Name: assessment of vascular regeneration in the cns using the mouse retina
Uploaded: 2014-06-23T18:45:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Assessment of Vascular Regeneration in the CNS Using the Mouse Retina at JoVE.com

PS holds a Canada Research Chair in Retinal Cell Biology and the Alcon Research Institute New Investigator Award. This work was supported by grants from the Canadian Institutes of Health Research (221478), the Canadian Diabetes Association (OG-3-11-3329-PS), the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (418637) and The Foundation Fighting Blindness Canada. Support was also provided by the Reseau de Recherche en Sant&#233; de la Vision du Qu&#233;bec.

Ethics statement: All animal experimentation adheres the animal care guidelines established by the Association for Research in Vision and Ophthalmology (ARVO) Statement for the Use of Animals in Ophthalmic and Vision Research and the Canadian Council of Animal Care.
1. Oxygen Induced Retinopathy (OIR)
<ol>
	<li>Record date of birth of mouse pups as P0.</li>
	<li>Record all weights of animals upon entry into O2 to ensure an adequate weight range. Note: For C57BL/6 ...

<ol>
	<li>Carmeliet, P., Tessier-Lavigne, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Common+mechanisms+of+nerve+and+blood+vessel+wiring.">Common mechanisms of nerve and blood vessel wiring.</a> Nature. 436, 193-200 (2005).</li><li>Eichmann, A., Thomas, J. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Molecular+Parallels+between+Neural+and+Vascular+Development.">Molecular Parallels between Neural and Vascular Development.</a> Cold Spring Harb Perspect Med. 3, (2012).</li><li>Larrivee, B., Freitas, C., Suchting, S., Brunet, I., Eichmann, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Guidance+of+vascular+development:+lessons+from+the+nervous+system.">Guidance of vascular development: lessons from the nervous system.</a> Circ Res. 104, 428-441 (2009).</li><li>Stefater Iii, J. A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Regulation+of+angiogenesis+by+a+non-canonical+Wnt-Flt1+pathway+in+myeloid+cells.">Regulation of angiogenesis by a non-canonical Wnt-Flt1 pathway in myeloid cells.</a> Nature. 474, 511-515 (2011).</li><li>Checchin, D., Sennlaub, F., Levavasseur, E., Leduc, M., Chemtob, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Potential+role+of+microglia+in+retinal+blood+vessel+formation.">Potential role of microglia in retinal blood vessel formation.</a> Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 47, 3595-3602 (2006).</li><li>Quaegebeur, A., Lange, C., Carmeliet, P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+neurovascular+link+in+health+and+disease:+molecular+mechanisms+and+therapeutic+implications.">The neurovascular link in health and disease: molecular mechanisms and therapeutic implications.</a> Neuron. 71, 406-424 (2011).</li><li>Yamamoto, Y., Craggs, L., Baumann, M., Kalimo, H., Kalaria, R. N. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Review:+molecular+genetics+and+pathology+of+hereditary+small+vessel+diseases+of+the+brain.">Review: molecular genetics and pathology of hereditary small vessel diseases of the brain.</a> Neuropathol Appl Neurobiol. 37, 94-113 (2011).</li><li>Brun, A., Englund, E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+white+matter+disorder+in+dementia+of+the+Alzheimer+type:+a+pathoanatomical+study.">A white matter disorder in dementia of the Alzheimer type: a pathoanatomical study.</a> Ann Neurol. 19, 253-262 (1986).</li><li>Prat, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Migration+of+multiple+sclerosis+lymphocytes+through+brain+endothelium.">Migration of multiple sclerosis lymphocytes through brain endothelium.</a> Arch Neurol. 59, 391-397 (2002).</li><li>Rule, R. R., Schuff, N., Miller, R. G., Weiner, M. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Gray+matter+perfusion+correlates+with+disease+severity+in+ALS.">Gray matter perfusion correlates with disease severity in ALS.</a> Neurology. 74, 821-827 (2010).</li><li>Antonetti, D. A., Klein, R., Gardner, T. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Diabetic+retinopathy.">Diabetic retinopathy.</a> N Engl J Med. 366, 1227-1239 (2012).</li><li>Hartnett, M. E., Penn, J. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mechanisms+and+management+of+retinopathy+of+prematurity.">Mechanisms and management of retinopathy of prematurity.</a> N Engl J Med. 367, 2515-2526 (2012).</li><li>Sapieha, P., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Retinopathy+of+prematurity:+understanding+ischemic+retinal+vasculopathies+at+an+extreme+of+life.">Retinopathy of prematurity: understanding ischemic retinal vasculopathies at an extreme of life.