Bu çalışma RESCEJ için HL için G. Harold &amp; Leila Y. Mathers Ödülü ve bir NIH hibe (R24 GM080527) tarafından NRSA Doktora Sonrası Araştırmacı (NIH F32GM9037222) idi desteklenen ve şu anda Ulusal bir mentored Araştırmacı Geliştirme Ödülü tarafından desteklenmektedir Yaşlanma Enstitüsü (K01AG04435). Biz yorumları için teşekkür etmek istiyorum.

Plazmit DNA, iğneler ve enjeksiyon Züccaciye 1. Hazırlık <ol><li> Yüksek Hızlı Maxi Midi Kiti kullanılarak plazmit DNA&#39;nın hazırlanması ve mi etanol çökeltmesi / 2.5 mg DNA konsantre edilir. DNA pelleti, nükleaz içermeyen, deiyonize su içinde çözündürülmelidir. -20 ° C de 10-20 ul alikolar içinde DNA saklayın. (Mevcut vektörlerin listesi için Ek Tablo 1&#39;e bakınız) </li><li> 100 x 15 mm Petri kabı embriyolar tutulması için bir oluk oluşturmak için agaroz kullanılarak bir enjeksiyon çanak yapın. <ol><li> Bir açıda, 100 x 15 mm Petri kabı içine, bir 75 x 50 cam mikroskop slayt yerleştirin. Agaroz Petri kabı içine 24 Nem ortamında erimiş% 2 arasında, yaklaşık 50 ml dökün. Alternatif olarak, ilk çanak içine agaroz dökün ve üstüne bir &quot;Mikroenjeksiyon balık Kalıp&quot; yüzer. </li><li> Agaroz katılaşmış sonra, cam slayt veya kalıp çıkarın. Bir cam slayt, kullanılmış ise, bir traş makinesi ile fazla bla agaroz kesilmişde bir duvar oluşturur. Çanak içine Hydra orta dökün ve hemen kullanmaya veya gerekli olana kadar 4 ° C sıcaklıkta saklayın. Not: kullanımlar arasında 4 ° C&#39;de saklandığında Enjeksiyon yemekleri tekrar edilebilir. </li></ol></li><li> 75, çekme, 525 ısı hız 100, zaman onlar böyle bir Petri kabındaki kil dar bir şerit içine basarak 50. Mağaza iğneler: aşağıdaki koşullar kullanılarak mikropipet çektirmenin bir filamanın borosilikat cam kılcal damarlardan iğne çekin tabağın tabanına paralel tutulur. </li><li> , Enjeksiyon çözeltisinin hazırlanması% 10 fenol kırmızısı, 2 ul 2.5 mg / ml plazma DNA solüsyonuna 3 ul birleştirmek için. Vorteks ve solüsyon kısa bir süre sonra iğne tıkanmasına neden olabilecek parçacıkların ayrılması için bir mikrosantrifüj içinde en yüksek hızda 10 dakika için dönmeye. </li><li> Bir mikroskop altında küçük bir açıklık oluşturmak için forseps ile iğneyi ucundan birkaç milimetre klibi. Not: açık olan uygun boyutta bir esneklik vardırBasınç bu farklılaşmanın Adım 3.3 &#39;de de ayarlanabilir ing. </li><li> Bu uç aşağı dikey bir pozisyonda iğne tutma şekilde Petri tabağına yerleştirin. İğnenin arka ucuna sıvı pipetleme enjeksiyon çözeltisi, yaklaşık 0.5 ul iğne yerleştirin. Kılcal iğnenin ucu içine çözeltinin çekmeye izin verir. </li></ol> Enjeksiyon için Embriyolar 2. Hazırlık <ol><li> Bir günlük bazda yumurta üreten poliplerin Hydra AEP gerginlik kültürünü tarayın. Bu polipler toplayın ve ayrı bir kültür çanak bunları bir kenara koyun. Yumurta oluşumu ilerlemesini izlemek için gün boyunca bu poliplerinde birkaç saatte gözlemleyin. Yumurta ektoderm kırmaya ve geri ektodermal hücrelerin bir halka üzerinde oturup onlar enjeksiyon 25 için hazır. Döllenme için izin vermek için enjeksiyon için en az 1 saat boyunca testisler sahip olan birden fazla Hydra bir tabak, bu poliplerin yerleştirin. Hydra &lt;/ Em&gt; erkekler herhangi bir özel manipülasyon olmadan sperm yayınlayacak. </li><li> Kadın, yaklaşık 400 mikron çapında 25 veya 1- 8 hücreli aşamada embriyo için vardır tam oluşmuş yumurta ile AEP koloni bulunursa, ayrıca enjeksiyon için bu toplamak. Hemen yarma başladı embriyolar enjekte. Not: Bu tam oluşmuş yumurta ve tek hücreli zigot arasındaki farkı söylemek mümkün değildir, dolayısıyla bu enjeksiyon öncesinde erkek ile inkübe edilmelidir. </li><li> Enjeksiyondan önce, bir # 15 bıçak ile bir neşter kullanılarak embriyo altında ve üstünde ebeveyn dokusunun en çıkarmak. Ekli vücut sütunun küçük bir parça, sadece embriyo bırakın gerekirse forseps ile embriyo işlemek için