Biz testis mikroenjeksiyon öğretmek için Münster Üniversitesi Üreme Tıbbı ve Androloji Merkezi Birgit Westernstroeer teşekkür ederim. Ayrıca, biz Ursula Antkewitz ve teknik yardım için Petra reckling minnettarız. Biz bu işi (WE2458 / 10-1) desteklemek için Alman Araştırma Vakfı (DFG) teşekkür ederim. &#160;

Tüm yapılan hayvan deneyleri yerel etik kurul (Landesamt für Landwirtschaft, Lebensmittelsicherheit und Fischerei, Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, Almanya) tarafından onaylanmıştır. 1. Plazmid Preparasyon <ol><li> Plazmid hazırlanması için, plazmid arıtma kitleri (Malzemeler tabloya bakınız) ya da hayvanın bağışıklık reaksiyonları önlenebilir ve böylece endotoksin çıkartma tampon maddesi ile benzer bir yöntem kullanınız. Kılavuzun yönergeleri izleyin. Plasmid dilüsyon için GKD 2 O kullanır. </li><li> Maksimum hızda (20.000 xg) DNA çözüm iplik artıkları ortadan kaldırın. Daha sonra süpernatan toplamak. </li><li> Bir spektrofotometre (materyalleri görmek) ile plazmid konsantrasyonunu belirleyin. </li><li> 1-3 mikrogram (DNA) / ul GKD 2 O ile plazmid konsantrasyon ayarlayın. Not: Daha yüksek konsantrasyonlar çok viskoz enjeksiyon çözüm neden olabilir iken düşük konsantrasyonlar, transfeksiyon etkinliğini azaltacaktır. Bunun yanı sıra,transfeksiyon verimi plazmidin büyüklüğüne bağlıdır ve ayrı ayrı test edilmesi gerekir. </li><li> Enjeksiyondan önce, bir çözelti, karışımı hazırlamak 5 ul PBS (10x) ve 5 ul Fast Green (% 0.5) ile birlikte, örneğin 40 ul plasmid için. Hızlı Yeşil enjeksiyon işlemi takip için gereklidir. Tercihen, ince duvarlı PCR-tüpleri veya Parafilm kullanın. Not: Testis büyüklüğüne bağlı olarak, 20-50 ul&#39;lik bir hacim testisler için gerekli olacaktır. </li></ol> Mikroenjeksiyon Pipet 2. hazırlanması <ol><li> Mikroenjeksiyon pipetler hazırlanması için borosilikat kılcal damarları (Malzemeler tabloya bakınız) kullanın. </li><li> Dikey kılcal çektirmesi ile cam kılcal damarları çekin (Malzemeler tabloya bakınız). </li><li> Usulca bantlama forseps ile kılcal ucunu kırmak. Ucu genellikle 50-80 mm çapında ve yaklaşık 1 cm uzunluğundadır. Bu dokuya nüfuz kadar sert değildir gibi çok uzun ipuçlarını kaçının. </li><li> Son, sha atBir mikropipet beveler (Malzemeler tabloya bakınız) kullanılarak 45 ° açı 30 derece ucu rpen. </li><li> Enjeksiyon solüsyon karışımı ile mikroenjeksiyon pipet yükleyin (plazmid Hazırlama bakınız). Küçük bir şırınga ile cam kılcal arkasına çözümü uygulayın. Not: iletkenliği azaltmak hem de muhtemelen doku hasarına neden olur böylece, aksi takdirde, bu çözelti ile birlikte plazmid seminifer tüp içine enjekte edilecektir, yükleme sırasında, hava kabarcıklarını önlemek için deneyin. </li></ol> 3. Anestezi ve Cerrahi <ol><li> Steril (yani, şırınga, iğne, cerrahi aletler, vb) malzeme kullanılarak aseptik koşullarda işlemi gerçekleştirin. Bu hayvanın enfeksiyonu azaltmak ve iyi sağkalım oranları sağlayacaktır. </li><li> 6-8 haftalık bir yaşta elektroporasyon için erkek fareler kullanın. </li><li> Cerrahi sonrası analjezik tedavi başlatmak için, analjezikler ile fare ameliyattan önce günde içme suyu eklendi sağlar. Bu götkuvvetle muhtemel cerrahi sonrası hypodipsia (azaltılmış su emme) durumunda önleyici bir analjezi etmiş olur. Bu amaçla, örneğin, bir çocuk, ibuprofen süspansiyonu (20 mg / ml) ile içme suyu maruz kalmaktadır. İlaçlı içme suyu da günde bir ve aynı konsantrasyonda iyileşme iki temin edilmelidir. Bu C57BL / 6J yaş 8 hafta boyunca 25 g, 5 ml / g içme suyu ve vücut ağırlığı için geçerli bir 7.5 mg / kg arasında günlük bir doz anlamına gelir. Bu analjezik rejimi temel bir ağrı ve yüksek refah 26 ile birlikte hızlandırılmış kurtarma