</a> J Clin Invest. 120, 3022-3032 (2010).</li><li>Chen, J., Smith, L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Retinopathy+of+prematurity.">Retinopathy of prematurity.</a> Angiogenesis. 10, 133-140 (2007).</li><li>Cheung, N. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Diabetic+retinopathy+and+systemic+vascular+complications.">Diabetic retinopathy and systemic vascular complications.</a> Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 27, 161-176 (2008).</li><li>Smith, L. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Through+the+eyes+of+a+child:+understanding+retinopathy+through+ROP+the+Friedenwald+lecture.">Through the eyes of a child: understanding retinopathy through ROP the Friedenwald lecture.</a> Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 49, 5177-5182 (2008).</li><li>Caballero, S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Ischemic+vascular+damage+can+be+repaired+by+healthy,+but+not+diabetic,+endothelial+progenitor+cells.">Ischemic vascular damage can be repaired by healthy, but not diabetic, endothelial progenitor cells.</a> Diabetes. 56, 960-967 (2007).</li><li>Wang, H., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=VEGF-mediated+STAT3+activation+inhibits+retinal+vascularization+by+down-regulating+local+erythropoietin+expression.">VEGF-mediated STAT3 activation inhibits retinal vascularization by down-regulating local erythropoietin expression.</a> Am J Pathol. 180, 1243-1253 (2012).</li><li>Ritter, M. R., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Myeloid+progenitors+differentiate+into+microglia+and+promote+vascular+repair+in+a+model+of+ischemic+retinopathy.">Myeloid progenitors differentiate into microglia and promote vascular repair in a model of ischemic retinopathy.</a> J Clin Invest. 116, 3266-3276 (2006).</li><li>Saito, Y., Geisen, P., Uppal, A., Hartnett, M. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Inhibition+of+NAD(P)H+oxidase+reduces+apoptosis+and+avascular+retina+in+an+animal+model+of+retinopathy+of+prematurity.">Inhibition of NAD(P)H oxidase reduces apoptosis and avascular retina in an animal model of retinopathy of prematurity.</a> Mol Vis. 13, 840-853 (2007).</li><li>Connor, K. M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Increased+dietary+intake+of+omega-3-polyunsaturated+fatty+acids+reduces+pathological+retinal+angiogenesis.">Increased dietary intake of omega-3-polyunsaturated fatty acids reduces pathological retinal angiogenesis.</a> Nat Med. 13, 868-873 (2007).</li><li>Banin, E., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=T2-TrpRS+inhibits+preretinal+neovascularization+and+enhances+physiological+vascular+regrowth+in+OIR+as+assessed+by+a+new+method+of+quantification.">T2-TrpRS inhibits preretinal neovascularization and enhances physiological vascular regrowth in OIR as assessed by a new method of quantification.</a> Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 47, 2125-2134 (2006).</li><li>Dorrell, M. I., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Maintaining+retinal+astrocytes+normalizes+revascularization+and+prevents+vascular+pathology+associated+with+oxygen-induced+retinopathy.">Maintaining retinal astrocytes normalizes revascularization and prevents vascular pathology associated with oxygen-induced retinopathy.</a> Glia. 58, 43-54 (2010).</li><li>Joyal, J. -. S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Ischemic+neurons+prevent+vascular+regeneration+of+neural+tissue+by+secreting+semaphorin+3A.">Ischemic neurons prevent vascular regeneration of neural tissue by secreting semaphorin 3A.</a> Blood. 117, 6024-6035 (2011).</li><li>Binet, F., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Neuronal+ER+Stress+Impedes+Myeloid-Cell-Induced+Vascular+Regeneration+through+IRE1alpha+Degradation+of+Netrin-1.">Neuronal ER Stress Impedes Myeloid-Cell-Induced Vascular Regeneration through IRE1alpha Degradation of Netrin-1.</a> Cell Metab. 17, 353-371 (2013).</li><li>Fukushima, Y., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Sema3E-PlexinD1+signaling+selectively+suppresses+disoriented+angiogenesis+in+ischemic+retinopathy+in+mice.">Sema3E-PlexinD1 signaling selectively suppresses disoriented angiogenesis in ischemic retinopathy in mice.</a> J Clin Invest. 121, 1974-1985 (2011).</li><li>Smith, L. E., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Oxygen-induced+retinopathy+in+the+mouse.">Oxygen-induced retinopathy in the mouse.</a> Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 35, 101-111 (1994).</li><li>Lange, C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Kinetics+of+retinal+vaso-obliteration+and+neovascularisation+in+the+oxygen-induced+retinopathy+(OIR)+mouse+model.">Kinetics of retinal vaso-obliteration and neovascularisation in the oxygen-induced retinopathy (OIR) mouse model.