kullanılacak. Not: yeniden uzağa embriyo disseke ve kadın Hydra kolonisinde kalmasını sağlamak için kaydedilmesi gerekir doku. </li><li> Pasteur pipeti kullanarak, bunları duvarına paralel düzenlenmesi, enjeksiyon çanak embriyoları taşımakagaroz yalak. </li></ol> Plasmid DNA 3. Mikroenjeksiyon <ol><li> Bir demir plaka üzerinde oturur bir manyetik stand mikropüskürtücüden monte edin. Bir joystick micromanipulator üzerinde, iğne tutan mikropüskürtücünün parçası enjeksiyon tutucu, montaj. Manyetik bir stand ile, demir plaka joystick manipülatör monte edin. Inceleyici bir mikroskobun sağ tarafındaki tüm bu kurulum yerleştirin ve bu gözlem alanında görülebilir, böylece enjeksiyon tutucu yerleştirin. </li><li> Agaroz oluğun dikey duvar sola olduğu gibi dönük mikroskop altında embriyoları ile, enjeksiyon çanak yerleştirin. Enjeksiyon tutucu içine iğne takın ve çanak Hydra ortama iğne ucu indirin. </li><li> Mineral yağ iğne ve enjeksiyon çözeltisinin bir akışı üst doldurana kadar yavaşça Hydr içine iğne çıkan görülmektedir saat yönünde şırınganın düğmeyi çevirinbir ortamdır. Akışı çok güçlü ise, saat yönünün düğmeyi çevirerek basıncını düşürebilir. Rutin olarak (iğne 1.5 adım kırpılan nasıl yani,), iğne açıklık boyutuna bağlıdır uygun bir basınç elde etmek için bu işlemini gerçekleştirmek. Not: akışı çok güçlü ise, embriyo enjeksiyon hayatta olmaz. </li><li> Mikroskop aracılığıyla görüntülerken, ilk embriyo alanının merkezinde olacak şekilde enjeksiyon çanağı. O embriyoyu değecek şekilde iğneyi hareket ettirin. Iğne ile embriyo delmek için mikromanipülatör kullanın. Not: Agaroz teknenin dikey duvar iğne tarafından kenara itilmesini embriyo devam edecektir. </li><li> Enjeksiyon çözüm embriyo 1 veya 2 saniye akmasına ve sonra hızlı bir şekilde iğneyi çıkarmak için izin verin. Embriyo birden fazla hücre varsa, her bir hücre enjekte edilir. Iğne ucu ile bir sonraki hücreyi hizalamak için embriyo yeniden yönlendirmek için forseps kullanır. </li><li> İlk Embry sonrao sonraki embriyo enjeksiyon pozisyonda olacak şekilde çanağı ve prosedürü tekrar enjekte edilir; Tüm embriyolar enjekte edilene kadar devam eder. </li></ol> 4. ekimi ve Embriyolar Kuluçka <ol><li> Testisleri var birkaç Hydra ile bir çanak içine enjekte edilen embriyoların tüm taşıyın (bu tüm embriyolar döllenmiş olmasını sağlamak için). Onlar embriyojenezinin devam ederken, bir 18 ° C inkübatör embriyolar kuluçkaya yatmaktadır. </li><li> Kütikül aşama ulaşıldığında, Hidra ortam ile doldurulmuş bir 24-çukurlu plaka tek bir kuyusuna enjekte her embriyo hareket. </li><li> 18 ° C&#39;de karanlıkta 2 hafta içinde enjekte edilen embriyolar inkübe edin. </li><li> 2 haftalık kuluçka döneminden sonra, mikroskop altında her embriyo enjekte edin. Manikür-embriyo ebeveyn doku küçük bir parça kopmuş ve ebeveyn doku rejenere olduğu herhangi bir olgu unutmayın. O mi değil mi ki hemen bu rejenere polip çıkarmakYeni bir yavru için staken. </li><li> RT&#39;de bir akvaryum ışığı altında enjekte edilen embriyoların çanağı hareket. Her gün plakaları kontrol ve yavru toplamak. Hydra poliplerin tipik pembe renk yedikleri Artemia geliyor çünkü yeni yavru beyaz olacaktır. </li><li> Transgen ekspresyonunu tespit etmek için flöresanlı bir mikroskop altında yavru dikkate alınmalıdır. </li></ol>

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The authors have nothing to disclose

Hydra rutin üretir asexually, ancak üreten garnetleri başlamak için çevresel uyaranlara gerektirir. Bu uyaranlar çoğu Hydra türler için iyi tanımlanmış değildir ve zorlanma zorlanma farklı olabilir. Cinsel olmak Hydra uyarılması için bir laboratuvar ortamında zor olabilir çünkü, transgenik Hydra üretimi için önemli bir engel düzenli olarak embriyolar elde etmektir. AEP 25 suşu, ancak, laboratuarda kolayca gamet üretir ve bu defa transgenik line&#3...

