Mg2+ 6-9. Therefore, the protocol is designed to control both the membrane voltage and the intracellular solution. In this protocol, messenger RNA of BK channels is injected into Xenopus laevis oocytes (stage V-VI) followed by 2-5 days of incubation at 18&deg;C10-13. Membrane patches that contain single or multiple BK channels are excised with the inside-out configuration using patch clamp techniques10-13. The intracellular side of the patch is perfused with desired solutions during recording so that the channel activation under different conditions can be examined. To summarize, the mRNA of BK channels is injected into Xenopus laevis oocytes to express channel proteins on the oocyte membrane; patch clamp techniques are used to record currents flowing through the channels under controlled voltage and intracellular solutions.

Patch Clamp and Perfusion Techniques for Studying Ion Channels Expressed in Xenopus oocytes

Ionic current of BK channels is recorded using patch clamp techniques. BK channels are expressed in Xenopus oocytes by injecting messenger RNA. The intracellular solution during patch clamp recordings is controlled by a perfusion system.

İyon Kanalları incelenmesi için yama Kelepçe ve Perfüzyon Teknikleri cinsinden ifade edilir Xenopus Oosit

The protocol presented here is designed to study the activation of the large conductance, voltage- and Ca2+-activated K+ (BK) channels. The protocol may ...

Studying Mitotic Checkpoint by Illustrating Dynamic Kinetochore Protein Behavior and Chromosome Motion in Living Drosophila Syncytial Embryos

The spindle assembly checkpoint (SAC) mechanism is an active signal, which monitors the interaction between chromosome kinetochores and spindle microtubules to prevent anaphase onset until the chromosomes are properly connected. Cells use this mechanism to prevent aneuploidy or genomic instability, and hence cancers and other human diseases like birth defects and Alzheimer's1. A number of the SAC components such as Mad1, Mad2, Bub1, BubR1, Bub3, Mps1, Zw10, Rod and Aurora B kinase have been identified and they are all kinetochore dynamic proteins2. Evidence suggests that the kinetochore is where the SAC signal is initiated. The SAC prime regulatory target is Cdc20. Cdc20 is one of the essential APC/C (Anaphase Promoting Complex or Cyclosome) activators3 and is also a kinetochore dynamic protein4-6. When activated, the SAC inhibits the activity of the APC/C to prevent the destruction of two key substrates, cyclin B and securin, thereby preventing the metaphase to anaphase transition7,8. Exactly how the SAC signal is initiated and assembled on the kinetochores and relayed onto the APC/C to inhibit its function still remains elusive.
Drosophila is an extremely tractable experimental system; a much simpler and better-understood organism compared to the human but one that shares fundamental processes in common. It is, perhaps, one of the best organisms to use for bio-imaging studies in living cells, especially for visualization of the mitotic events in space and time, as the early embryo goes through 13 rapid nuclear division cycles synchronously (8-10 minutes for each cycle at 25 &deg;C) and gradually organizes the nuclei in a single monolayer just underneath the cortex9.
Here, I present a bio-imaging method using transgenic Drosophila expressing GFP (Green Fluorescent Protein) or its variant-targeted proteins of interest and a Leica TCS SP2 confocal laser scanning microscope system to study the SAC function in flies, by showing images of GFP fusion proteins of some of the SAC components, Cdc20 and Mad2, as the example.

Studying Mitotic Checkpoint by Illustrating Dynamic Kinetochore Protein Behavior and Chromosome Motion in Living Drosophila Syncytial Embryos

The kinetochore is where the SAC initiates its signal monitoring the mitotic segregation of the sister chromatids. A method is described to visualize the recruitment and turnover of one of the kinetochore proteins and its coordination with the chromosome motion in Drosophila embryos using a Leica laser scanning confocal system.

Living Görselleştirilmesi Dinamik Kinetochore Protein Davranış ve Kromozom Hareket tarafından Mitotik Checkpoint incelenmesi<em&gt; Drosophila</em&gt; Sinsityal Embriyolar

The spindle assembly checkpoint (SAC) mechanism is an active signal, which monitors the interaction between chromosome kinetochores and spindle ...

Measurement of Lifespan in Drosophila melanogaster

Aging is a phenomenon that results in steady physiological deterioration in nearly all organisms in which it has been examined, leading to reduced physical performance and increased risk of disease. Individual aging is manifest at the population level as an increase in age-dependent mortality, which is often measured in the laboratory by observing lifespan in large cohorts of age-matched individuals. Experiments that seek to quantify the extent to which genetic or environmental manipulations impact lifespan in simple model organisms have been remarkably successful for understanding the aspects of aging that are conserved across taxa and for inspiring new strategies for extending lifespan and preventing age-associated disease in mammals.
The vinegar fly, Drosophila melanogaster, is an attractive model organism for studying the mechanisms of aging due to its relatively short lifespan, convenient husbandry, and facile genetics. However, demographic measures of aging, including age-specific survival and mortality, are extraordinarily susceptible to even minor variations in experimental design and environment, and the maintenance of strict laboratory practices for the duration of aging experiments is required. These considerations, together with the need to practice careful control of genetic background, are essential for generating robust measurements. Indeed, there are many notable controversies surrounding inference from longevity experiments in yeast, worms, flies and mice that have been traced to environmental or genetic artifacts1-4. In this protocol, we describe a set of procedures that have been optimized over many years of measuring longevity in Drosophila using laboratory vials. We also describe the use of the dLife software, which was developed by our laboratory and is available for download (<a href="http://sitemaker.umich.edu/pletcherlab/software">http://sitemaker.umich.edu/pletcherlab/software</a>). dLife accelerates throughput and promotes good practices by incorporating optimal experimental design, simplifying fly handling and data collection, and standardizing data analysis. We will also discuss the many potential pitfalls in the design, collection, and interpretation of lifespan data, and we provide steps to avoid these dangers.