</a> Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 247, 1205-1211 (2009).</li><li>Connor, K. M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Quantification+of+oxygen-induced+retinopathy+in+the+mouse:+a+model+of+vessel+loss,+vessel+regrowth+and+pathological+angiogenesis.">Quantification of oxygen-induced retinopathy in the mouse: a model of vessel loss, vessel regrowth and pathological angiogenesis.</a> Nature Protocols. 4, 1565-1573 (2009).</li><li>Stahl, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+mouse+retina+as+an+angiogenesis+model.">The mouse retina as an angiogenesis model.</a> Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 51, 2813-2826 (2010).</li><li>Stahl, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Computer-aided+quantification+of+retinal+neovascularization.">Computer-aided quantification of retinal neovascularization.</a> Angiogenesis. 12, 297-301 (2009).</li><li>Stahl, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Postnatal+Weight+Gain+Modifies+Severity+and+Functional+Outcome+of+Oxygen-Induced+Proliferative+Retinopathy.">Postnatal Weight Gain Modifies Severity and Functional Outcome of Oxygen-Induced Proliferative Retinopathy.</a> Am J Pathol. 177, 2715-2723 (2010).</li><li>Cerani, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Neuron-Derived+Semaphorin+3A+is+an+Early+Inducer+of+Vascular+Permeability+in+Diabetic+Retinopathy+via+Neuropilin-1.">Neuron-Derived Semaphorin 3A is an Early Inducer of Vascular Permeability in Diabetic Retinopathy via Neuropilin-1.</a> Cell Metabolism. 18, 505-518 (2013).</li><li>Sapieha, P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Eyeing+central+neurons+in+vascular+growth+and+reparative+angiogenesis.">Eyeing central neurons in vascular growth and reparative angiogenesis.</a> Blood. 120, 2182-2194 (2012).</li><li>Dorfman, A., Dembinska, O., Chemtob, S., Lachapelle, P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Early+manifestations+of+postnatal+hyperoxia+on+the+retinal+structure+and+function+of+the+neonatal+rat.">Early manifestations of postnatal hyperoxia on the retinal structure and function of the neonatal rat.</a> Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 49, 458-466 (2008).</li><li>Dorfman, A. L., Joly, S., Hardy, P., Chemtob, S., Lachapelle, P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+effect+of+oxygen+and+light+on+the+structure+and+function+of+the+neonatal+rat+retina.">The effect of oxygen and light on the structure and function of the neonatal rat retina.</a> Doc Ophthalmol. 118, 37-54 (2009).</li><li>Chopp, M., Zhang, Z. G., Jiang, Q. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Neurogenesis,+angiogenesis,+and+MRI+indices+of+functional+recovery+from+stroke.">Neurogenesis, angiogenesis, and MRI indices of functional recovery from stroke.</a> Stroke. 38, 827-831 (2007).</li><li>Li, L., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Angiogenesis+and+improved+cerebral+blood+flow+in+the+ischemic+boundary+area+detected+by+MRI+after+administration+of+sildenafil+to+rats+with+embolic+stroke.">Angiogenesis and improved cerebral blood flow in the ischemic boundary area detected by MRI after administration of sildenafil to rats with embolic stroke.</a> Brain Res. 1132, 185-192 (2007).</li><li>Robinson, R., Barathi, V. A., Chaurasia, S. S., Wong, T. Y., Kern, T. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Update+on+animal+models+of+diabetic+retinopathy:+from+molecular+approaches+to+mice+and+higher+mammals.">Update on animal models of diabetic retinopathy: from molecular approaches to mice and higher mammals.</a> Dis Model Mech. 5, 444-456 (2012).</li><li>Chia, R., Achilli, F., Festing, M. F., Fisher, E. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+origins+and+uses+of+mouse+outbred+stocks.">The origins and uses of mouse outbred stocks.</a> Nat Genet. 37, 1181-1186 (2005).</li><li>Jenuth, J. P., Peterson, A. C., Shoubridge, E. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Tissue-specific+selection+for+different+mtDNA+genotypes+in+heteroplasmic+mice.">Tissue-specific selection for different mtDNA genotypes in heteroplasmic mice.</a> Nat Genet. 16, 93-95 (1997).</li><li>Mattapallil, M. J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+Rd8+mutation+of+the+Crb1+gene+is+present+in+vendor+lines+of+C57BL/6N+mice+and+embryonic+stem+cells,+and+confounds+ocular+induced+mutant+phenotypes.">The Rd8 mutation of the Crb1 gene is present in vendor lines of C57BL/6N mice and embryonic stem cells, and confounds ocular induced mutant phenotypes.</a> Investigative ophthalmolog., &amp; visual science. 53, 2921-2927 (2012).</li></ol>