Hydra rejenerasyon, desen oluşumunu incelemek ve yaklaşık 250 yıl 2 kök hücre için kullanılır olmuştur Hydra üç hücre soylarının oluşan basit vücut planı vardır:. Ektodermal epitel, endodermal epitel ve interstisyum. Boru şeklindeki gövde, tek bir hücre tabakası, her biri ve ektodermal endodermal epitel soylar tarafından oluşturulur. Vücut sütunundaki epitel hücrelerinin mitotik tüm bulunmaktadır. Epitel hücreleri ekstremitelerde 3 yerdeğiştiren zaman, aboral sonunda ağız ucuna veya ayak (bazal disk) de baş (ağız ve dokunaçlarının), bunlar, hücre döngüsünün G2 fazında hücre kaderine 4 değiştirin. Interstisyel soyunun hücreleri, epitel hücreleri arasındaki boşlukları içinde bulunur. Bu soy vücut sütun 5 ektodermal epitel tabakasında bulunan multipotent kök hücreler tarafından desteklenmektedir. Interstisyel kök hücreler üç somatik cel doğuranl türleri (sinirler, bezi hücreleri ve nematocytes) ve germ hücreleri 6,7. Filumuna Sölenteralar bir üyesi olarak, tüm bilaterians için kardeş grup, Hydra çok hücreli hayvanlar arasında paylaşılan temel biyolojik süreçlere ışık tutabilir. Yakın zamana kadar, bu çabalar gen fonksiyonu pertürbasyon güvenilir yöntemlerin eksikliği tarafından engellenir edildi. Ancak, transgenik metodoloji 1 gelişmesiyle birlikte, biz şimdi böyle kök hücre fonksiyonu, yenilenme ve desenlendirme gibi çok hücreli hayvanların, ortak temel mekanizmalarının daha iyi anlayabilmek için Hydra tam olarak yararlanmak mümkün. Transjenik hatlar Hydra yavru önemli bir frekans rasgele entegrasyon ve kimerik ifadesi ile embriyoların, plazmid DNA enjeksiyonu ile belirlenir. Belirli bir soy üniforma ifade ile bir çizgi eşeysiz çoğalması ile kurulabilir. Klonal Transg yaymak için yeteneğienic Hydra hatları sadece cinsel üreme tarafından yayılan olabilir hayvan modellerinin çoğunluğu, bir avantajdır. Buna ek olarak, transgenik hücreler nedeniyle hayvanın şeffaflık ve endojen floresan proteinleri 8 söz konusu olmaması nedeniyle in vivo kolayca izlenebilir. İlk transgenik Hydra hatları yana yedi yıl içinde bu tür çizgiler, çeşitli uygulamalar için kullanılmıştır, 1 yapılmıştır. Farklı hücre tipleri floresan proteinlerin sentezlenmesi mümkün, hücre hareketini takip hücre şekli değişiklikleri gözlemlemek ve vahşi tip koşullarda ve kimyasal pertürbasyondan 1,5,9-12 sonra her iki hücre kaderlerini izlemek için yaptı. Buna ek olarak, çeşitli soy farklı floresan protein sentezlenmesinin spesifik hücre popülasyonlarının FACS izolasyonu sağlar. Bu teknik, kök hücre spesifik mRNA ve seri spesifik küçük RNA 13,14 dizilenmesi için kullanılmıştır. Yükselticisi iseİki Hydra aktin genlerinden biri en yaygın olarak kullanılan bir kaç hücre tipi özel hızlandırıcılar tanımlanmış ve transgenik Hydra 9,11,15,16 GFP sentezlenmesini tahrik etmek için kullanılmaktadır. Gelecekte, hücre türüne özgü promoterler herhangi bir hücre tipi gözlem ve toplanmasını sağlayacak. Buna ek olarak, transgenik bir yaklaşım başarılı Wnt3 promoterinin 17 cis-hareket eden düzenleyici öğeleri tanımlamak için kullanılmıştır. Hydra transgenik yöntemlerinin geliştirilmesi ektopik ekspresyonu aşırı ifadesi ve devirme ile genlerin fonksiyonunu test etmek için güçlü bir yaklaşım sağlamaktadır. Transgenik hayvanlar fonksiyonu ve hücresel lokalizasyonunu 18-20 hem de incelemek için floresan-etiketli proteinleri eksprese eden yapılmıştır. Buna ek olarak, bir GFP transgenin 3&#39;UTR saç tokası RNA ekspresyonunun hedef genlerin 21,22 demonte yol açar. Bu yaklaşımların GFP tanımlamak için gereklive transgenik hattın oluşturulması sırasında transgenik doku izleyebilirsiniz. Bununla birlikte, bazı durumlarda GFP molekülü etiketli protein işlevine müdahale olasıdır. Yeni bir çalışma Nem genler operon konfigürasyonda düzenlenebilir gösterir, yani, daha sonra, polisistronik transkriptleri, trans-eklenmiş lider sıra ile ayrılmış ve ayrı ayrı 23 çevrildiği, yapılır. Bir protein veya bir operon ve aşağı doğru pozisyonda bir floresan protein geninin üst akış konumunda bir saç tokası RNA kodlayan bir geni yerleştirilerek, bir protein veya bir RNA firkete kodlayan geni etiketlemek zorunda olmayan transgenik doku izleyebilir. Bu yöntem, gen 14 demonte elde etmek için olan bir operasyon DsRed2 konfigürasyonunda bir saç tokası RNA ifade etmek için kullanılmıştır.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0">
	<tbody>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">AEP Hydra Strain</td>
			<td style="width:112px;">NA</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">NA</td>
			<td style="width:576px;">Email: Celina Juliano at celina.juliano@yale.edu or Hiroshi Shimizu bubuchin2006@yahoo.co.jp</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">High Speed Maxi Kit</td>
			<td style="width:112px;">Qiagen</td>
			<td align="right" style="width:119px;">12662</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">100 x 15 mm Petri Dishes</td>
			<td style="width:112px;">BD Falcon</td>
			<td align="right" style="width:119px;">351029</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">75 x 50 mm Glass Microscope Slide</td>
			<td style="width:112px;">Sigma</td>
			<td>CLS294775X50</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Microinjection Fish Mold</td>
			<td style="width:112px;">IBI Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">FM-600</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">Borosilicate Glass with Filament</td>
			<td style="width:112px;">Sutter Instrument</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">BF100-50-10</td>
			<td>O.D.: 1.0 mm, I.D.: 0.50 mm, 10 cm length</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">Flaming/Brown Micropipette Puller</td>
			<td style="width:112px;">Sutter Instrument</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">P-97</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Phenol Red</td>
			<td style="width:112px;">Sigma</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">P3532</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Jewelers Forceps, Durmont #5</td>
			<td style="width:112px;">Sigma</td>
			<td>F6521</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Scalpel Blade #15</td>
			<td style="width:112px;">Fisher</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">50-822-421</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Mineral oil</td>
			<td style="width:112px;">Sigma</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">M8410-500ML</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Microinjector</td>
			<td style="width:112px;">Narishige</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">IM-9B</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Magnetic Stand</td>
			<td style="width:112px;">Narishige</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">GJ-1</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Iron Plate</td>
			<td style="width:112px;">Narishige</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">IP</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Joystick Micromanipulator</td>
			<td style="width:112px;">Narishige</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">MN-151</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