Measurement of Lifespan in Drosophila melanogaster

Drosophila melanogaster is a powerful model organism for exploring the molecular basis of longevity regulation. This protocol will discuss the steps involved in generating a reproducible, population-based measurement of longevity as well as potential pitfalls and how to avoid them.

In ömrü ölçümü<em&gt; Drosophila melanogaster</em

Aging is a phenomenon that results in steady physiological deterioration in nearly all organisms in which it has been examined, leading to reduced ...

Imaging Through the Pupal Case of Drosophila melanogaster

The longstanding use of Drosophila as a model for cell and developmental biology has yielded an array of tools. Together, these techniques have enabled analysis of cell and developmental biology from a variety of methodological angles. Live imaging is an emerging method for observing dynamic cell processes, such as cell division or cell motility. Having isolated mutations in uncharacterized putative cell cycle proteins it became essential to observe mitosis in situ using live imaging. Most live imaging studies in Drosophila have focused on the embryonic stages that are accessible to manipulation and observation because of their small size and optical clarity. However, in these stages the cell cycle is unusual in that it lacks one or both of the gap phases. By contrast, cells of the pupal wing of Drosophila have a typical cell cycle and undergo a period of rapid mitosis spanning about 20 hr of pupal development. It is easy to identify and isolate pupae of the appropriate stage to catch mitosis in situ. Mounting intact pupae provided the best combination of tractability and durability during imaging, allowing experiments to run for several hours with minimal impact on cell and animal viability. The method allows observation of features as small as, or smaller than, fly chromosomes. Adjustment of microscope settings and the details of mounting, allowed extension of the preparation to visualize membrane dynamics of adjacent cells and fluorescently labeled proteins such as tubulin. This method works for all tested fluorescent proteins and can capture submicron scale features over a variety of time scales. While limited to the outer 20 &#181;m of the pupa with a conventional confocal microscope, this approach to observing protein and cellular dynamics in pupal tissues in vivo may be generally useful in the study of cell and developmental biology in these tissues.

Imaging Through the Pupal Case of Drosophila melanogaster

This paper demonstrates the use of a fast scanning confocal microscope to image cell behavior directly through the puparium. By leaving the pupal case intact, this method allows observation and measurement of dynamic cell processes at a stage of Drosophila development that is difficult to study directly.

Ve Pupa Durumunda sayesinde görüntüleme<em&gt; Drosophila melanogaster</em

The longstanding use of Drosophila as a model for cell and developmental biology has yielded an array of tools. Together, these techniques have enabled ...

Enhanced Northern Blot Detection of Small RNA Species in Drosophila Melanogaster

The last decades have witnessed the explosion of scientific interest around gene expression control mechanisms at the RNA level. This branch of molecular biology has been greatly fueled by the discovery of noncoding RNAs as major players in post-transcriptional regulation. Such a revolutionary perspective has been accompanied and triggered by the development of powerful technologies for profiling short RNAs expression, both at the high-throughput level (genome-wide identification) or as single-candidate analysis (steady state accumulation of specific species). Although several state-of-art strategies are currently available for dosing or visualizing such fleeing molecules, Northern Blot assay remains the eligible approach in molecular biology for immediate and accurate evaluation of RNA expression. It represents a first step toward the application of more sophisticated, costly technologies and, in many cases, remains a preferential method to easily gain insights into RNA biology. Here we overview an efficient protocol (Enhanced Northern Blot) for detecting weakly expressed microRNAs (or other small regulatory RNA species) from Drosophila melanogaster whole embryos, manually dissected larval/adult tissues or in vitro cultured cells. A very limited amount of RNA is required and the use of material from flow cytometry-isolated cells can be also envisaged.

Enhanced Northern Blot Detection of Small RNA Species in Drosophila Melanogaster

The aim of this publication is to visualize and discuss the operative steps of an Enhanced Northern Blot protocol on RNA extracted from Drosophila melanogaster embryos, cells, and tissues. This protocol is particularly useful for the efficient detection of small RNA species.

Küçük RNA Türlerin Northern Blot Algılama geliştirilmiş<em&gt; Drosophila melanogaster</em

The last decades have witnessed the explosion of scientific interest around gene expression control mechanisms at the RNA level. This branch of molecular ...

Generation of Transgenic Hydra by Embryo Microinjection

As a member of the phylum Cnidaria, the sister group to all bilaterians, Hydra can shed light on fundamental biological processes shared among multicellular animals. Hydra is used as a model for the study of regeneration, pattern formation, and stem cells. However, research efforts have been hampered by lack of a reliable method for gene perturbations to study molecular function. The development of transgenic methods has revitalized the study of Hydra biology1. Transgenic Hydra allow for the tracking of live cells, sorting to yield pure cell populations for biochemical analysis, manipulation of gene function by knockdown and over-expression, and analysis of promoter function. Plasmid DNA injected into early stage embryos randomly integrates into the genome early in development. This results in hatchlings that express transgenes in patches of tissue in one or more of the three lineages (ectodermal epithelial, endodermal epithelial, or interstitial). The success rate of obtaining a hatchling with transgenic tissue is between 10% and 20%. Asexual propagation of the transgenic hatchling is used to establish a uniformly transgenic line in a particular lineage. Generating transgenic Hydra is surprisingly simple and robust, and here we describe a protocol that can be easily implemented at low cost.

Generation of Transgenic Hydra by Embryo Microinjection

Stably transgenic Hydra are made by microinjection of plasmid DNA into embryos followed by random genomic integration and asexual propagation to establish a uniform line. Transgenic Hydra are used to track cell movements, overexpress genes, study promoter function, or knock down gene expression using RNAi.