What is the most effective way to stimulate growth of new healthy vessels in ischemic nervous tissue? Is it therapeutically valid to interfere with and accelerate naturally occurring vascular regrowth? In neuro-ischemic pathologies such as ischemic retinopathies or stroke, vascular degeneration is associated with reduced neuronal function35-38. Hence to counter early injury, reinstating regional micro-circulation during the immediate/early segment of disease may prove beneficial. In an ocular context, experime...

Throughout CNS development, nerves, immune cells and blood vessels establish remarkably coupled networks to ensure adequate tissue perfusion and allow transmission of sensory information1-5. The breakdown of vascular systems results in insufficient tissue oxygenation and compromised metabolic supply and is increasingly recognized as an important contributor to the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative diseases6. Vascular dropout and the deterioration of the neurovascular unit within the brain, for example, is associated with vascular dementia, vascular lesions of the white matter of the brain7 and Alzheimer&#8217;s disease with stenosis of arterioles and small vessels8. In addition, impaired vascular barrier function is thought to contribute multiple sclerosis9 and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis10.
Of direct relevance to the retinal model described in this protocol, blinding diseases such as diabetic retinopathy11 and retinopathy of prematurity12,13 are characterized by a phase of early vascular degeneration. The ensuing ischemic stress on the neurovascular retina triggers a second phase of excessive and pathological neovascularization that likely originates as a compensatory response to re-instate oxygen and energy supply14-16. An attractive strategy to overcome the ischemic stress that is central to disease progression is to restore functional vascular networks specifically in the ischemic zones of the neuro-retina (Figures 2&#160;and 3). Provoking a controlled angiogenic response may come across as counter-intuitive for a condition in which anti-angiogenic treatments such as anti-VEGFs are considered as adapted treatments. Yet, evidence for the validity of this approach is mounting. For example, enhancing &#8220;physiological-like&#8221; vascular regrowth in ischemic retinopathies has been elegantly demonstrated through introduction of endothelial precursor cells17, inhibition of M&#252;ller cell-expressed VEGF induced downregulation of other angiogenic factors18, injection of myeloid progenitors19, inhibition of NADPH oxidase induced apoptosis20, increasing dietary &#969;-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid intake21, treatment with a carboxyl-terminal fragment of tryptophan tRNA synthetase22, and direct administration of VEGF or FGF-2 for protection of glial cells23. Moreover, we have demonstrated that modulating classical neuronal guidance cues such as Semaphorins or Netrins in ischemic retinopathies accelerates vascular regeneration of healthy vessels within the retina and consequently reduces pathological angiogenesis24,25. Of direct clinical relevance, several of the aforementioned animal studies provide evidence that promoting vascular regeneration during the early ischemic phase of retinopathies can significantly reduce sight-threatening pre-retinal neovascularization19,23,24,26, likely through the reduction of ischemic burden.
Devising therapeutic strategies that stimulate regeneration of functional vessels remains a significant challenge for vascular biologists. Here we describe an experimental system that employs the mouse model of oxygen-induced retinopathy (OIR) to explore strategies to modulate vascular regrowth within the retina. Developed by Smith et al. in 199427, this model serves as a proxy for human proliferative retinopathies and consists of exposing P7 mouse pups to 75% O2 until P12 and subsequently re-introducing the pups to ambient room O2-tension (Figure 1). This paradigm loosely mimics a scenario where a premature infant is&#160;ventilated with O2. The exposure of mouse pups to hyperoxia provokes degeneration of retinal capillaries and microvasculature, and yields a reproducible area of vaso-obliteration (VO) typically assessed upon exit from O2 at P12, although maximal VO area is reached at 48 hr&#160;(P9) after exposure to O2 28. In the mouse, the avascular VO zones spontaneously regenerate over the course of the week following re-introduction to room air and eventually VO zones are completely re-vascularized (Figure 2). Re-introduction to room air of mice subjected to OIR also provokes pre-retinal neovascularization (NV) (maximal at P17) that is typically assessed to determine the efficacy of anti-angiogenic treatment paradigms. In its purest form, the OIR model provides a highly reproducible and quantifiable tool to assess oxygen-induced vascular degeneration and determine the extent of destructive pre-retinal neovascularization29-31.
Various explorative treatment paradigms that modulate CNS vascular regeneration can be investigated using the OIR model including use of pharmacological compounds, gene therapy, gene deletion and more. The propensity of a given approach to influence vascular regrowth is assessed step-wise in the window between P12 (maximal VO after exit from hyperoxia) and P17 (maximal NV). Evaluation of treatment outcome on pathological NV can be rapidly and easily determined in parallel and has been thoroughly described by Stahl and colleagues30,31. Here we provide a simple step-by-step procedure to investigate the modulation of physiological revascularization within the neural retina by pharmacological compounds, prospective therapeutics, viral vectors or to study the influence of candidate genes in transgenic or knockout mice.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="1224">
	<tbody>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:639px;">C57Bl/6 mice ((Other strains may be used; angiogenic response varies from one strain to the other)</td>
			<td style="width:181px;"></td>
			<td style="width:175px;"></td>
			<td style="width:231px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="38">
			<td height="38" style="height:38px;width:639px;">CD1 nursing mothers</td>
			<td style="width:181px;">Vendor of choice</td>
			<td style="width:175px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:639px;">Operating Scissors straight</td>
			<td style="width:181px;">World Precision Instruments</td>
			<td style="width:175px;">14192</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:639px;">Dissecting Scissors straight</td>
			<td style="width:181px;">World Precision Instruments</td>
			<td style="width:175px;">14393</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:639px;">Vannas Eye Scissors</td>
			<td style="width:181px;">Harvard Apparatus</td>
			<td style="width:175px;">72-8483</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:639px;">Iris Forceps, curved, serrated</td>
			<td style="width:181px;">World Precision Instruments</td>
			<td style="width:175px;">15915</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:639px;">Brushes 362R size 0</td>
			<td style="width:181px;">Dynasty</td>
			<td style="width:175px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:639px;">Dumont Forceps #3; straight</td>
			<td style="width:181px;">World Precision Instruments</td>
			<td style="width:175px;">500338</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:639px;">Surgical Blade, size 10</td>
			<td style="width:181px;">Bard-Parker</td>
			<td style="width:175px;">371110</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:639px;">Rhodamine Griffonia (Bandeiraea) Simplicifolia Lectin I</td>
			<td style="width:181px;">Vector Laboratories, Inc</td>
			<td style="width:175px;">RL-1102</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:639px;">Microscope slides</td>
			<td style="width:181px;">VWR</td>
			<td style="width:175px;">16004-368</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:639px;">Fluoromount G</td>
			<td style="width:181px;">Electron Microscopy Sciences</td>
			<td style="width:175px;">17984-25</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:639px;">Zeiss Axio Observer Z1 Inverted Phase and Fluorescence Microscope</td>
			<td style="width:181px;">Zeiss</td>
			<td style="width:175px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="42" rowspan="2" style="height:42px;width:639px;">Leica MZ9.5 Stereomicroscope</td>
			<td rowspan="2" style="width:181px;">Leica</td>
			<td rowspan="2" style="width:175px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:639px;">Fluorescein isothicyanate-dextran, 70000</td>
			<td style="width:181px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:175px;">46945</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