generation of transgenic hydra by embryo microinjection

As a member of the phylum Cnidaria, the sister group to all bilaterians, Hydra can shed light on fundamental biological processes shared among multicellular animals. Hydra is used as a model for the study of regeneration, pattern formation, and stem cells. However, research efforts have been hampered by lack of a reliable method for gene perturbations to study molecular function. The development of transgenic methods has revitalized the study of Hydra biology1. Transgenic Hydra allow for the tracking of live cells, sorting to yield pure cell populations for biochemical analysis, manipulation of gene function by knockdown and over-expression, and analysis of promoter function. Plasmid DNA injected into early stage embryos randomly integrates into the genome early in development. This results in hatchlings that express transgenes in patches of tissue in one or more of the three lineages (ectodermal epithelial, endodermal epithelial, or interstitial). The success rate of obtaining a hatchling with transgenic tissue is between 10% and 20%. Asexual propagation of the transgenic hatchling is used to establish a uniformly transgenic line in a particular lineage. Generating transgenic Hydra is surprisingly simple and robust, and here we describe a protocol that can be easily implemented at low cost.

Transgenik Hydra hatları kurulması Artemia nauplii&#39;ye her 2-3 gün transgenik yavru besleyin. Yavru bazen yumurtadan çıktıktan sonra bir veya iki gün boyunca yemek yok. Bazı yeni yavrular hayatta olmaz, böylece yemek ve asla. Yavru ektodermal (Şekil 1A), ya transgenik veya endodermal epitel doku ise, hayvan, tomurcuk ve en transjenik doku (Şekil 1B, C) ​​bulunmaktadır tomurcukları toplamak için izin verir. Bir transgen do?...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Generation of Transgenic Hydra by Embryo Microinjection at JoVE.com

Generation of Transgenic Hydra by Embryo Microinjection

Stably transgenic Hydra are made by microinjection of plasmid DNA into embryos followed by random genomic integration and asexual propagation to establish a uniform line. Transgenic Hydra are used to track cell movements, overexpress genes, study promoter function, or knock down gene expression using RNAi.

Transgenik Üretimi<em&gt; Hydra</em&gt;: Mikroenjeksiyon yolu ile embriyo

As a member of the phylum Cnidaria, the sister group to all bilaterians, Hydra can shed light on fundamental biological processes shared among ...

generation-of-transgenic-hydra-by-embryo-microinjection

Research

JoVE Journal

Biology

Generation of Transgenic Hydra by Embryo Microinjection

13.9K Görüntüleme.  Yale University School of Medicine. Stably transgenic Hydra are made by microinjection of plasmid DNA into embryos followed by random genomic integration and asexual propagation to establish a uniform line. Transgenic Hydra are used to track cell movements, overexpress genes, study promoter function, or knock down gene expression using RNAi. 

Video: Generation of Transgenic Hydra by Embryo Microinjection

Microinjection of A. aegypti Embryos to Obtain Transgenic Mosquitoes

In this video, Nijole Jasinskiene demonstrates the methodology employed to generate transgenic Aedes aegypti mosquitoes, which are vectors for dengue fever.  The techniques for correctly preparing microinjection needles, dessicating embryos, and performing microinjection are demonstrated.

In this video, Nijole Jasinskiene demonstrates the methodology employed to generate transgenic Aedes aegypti mosquitoes, which are vectors for dengue fever. The techniques for correctly preparing microinjection needles, dessicating embryos, and performing microinjection are demonstrated.

Transgenik Sivrisinekler Edinme A. aegypti Embriyolar Mikroenjeksiyon

In this video, Nijole Jasinskiene demonstrates the methodology employed to generate transgenic Aedes aegypti mosquitoes, which are vectors for dengue ...

Biyoloji

Generation of Stable Transgenic C. elegans Using Microinjection

Transgenic Caenorhabditis elegans can be readily created via microinjection of a DNA plasmid solution into the gonad 1. The plasmid DNA rearranges to form extrachromosomal concatamers that are stably inherited, though not with the same efficiency as actual chromosomes 2. A gene of interest is co-injected with an obvious phenotypic marker, such as rol-6 or GFP, to allow selection of transgenic animals under a dissecting microscope. The exogenous gene may be expressed from its native promoter for cellular localization studies. Alternatively, the transgene can be driven by a different tissue-specific promoter to assess the role of the gene product in that particular cell or tissue. This technique efficiently drives gene expression in all tissues of C. elegans except for the germline or early embryo 3. Creation of transgenic animals is widely utilized for a range of experimental paradigms. This video demonstrates the microinjection procedure to generate transgenic worms. Furthermore, selection and maintenance of stable transgenic C. elegans lines is described.

This video demonstrates the technique of microinjection into the gonad of C. elegans to create transgenic animals.

Mikroenjeksiyon Kararlı Transgenik C. elegans Üretimi

Transgenic Caenorhabditis elegans can be readily created via microinjection of a DNA plasmid solution into the gonad 1.  The plasmid DNA rearranges to ...

Microinjection Techniques for Studying Mitosis in the Drosophila melanogaster Syncytial Embryo

This protocol describes the use of the Drosophila melanogaster syncytial embryo for studying mitosis1. Drosophila has useful genetics with a sequenced genome, and it can be easily maintained and manipulated. Many mitotic mutants exist, and transgenic flies expressing functional fluorescently (e.g. GFP) - tagged mitotic proteins have been and are being generated. Targeted gene expression is possible using the GAL4/UAS system2. 

The Drosophila early embryo carries out multiple mitoses very rapidly (cell cycle duration, &asymp;10 min). It is well suited for imaging mitosis, because during cycles 10-13, nuclei divide rapidly and synchronously without intervening cytokinesis at the surface of the embryo in a single monolayer just underneath the cortex. These rapidly dividing nuclei probably use the same mitotic machinery as other cells, but they are optimized for speed; the checkpoint is generally believed to not be stringent, allowing the study of mitotic proteins whose absence would cause cell cycle arrest in cells with a strong checkpoint. Embryos expressing GFP labeled proteins or microinjected with fluorescently labeled proteins can be easily imaged to follow live dynamics (Fig. 1). In addition, embryos can be microinjected with function-blocking antibodies or inhibitors of specific proteins to study the effect of the loss or perturbation of their function3. These reagents can diffuse throughout the embryo, reaching many spindles to produce a gradient of concentration of inhibitor, which in turn results in a gradient of defects comparable to an allelic series of mutants. Ideally, if the target protein is fluorescently labeled, the gradient of inhibition can be directly visualized4. It is assumed that the strongest phenotype is comparable to the null phenotype, although it is hard to formally exclude the possibility that the antibodies may have dominant effects in rare instances, so rigorous controls and cautious interpretation must be applied. Further away from the injection site, protein function is only partially lost allowing other functions of the target protein to become evident.