assessment of vascular regeneration in the cns using the mouse retina

The rodent retina is perhaps the most accessible mammalian system in which to investigate neurovascular interplay within the central nervous system (CNS). It is increasingly being recognized that several neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer&#8217;s, multiple sclerosis, and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis present elements of vascular compromise. In addition, the most prominent causes of blindness in pediatric and working age populations (retinopathy of prematurity and diabetic retinopathy, respectively) are characterized by vascular degeneration and failure of physiological vascular regrowth. The aim of this technical paper is to provide a detailed protocol to study CNS vascular regeneration in the retina. The method can be employed to elucidate molecular mechanisms that lead to failure of vascular growth after ischemic injury. In addition, potential therapeutic modalities to accelerate and restore healthy vascular plexuses can be explored. Findings obtained using the described approach may provide therapeutic avenues for ischemic retinopathies such as that of diabetes or prematurity and possibly benefit other vascular disorders of the CNS.

The OIR model is widely used to study oxygen-induced vascular degeneration and ischemia-induced pathological neovascularization in the retina and has been instrumental in the development of currently employed anti-angiogenic treatments for ocular diseases27,29,30. Findings obtained using this model can be loosely extrapolated to ischemic retinopathies such as proliferative diabetic retinopathy and retinopathy of prematurity30.&#160;
<p class="jove_cont...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Assessment of Vascular Regeneration in the CNS Using the Mouse Retina at JoVE.com

Assessment of Vascular Regeneration in the CNS Using the Mouse Retina

The rodent retina has long been recognized as an accessible window to the brain. In this technical paper we provide a protocol that employs the mouse model of oxygen-induced retinopathy to study the mechanisms that lead to failure of vascular regeneration within the central nervous system after ischemic injury. The described system can also be harnessed to explore strategies to promote regrowth of functional blood vessels within the retina and CNS.

The rodent retina is perhaps the most accessible mammalian system in which to investigate neurovascular interplay within the central nervous system (CNS). ...

assessment-of-vascular-regeneration-in-the-cns-using-the-mouse-retina

Research

JoVE Journal

Neuroscience

Quantifying the Activity of cis-Regulatory Elements in the Mouse Retina by Explant Electroporation

Transcription factors within cellular gene networks control the spatiotemporal pattern and levels of expression of their target genes by binding to cis-regulatory elements (CREs), short (&tilde;300-600 bp) stretches of genomic DNA which can lie upstream, downstream, or within the introns of the genes they control. CREs (i.e., enhancers/promoters) typically consist of multiple clustered binding sites for both transcriptional activators and repressors1-3. They serve as logical integrators of transcriptional input giving a unitary output in the form of spatiotemporally precise and quantitatively exact promoter activity. Most studies of mammalian cis-regulation to date have relied on mouse transgenesis as a means of assaying the enhancer function of CREs4-5. This technique is time-consuming, costly and, on account of insertion site effects, largely non-quantitative. On the other hand, quantitative assays for mammalian CRE function have been developed in tissue culture systems (e.g., dual luciferase assays), but the in vivo relevance of these results is often uncertain. 
Electroporation offers an excellent alternative to traditional mouse transgenesis in that it permits both spatiotemporal and quantitative assessment of cis-regulatory activity in living mammalian tissue. This technique has been particularly useful in the analysis of cis-regulation in the central nervous system, especially in the cerebral cortex and the retina6-8. While mouse retinal electroporation, both in vivo and ex vivo, has been developed and extensively described by Matsuda and Cepko6-7,9, we have recently developed a simple approach to quantify the activity of photoreceptor-specific CREs in electroporated mouse retinas10. Given that the amount of DNA that is introduced into the retina by electroporation can vary from experiment to experiment, it is necessary to include a co-electroporated 'loading control' in all experiments. In this respect, the technique is very similar to the dual luciferase assay used to quantify promoter activity in cultured cells. 
When assaying photoreceptor cis-regulatory activity, electroporation is usually performed in newborn mice (postnatal day 0, P0) which is the time of peak rod production11-12. Once retinal cell types become post-mitotic, electroporation is much less efficient. Given the high rate of rod birth in newborn mice and the fact that rods constitute more than 70% of the cells in the adult mouse retina, the majority of cells that are electroporated at P0 are rods. For this reason, rod photoreceptors are the easiest retinal cell type to study via electroporation. The technique we describe here is primarily useful for quantifying the activity of photoreceptor CREs.

Quantifying the Activity of cis-Regulatory Elements in the Mouse Retina by Explant Electroporation

This protocol describes a simple and inexpensive way to quantify the activity of cis-regulatory elements (i.e., enhancer/promoters) in living mouse retinas via explant electroporation. DNA preparation, retinal dissection, electroporation, retinal explant culture, and post-fixation analysis and quantification are described.

Transcription factors within cellular gene networks control the spatiotemporal pattern and levels of expression of their target genes by binding to ...