Microinjection Techniques for Studying Mitosis in the Drosophila melanogaster Syncytial Embryo

This protocol describes the use of microinjection and high resolution imaging in the Drosophila melanogaster syncytial embryo to study mitosis.

Mitoz incelenmesi için Mikroenjeksiyon Teknikleri Drosophila melanogaster Sinsityal Embriyo

This protocol describes the use of the Drosophila melanogaster syncytial embryo  for studying mitosis1.  Drosophila has useful genetics with a sequenced ...

Production of Transgenic Xenopus laevis by Restriction Enzyme Mediated Integration and Nuclear Transplantation

Stable integration of cloned gene products into the Xenopus genome is necessary to control the time and place of expression, to express genes at later stages of embryonic development, and to define how enhancers and promoters regulate gene expression within the embryo. The protocol demonstrated here can be used to efficiently produce transgenic Xenopus laevis embryos. This transgenesis approach involves three parts: 1. Sperm nuclei are isolated from adult X. laevis testis by treatment with lysolecithin, which permeabilizes the sperm plasma membrane. 2. Egg extract is prepared by low speed centrifugation, addition of calcium to cause the extract to progress to interphase of the cell cycle, and a high-speed centrifugation to isolate interphase cytosol. 3. Nuclear transplantation: the nuclei and extract are combined with the linearized plasmid DNA to be introduced as the transgene and a small amount of restriction enzyme. During a short reaction, egg extract partially decondenses the sperm chromatin and the restriction enzyme generates chromosomal breaks that promote recombination of the transgene into the genome. The treated sperm nuclei are then transplanted into unfertilized eggs. Integration of the transgene usually occurs prior to the first embryonic cleavage such that the resulting embryos are not chimeric. These embryos can be analyzed without any need to breed to the next generation, allowing for efficient and rapid generation of transgenic embryos for analyses of promoter and gene function. Adult X. laevis resulting from this procedure also propagate the transgene through the germline and can be used to generate lines of transgenic animals for multiple purposes.

Production of Transgenic Xenopus laevis by Restriction Enzyme Mediated Integration and Nuclear Transplantation

This video protocol demonstrates a method for generating transgenic Xenopus laevis by introduction of transgenes into sperm nuclei followed by nuclear transplantation into unfertilized eggs.

Transgenik, üretimi Xenopus laevis Kısıtlama Enzim aracılığı ile Entegrasyon ve Nükleer Nakli

Stable integration of cloned gene products into the Xenopus genome is necessary to control the time and place of expression, to express genes at later ...

Generation of Transgenic C. elegans by Biolistic Transformation

The number of laboratories using the free living nematode C. elegans is rapidly growing. The popularity of this biological model is attributed to a rapid generation time and short life span, easy and inexpensive maintenance, fully sequenced genome, and array of RNAi resources and mutant animals. Additionally, analysis of the C. elegans genome revealed a great similarity between worms and higher vertebrates, which suggests that research in worms could be an important adjunct to studies performed in whole mice or cultured cells. A powerful and important part of worm research is the ability to use transgenic animals to study gene localization and function. Transgenic animals can be created either via microinjection of the worm germline or through the use of biolistic bombardment. Bombardment is a newer technique and is less familiar to a number of labs. Here we describe a simple protocol to generate transgenic worms by biolistic bombardment with gold particles using the Bio-Rad PDS-1000 system. Compared with DNA microinjection into hermaphrodite germline, this protocol has the advantage of not requiring special skills from the operator with regards to identifying worm anatomy or performing microinjection. Further multiple transgenic lines are usually obtained from a single bombardment. Also in contrast to microinjection, biolistic bombardment produces transgenic animals with both extrachromosomal arrays and integrated transgenes. The ability to obtain integrated transgenic lines can avoid the use of mutagenic protocols to integrate foreign DNA. In conclusion, biolistic bombardment can be an attractive method for the generation of transgenic animals, especially for investigators not interested in investing the time and effort needed to become skilled at microinjection.

Generation of Transgenic C. elegans by Biolistic Transformation

Transgenic worms are commonly used in C. elegans research. Described is a simple, yet effective, protocol to introduce transgenes into worms using biolistic bombardment with DNA-coated gold particles. The effort involved and results of bombardment compare favorably with microinjection for the generation of transgenic animals.

Transgenik, Üretimi C. elegans Biyolistik Dönüşüm

The number of laboratories using the free living nematode C. elegans is rapidly growing. The popularity of this biological model is attributed to a rapid ...