In vivo Electroporation of Developing Mouse Retina

The functional characterization of genes expressed during mammalian retinal development remains a significant challenge. Gene targeting to generate constitutive or conditional loss of function knockouts remains cost and labor intensive, as well as time consuming. Adding to these challenges, retina expressed genes may have essential roles outside the retina leading to unintended confounds when using a knockout approach. Furthermore, the ability to ectopically express a gene in a gain of function experiment can be extremely valuable when attempting to identify a role in cell fate specification and/or terminal differentiation.
We present a method for the rapid and efficient incorporation of DNA plasmids into the neonatal mouse retina by electroporation. The application of short electrical impulses above a certain field strength results in a transient increase in plasma membrane permeability, facilitating the transfer of material across the membrane 1,2,3,4. Groundbreaking work demonstrated that electroporation could be utilized as a method of gene transfer into mammalian cells by inducing the formation of hydrophilic plasma membrane pores allowing the passage of highly charged DNA through the lipid bilayer 5. Continuous technical development has resulted in the viability of electroporation as a method for in vivo gene transfer in multiple mouse tissues including the retina, the method for which is described herein 6, 7, 8, 9, 10. 
DNA solution is injected into the subretinal space so that DNA is placed between the retinal pigmented epithelium and retina of the neonatal (P0) mouse and electrical pulses are applied using a tweezer electrode. The lateral placement of the eyes in the mouse allows for the easy orientation of the tweezer electrode to the necessary negative pole-DNA-retina-positive pole alignment. Extensive incorporation and expression of transferred genes can be identified by postnatal day 2 (P2). Due to the lack of significant lateral migration of cells in the retina, electroporated and non-electroporated regions are generated. Non-electroporated regions may serve as internal histological controls where appropriate. 
Retinal electroporation can be used to express a gene under a ubiquitous promoter, such as CAG, or to disrupt gene function using shRNA constructs or Cre-recombinase. More targeted expression can be achieved by designing constructs with cell specific gene promoters. Visualization of electroporated cells is achieved using bicistronic constructs expressing GFP or by co-electroporating a GFP expression construct. Furthermore, multiple constructs may be electroporated for the study of combinatorial gene effects or simultaneous gain and loss of function of different genes. Retinal electroporation may also be utilized for the analysis of genomic cis-regulatory elements by generating appropriate expression constructs and deletion mutants. Such experiments can be used to identify cis-regulatory regions sufficient or required for cell specific gene expression 11. Potential experiments are limited only by construct availability.

In vivo Electroporation of Developing Mouse Retina

A method for the incorporation of plasmid DNA into murine retinal cells for the purpose of performing either gain- or loss of function studies in vivo is presented. This method capitalizes on the transient increase in permeability of cell plasma membranes induced by the application of an external electrical field.

The functional characterization of genes expressed during mammalian retinal development remains a significant challenge.  Gene targeting to generate ...

Whole Mount Immunofluorescent Staining of the Neonatal Mouse Retina to Investigate Angiogenesis In vivo

Angiogenesis is the complex process of new blood vessel formation defined by the sprouting of new blood vessels from a pre-existing vessel network. Angiogenesis plays a key role not only in normal development of organs and tissues, but also in many diseases in which blood vessel formation is dysregulated, such as cancer, blindness and ischemic diseases. In adult life, blood vessels are generally quiescent so angiogenesis is an important target for novel drug development to try and regulate new vessel formation specifically in disease. In order to better understand angiogenesis and to develop appropriate strategies to regulate it, models are required that accurately reflect the different biological steps that are involved. The mouse neonatal retina provides an excellent model of angiogenesis because arteries, veins and capillaries develop to form a vascular plexus during the first week after birth. This model also has the advantage of having a two-dimensional (2D) structure making analysis straightforward compared with the complex 3D anatomy of other vascular networks. By analyzing the retinal vascular plexus at different times after birth, it is possible to observe the various stages of angiogenesis under the microscope. This article demonstrates a straightforward procedure for analyzing the vasculature of a mouse retina using fluorescent staining with isolectin and vascular specific antibodies.

Whole Mount Immunofluorescent Staining of the Neonatal Mouse Retina to Investigate Angiogenesis In vivo

The neonatal murine retina provides a well characterized physiological model of angiogenesis, which permits investigations of the roles of different genes or drugs that modulate angiogenesis in an in vivo context. Immunofluorescent staining to accurately visualize the vascular plexus is pivotal to the success of these types of studies.

Angiogenesis  is the complex process of new blood vessel formation defined by the sprouting  of new blood vessels from a pre-existing vessel network. ...

Fast Micro-iontophoresis of Glutamate and GABA: A Useful Tool to Investigate Synaptic Integration

One of the fundamental interests in neuroscience is to understand the integration of excitatory and inhibitory inputs along the very complex structure of the dendritic tree, which eventually leads to neuronal output of action potentials at the axon. The influence of diverse spatial and temporal parameters of specific synaptic input on neuronal output is currently under investigation, e.g. the distance-dependent attenuation of dendritic inputs, the location-dependent interaction of spatially segregated inputs, the influence of GABAergig inhibition on excitatory integration, linear and non-linear integration modes, and many more.
With fast micro-iontophoresis of glutamate and GABA it is possible to precisely investigate the spatial and temporal integration of glutamatergic excitation and GABAergic inhibition. Critical technical requirements are either a triggered fluorescent lamp, light-emitting diode (LED), or a two-photon scanning microscope to visualize dendritic branches without introducing significant photo-damage of the tissue. Furthermore, it is very important to have a micro-iontophoresis amplifier that allows for fast capacitance compensation of high resistance pipettes. Another crucial point is that no transmitter is involuntarily released by the pipette during the experiment.
Once established, this technique will give reliable and reproducible signals with a high neurotransmitter and location specificity. Compared to glutamate and GABA uncaging, fast iontophoresis allows using both transmitters at the same time but at very distant locations without limitation to the field of view. There are also advantages compared to focal electrical stimulation of axons: with micro-iontophoresis the location of the input site is definitely known and it is sure that only the neurotransmitter of interest is released. However it has to be considered that with micro-iontophoresis only the postsynapse is activated and presynaptic aspects of neurotransmitter release are not resolved. In this article we demonstrate how to set up micro-iontophoresis in brain slice experiments.