Analysis of mRNA Nuclear Export Kinetics in Mammalian Cells by Microinjection

In eukaryotes, messenger RNA (mRNA) is transcribed in the nucleus and must be exported into the cytoplasm to access the translation machinery. Although the nuclear export of mRNA has been studied extensively in Xenopus oocytes1 and genetically tractable organisms such as yeast2 and the Drosophila derived S2 cell line3, few studies had been conducted in mammalian cells. Furthermore the kinetics of mRNA export in mammalian somatic cells could only be inferred indirectly4,5. In order to measure the nuclear export kinetics of mRNA in mammalian tissue culture cells, we have developed an assay that employs the power of microinjection coupled with fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH). These assays have been used to demonstrate that in mammalian cells, the majority of mRNAs are exported in a splicing dependent manner6,7, or in manner that requires specific RNA sequences such as the signal sequence coding region (SSCR) 6. In this assay, cells are microinjected with either in vitro synthesized mRNA or plasmid DNA containing the gene of interest. The microinjected cells are incubated for various time points then fixed and the sub-cellular localization of RNA is assessed using FISH. In contrast to transfection, where transcription occurs several hours after the addition of nucleic acids, microinjection of DNA or mRNA allows for rapid expression and allows for the generation of precise kinetic data.

Here we describe an assay that employs the power of microinjection coupled with fluorescent in situ hybridization in order to accurately measure the nuclear export kinetics of mRNA in mammalian somatic cells.

Mikroenjeksiyon tarafından Memeli Hücreleri mRNA Nükleer İhracat Kinetik Analizi

In eukaryotes, messenger RNA (mRNA) is transcribed in the nucleus and must be exported into the cytoplasm to access the translation machinery. Although ...

Analyzing the Function of Small GTPases by Microinjection of Plasmids into Polarized Epithelial Cells

Epithelial cells polarize their plasma membrane into biochemically and functionally distinct apical and basolateral domains where the apical domain faces the 'free' surfaces and the basolateral membrane is in contact with the substrate and neighboring cells. Both membrane domains are separated by tight junctions, which form a diffusion barrier. Apical-basolateral polarization can be recapitulated successfully in culture when epithelial cells such as Madin-Darby Canine Kidney (MDCK) cells are seeded at high density on polycarbonate filters and cultured for several days 1 2. Establishment and maintenance of cell polarity is regulated by an array of small GTPases of the Ras superfamily such as RalA, Cdc42, Rab8, Rab10 and Rab13 3 4 5 6 7. Like all GTPases these proteins cycle between an inactive GDP-bound state and an active GTP-bound state. Specific mutations in the nucleotide binding regions interfere with this cycling 8. For example, Rab13T22N is permanently locked in the GDP-form and thus dubbed 'dominant negative', whereas Rab13Q67L can no longer hydrolyze GTP and is thus locked in a 'dominant active' state 7. To analyze their function in cells both dominant negative and dominant active alleles of GTPases are typically expressed at high levels to interfere with the function of the endogenous proteins 9. An elegant way to achieve high levels of overexpression in a short amount of time is to introduce the plasmids encoding the relevant proteins directly into the nuclei of polarized cells grown on filter supports using microinjection technique. This is often combined with the co-injection of reporter plasmids that encode plasma membrane receptors that are specifically sorted to the apical or basolateral domain. A cargo frequently used to analyze cargo sorting to the basolateral domain is a temperature sensitive allele of the vesicular stomatitis virus glycoprotein (VSVGts045) 10. This protein cannot fold properly at 39&deg;C and will thus be retained in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) while the regulatory protein of interest is assembled in the cytosol. A shift to 31&deg;C will then allow VSVGts045 to fold properly, leave the ER and travel to the plasma membrane 11. This chase is typically performed in the presence of cycloheximide to prevent further protein synthesis leading to cleaner results. Here we describe in detail the procedure of microinjecting plasmids into polarized cells and subsequent incubations including temperature shifts that allow a comprehensive analysis of regulatory proteins involved in basolateral sorting.

This article details the procedures involved in overexpression and analysis of small GTPases in polarized epithelial cells using microinjection technique.

Polarize Epitel Hücreleri içine Plazmidler, Mikroenjeksiyon Küçük GTPases Fonksiyon Analizi

Epithelial cells polarize their plasma membrane into biochemically and functionally distinct apical and basolateral domains where the apical domain faces ...