In this article we introduce fast micro-iontophoresis of neurotransmitters as a technique to investigate integration of postsynaptic signals with high spatial and temporal precision.

One of the fundamental interests in neuroscience is to understand the integration of excitatory and inhibitory inputs along the very complex structure of ...

The Corneal Micropocket Assay: A Model of Angiogenesis in the Mouse Eye

The mouse corneal micropocket assay is a robust and quantitative in vivo assay for evaluating angiogenesis. By using standardized slow-release pellets containing specific growth factors that trigger blood vessel growth throughout the naturally avascular cornea, angiogenesis can be measured and quantified. In this assay the angiogenic response is generated over the course of several days, depending on the type and dose of growth factor used. The induction of neovascularization is commonly triggered by either basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF) or vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF). By combining these growth factors with sucralfate and hydron (poly-HEMA (poly(2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate))) and casting the mixture into pellets, they can be surgically implanted in the mouse eye. These uniform pellets slowly-release the growth factors over five or six days (bFGF or VEGF respectively) enabling sufficient angiogenic response required for vessel area quantification using a slit lamp. This assay can be used for different applications, including the evaluation of angiogenic modulator drugs or treatments as well as comparison between different genetic backgrounds affecting angiogenesis. A skilled investigator after practicing this assay can implant a pellet in less than 5 min per eye.

The protocol describes the corneal micropocket assay as developed in mice.

The mouse corneal micropocket assay is a robust and quantitative in vivo assay for evaluating angiogenesis. By using standardized slow-release pellets ...

Imaging Ca2+ Dynamics in Cone Photoreceptor Axon Terminals of the Mouse Retina

Retinal cone photoreceptors (cones) serve daylight vision and are the basis of color discrimination. They are subject to degeneration, often leading to blindness in many retinal diseases. Calcium (Ca2+), a key second messenger in photoreceptor signaling and metabolism, has been proposed to be indirectly linked with photoreceptor degeneration in various animal models. Systematically studying these aspects of cone physiology and pathophysiology has been hampered by the difficulties of electrically recording from these small cells, in particular in the mouse where the retina is dominated by rod photoreceptors. To circumvent this issue, we established a two-photon Ca2+ imaging protocol using a transgenic mouse line that expresses the genetically encoded Ca2+ biosensor TN-XL exclusively in cones and can be crossbred with mouse models for photoreceptor degeneration. The protocol described here involves preparing vertical sections (&#8220;slices&#8221;) of retinas from mice and optical imaging of light stimulus-evoked changes in cone Ca2+ level. The protocol also allows &#8220;in-slice measurement&#8221; of absolute Ca2+ concentrations; as the recordings can be followed by calibration. This protocol enables studies into functional cone properties and is expected to contribute to the understanding of cone Ca2+ signaling as well as the potential involvement of Ca2+ in photoreceptor death and retinal degeneration.

Imaging Ca2+ Dynamics in Cone Photoreceptor Axon Terminals of the Mouse Retina

We describe a protocol to monitor Ca2+ dynamics in the axon terminals of cone photoreceptors using an ex-vivo&#160;slice preparation of the mouse retina. This protocol allows comprehensive studies of cone Ca2+ signaling in an important mammalian model system, the mouse.

Retinal cone photoreceptors (cones) serve daylight vision and are the basis of color discrimination. They are subject to degeneration, often leading to ...

Using the Electroretinogram to Assess Function in the Rodent Retina and the Protective Effects of Remote Limb Ischemic Preconditioning

The ERG is the sum of all retinal activity. The ERG is usually recorded from the cornea, which acts as an antenna that collects and sums signals from the retina. The ERG is a sensitive measure of changes in retinal function that are pan-retinal, but is less effective for detecting damage confined to a small area of retina. In the present work we describe how to record the &#8216;flash&#8217; ERG, which is the potential generated when the retina is exposed to a brief light flash. We describe methods of anaesthesia, mydriasis and corneal management during recording; how to keep the retina dark adapted; electrode materials and placement; the range and calibration of stimulus energy; recording parameters and the extraction of data. We also describe a method of inducing ischemia in one limb, and how to use the ERG to assess the effects of this remote-from-the-retina ischemia on retinal function after light damage. A two-flash protocol is described which allows isolation of the cone-driven component of the dark-adapted ERG, and thereby the separation of the rod and cone components. Because it can be recorded with techniques that are minimally invasive, the ERG has been widely used in studies of the physiology, pharmacology and toxicology of the retina. We describe one example of this usefulness, in which the ERG is used to assess the function of the light-damaged retina, with and without a neuroprotective intervention; preconditioning by remote ischemia.

The electroretinogram (ERG) is an electrical potential generated by the retina in response to light. This paper describes how to use the ERG to assess retinal function, in dark-adapted rats, and how it can be can be used to assess a neuroprotective intervention, in the present case remote ischemic preconditioning.

The ERG is the sum of all retinal activity. The ERG is usually recorded from the cornea, which acts as an antenna that collects and sums signals from the ...

Investigating Mammalian Axon Regeneration: In Vivo Electroporation of Adult Mouse Dorsal Root Ganglion

Electroporation is an essential non-viral gene transfection approach to introduce DNA plasmids or small RNA molecules into cells. A sensory neuron in the dorsal root ganglion (DRGs) extends a single axon with two branches. One branch goes to the peripheral nerve (peripheral branch), and the other branch enters the spinal cord through the dorsal root (central branch). After the neural injury, the peripheral branch regenerates robustly whereas the central branch does not regenerate. Due to the high regenerative capacity, sensory axon regeneration has been widely used as a model system to study mammalian axon regeneration in both the peripheral nervous system (PNS) and the central nervous system (CNS). Here, we describe a previously established approach protocol to manipulate gene expression in mature sensory neurons in vivo via electroporation. Based on transfection with plasmids or small RNA oligos (siRNAs or microRNAs), the approach allows for both loss- and gain-of-function experiments to study the roles of genes-of-interests or microRNAs in regulation of axon regeneration in vivo. In addition, the manipulation of gene expression in vivo can be controlled both spatially and temporally within a relatively short time course. This model system provides a unique tool to investigate the molecular mechanisms by which mammalian axon regeneration is regulated in vivo.

Investigating Mammalian Axon Regeneration: In Vivo Electroporation of Adult Mouse Dorsal Root Ganglion

Electroporation is an effective approach to deliver genes of interests into cells. By applying this approach in vivo on the neurons of adult mouse dorsal root ganglion (DRG), we describe a model to study axon regeneration in vivo.

Electroporation is an essential non-viral gene transfection approach to introduce DNA plasmids or small RNA molecules into cells. A sensory neuron in the ...

Horizontal Hippocampal Slices of the Mouse Brain

The hippocampus is a highly organized structure in the brain that is a part of the limbic system and is involved in memory formation and consolidation as well as the manifestation of severe brain disorders, including Alzheimer&#8217;s disease and epilepsy. The hippocampus receives a high degree of intra- and inter-connectivity, securing a proper communication with internal and external brain structures. This connectivity is accomplished via different informational flows in the form of fiber pathways. Brain slices are a frequently used methodology when exploring neurophysiological functions of the hippocampus. Hippocampal brain slices can be used for several different applications, including electrophysiological recordings, light microscopic measurements as well as several molecular biological and histochemical techniques. Therefore, brain slices represent an ideal model system to assess protein functions, to investigate pathophysiological processes involved in neurological disorders as well as for drug discovery purposes.
There exist several different ways of slice preparations. Brain slice preparations with a vibratome allow a better preservation of the tissue structure and guarantee a sufficient oxygen supply during slicing, which present advantages over the traditional use of a tissue chopper. Moreover, different cutting planes can be applied for vibratome brain slice preparations. Here, a detailed protocol for a successful preparation of vibratome-cut horizontal hippocampal slices of mouse brains is provided. In contrast to other slice preparations, horizontal slicing allows to keep the fibers of the hippocampal input path (perforant path) in a fully intact state within a slice, which facilitates the investigation of entorhinal-hippocampal interactions. Here, we provide a thorough protocol for the dissection, extraction, and acute horizontal slicing of the murine brain, and discuss challenges and potential pitfalls of this technique. Finally, we will show some examples for the use of brain slices in further applications.

This article aims to describe a systematic protocol to obtain horizontal hippocampal brain slices in mice. The objective of this methodology is to preserve the integrity of hippocampal fiber pathways, such as the perforant path and the mossy fiber tract to assess dentate gyrus related neurological processes.

The hippocampus is a highly organized structure in the brain that is a part of the limbic system and is involved in memory formation and consolidation as ...

Transpupillary Two-Photon In Vivo Imaging of the Mouse Retina

The retina transforms light signals from the environment into electrical signals that are propagated to the brain. Diseases of the retina are prevalent and cause visual impairment and blindness. Understanding how such diseases progress is critical to formulating new treatments. In vivo&#160;microscopy in animal models of disease is a powerful tool for understanding neurodegeneration and has led to important progress towards treatments of conditions ranging from Alzheimer&#39;s disease to stroke. Given that the retina is the only central nervous system structure inherently accessible by optical approaches, it naturally lends itself towards in vivo imaging. However, the native optics of the lens and cornea present some challenges for effective imaging access.
This protocol outlines methods for in vivo two-photon imaging of cellular cohorts and structures in the mouse retina at cellular resolution, applicable for both acute- and chronic-duration imaging experiments. It presents examples of retinal ganglion cell (RGC), amacrine cell, microglial, and vascular imaging using a suite of labeling techniques including adeno-associated virus (AAV) vectors, transgenic mice, and inorganic dyes. Importantly, these techniques extend to all cell types of the retina, and suggested methods for accessing other cellular populations of interest are described. Also detailed are example strategies for manual image postprocessing for display and quantification. These techniques are directly applicable to studies of retinal function in health and disease.

In vivo imaging is a powerful tool for the study of biology in health and disease. This protocol describes transpupillary imaging of the mouse retina with a standard two-photon microscope. It also demonstrates different in vivoimaging methods to fluorescently label multiple cellular cohorts of the retina.

The retina transforms light signals from the environment into electrical signals that are propagated to the brain. Diseases of the retina are prevalent ...