Activation of Apoptosis by Cytoplasmic Microinjection of Cytochrome c

Apoptosis, or programmed cell death, is a conserved and highly regulated pathway by which cells die1. Apoptosis can be triggered when cells encounter a wide range of cytotoxic stresses. These insults initiate signaling cascades that ultimately cause the release of cytochrome c from the mitochondrial intermembrane space to the cytoplasm2. The release of cytochrome c from mitochondria is a key event that triggers the rapid activation of caspases, the key cellular proteases which ultimately execute cell death3-4.
The pathway of apoptosis is regulated at points upstream and downstream of cytochrome c release from mitochondria5. In order to study the post-mitochondrial regulation of caspase activation, many investigators have turned to direct cytoplasmic microinjection of holocytochrome c (heme-attached) protein into cells6-9. Cytochrome c is normally localized to the mitochondria where attachment of a heme group is necessary to enable it to activate apoptosis10-11. Therefore, to directly activate caspases, it is necessary to inject the holocytochrome c protein instead of its cDNA, because while the expression of cytochrome c from cDNA constructs will result in mitochondrial targeting and heme attachment, it will be sequestered from cytosolic caspases. Thus, the direct cytosolic microinjection of purified heme-attached cytochrome c protein is a useful tool to mimic mitochondrial cytochrome c release and apoptosis without the use of toxic insults which cause cellular and mitochondrial damage.
In this article, we describe a method for the microinjection of cytochrome c protein into cells, using mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs) and primary sympathetic neurons as examples. While this protocol focuses on the injection of cytochrome c for investigations of apoptosis, the techniques shown here can also be easily adapted for microinjection of other proteins of interest.

Activation of Apoptosis by Cytoplasmic Microinjection of Cytochrome c

In this protocol, we describe the direct cytoplasmic microinjection of cytochrome c protein into fibroblasts and primary sympathetic neurons. This technique allows for the introduction of cytochrome c protein into the cytoplasm of cells and mimics the release of cytochrome c from mitochondria, which occurs during apoptosis.

Sitokrom Sitoplazmik Mikroenjeksiyon Apoptoz aktivasyonu C</em

Apoptosis, or programmed cell death, is a conserved and highly regulated pathway by which cells die1.  Apoptosis can be triggered when cells encounter a ...

Generation of Myospheres From hESCs by Epigenetic Reprogramming

Generation of a homogeneous and abundant population of skeletal muscle cells from human embryonic stem cells (hESCs) is a requirement for cell-based therapies and for a "disease in a dish" model of human neuromuscular diseases. Major hurdles, such as low abundance and heterogeneity of the population of interest, as well as a lack of protocols for the formation of three-dimensional contractile structures, have limited the applications of stem cells for neuromuscular disorders. We have designed a protocol that overcomes these limits by ectopic introduction of defined factors in hESCs - the muscle determination factor MyoD and SWI/SNF chromatin remodeling complex component BAF60C - that are able to reprogram hESCs into skeletal muscle cells. Here we describe the protocol established to generate hESC-derived myoblasts and promote their clustering into tridimensional miniaturized structures (myospheres) that functionally mimic miniaturized skeletal muscles7.

Here, we describe a protocol based on epigenetic reprogramming of human embryonic stem cells (hESCs) toward generating a homogeneous population of skeletal muscle progenitors that under permissive culture conditions form three-dimensional clusters of contractile myofibers (myospheres), which recapitulate biological features of human skeletal muscles.

Epigenetik yeniden programlanması ile hESC itibaren Myospheres Üretimi

Generation of a homogeneous and abundant population of skeletal muscle cells from human embryonic stem cells (hESCs) is a requirement for cell-based ...

Culturing Caenorhabditis elegans in Axenic Liquid Media and Creation of Transgenic Worms by Microparticle Bombardment

In this protocol, we present the required materials, and the procedure for making modified&#160;C. elegans&#160;Habituation and Reproduction media (mCeHR). Additionally, the steps for exposing and acclimatizing C. elegans grown on E. coli to axenic liquid media are described. Finally, downstream experiments that utilize axenic C. elegans illustrate the benefits of this procedure. The ability to analyze and determine C. elegans&#160;nutrient requirement was illustrated by growing N2 wild type worms in axenic liquid media with varying heme concentrations. This procedure can be replicated with other nutrients to determine the optimal concentration for worm growth and development or, to determine the toxicological effects of drug treatments. The effects of varied heme concentrations on the growth of wild type worms were determined through qualitative microscopic observation and by quantitating the number of worms that grew in each heme concentration. In addition, the effect of varied nutrient concentrations can be assayed by utilizing worms that express fluorescent sensors that respond to changes in the nutrient of interest. Furthermore, a large number of worms were easily produced for the generation of transgenic C. elegans using microparticle bombardment.

Culturing Caenorhabditis elegans in Axenic Liquid Media and Creation of Transgenic Worms by Microparticle Bombardment

C. elegans is usually grown on solid agar plates or in liquid cultures seeded with E. coli. To prevent bacterial byproducts from confounding toxicological and nutritional studies, we utilized an axenic liquid medium, CeHR, to grow and synchronize a large number of worms for a range of downstream applications.