garanti. </li><li> (Malzemeler tabloya bakınız): 1 oranında cerrahi gününde çalışma çözeltisi anestezi hazırlanması için, 1% 10 Ketamin ve% 2 ksilazin karıştırın. </li><li> Anestezi sıvısı deri altından 0.25 ml 100 mg / vücut ağırlığı tatbik ediniz, hayvan anestetize için (Ketamin = 0.125 g / kg, ksilazin = 0.025 g / kg). Farelerin organ hasarı ve yaralanmaları önlemek için pelvik ve ekstremite arasında bir enjeksiyon sitesini kullanın. Genellikle, 10 dakika ihtiyaç vardırkadar fare derin anestezi. </li><li> Anestezi sırasında kuruluğunu önlemek için veteriner merhem ile fare gözleri örtün. </li><li> Yanıt toplam eksikliği tarafından fark edilir derin anestezi tutuklama, sınayın. Bu amaçla, sadece hayvan ayak tutturulur. </li><li> Ameliyat başlatmak için, bir elektrikli tıraş makinesi veya benzeri ile karın tüylerini ve STERILIUM veya benzeri ile çalışma alanı dezenfekte. </li><li> Doğrudan karın bölgesinin merkezinde Sünnet bezlerinin üstünde bir ventral kesi yapmak. O yerde, ilk deplasman cilt çekin ve yaklaşık 8-14 mm&#39;lik küçük enine deri kesim yapmak. Daha sonra, abdominal kas tabakası boyunca devam eder. Not: hayvana zarar azaltılması için mümkün olduğunca lezyon kadar küçük olmalıdır. </li><li> Ekli testis ortaya çıkarmak ve sadece kesi yerinde (Şekil 2A) yanında bir önceki hazırlanmış su geçirmez tek kullanımlık kağıt örtü üzerine yerleştirmek için dikkatle karın yağ yastıkları yukarı çekin. </li><li> F dürbün kullanınenjeksiyon hedef olarak götürücü kanalını ind. Duktus efferent testis ve epididimis arasındaki ince damar kavşak olarak tanımlanır. Bu önemli testis arter bitişiğinde yer almaktadır. Duktus arter 45 ° &#39;lik bir açıyla neredeyse çalışır ve gözle kaput epididimisdeki girer. Not: fare yaşına bağlı olarak, duktus genellikle yağ dokusunda gömüldü. </li><li> Bu yağ dokusu efferent kanalını temizlemek için ince forseps kullanın. Daha sonra, çevre bozmadan kanalının net bir görüş sağlamak için steril kağıt şerit üzerinde serbest duktus yerleştirin. </li></ol> 4. Mikroenjeksiyon ve DNA Uygulaması <ol><li> Mikromanipülatör / enjektör ünitesine plazmid çözüm ile yüklenir mikroenjeksiyon pipet, bağlayın. </li><li> Ucu rete testis (Şekil 2B) bakacak olan götürücü kanala mikroenjeksiyon iğne paralel yerleştirin. </li><li> Ince cımbız kullanın vemikroenjeksiyon pipet kanalı üzerinde şerit. Bunu üzerine çekerken kılcal kanala paralel tutulur emin olun. Not: Bu yordam mikromanipülatör ile iğne hareket ettirerek gemiyi nüfuz daha uygundur. </li><li> Testis doğru dikkatlice iğneyi yönlendirmek ve bu tunika albuginea (Şekil 2C) altında direkt rete testisi nüfuz olarak sadece durdurmak. Not: retenin testis overreaching durumunda, plazmit çözelti ara boşluk içine akar. Bu genellikle seminifer tübüller transfecting yetmezliğine yol açar. </li><li> Pi: 100 hPa, ti: 0.2 sn, ve pc: 0 hPa (Şekil 2B) plazmid çözüm enjeksiyon için aşağıdaki ayarları ile mikropüskürtücüden kullanmaktadır. </li><li> Yeşil renk yardımıyla durumunu doldurma testisi gözlemleyerek tüm enjeksiyon sürecini izlemek. Testis sadece pl ile hacmine 2/3 kadar dolu olduğunu özenasmid çözeltisi (Şekil 2E). Not: enjeksiyon hacmi aşılırsa, testis dokusu zarar görebilir. </li></ol> Testis 5. Elektroporasyon <ol><li> Etkili elektroporasyon etkinleştirmek PBS (1x) olarak cımbız elektrotlar emmek için. Bu, yeterli iletkenlik sağlar. </li><li> Sorunsuz ıslak elektrotlar (Şekil 2F) arasındaki testis sıkmak. Elektroporatörü ile elektrik direncini ölçün. </li><li> Testis akım uygulayın. 50 msn darbe süresi ve 950 ms aralığı sabit bir zaman süresi ile 4 farklı testis sitelerinde 40 V sekiz kare darbeleri uygulayın. </li></ol> 6. Yara Kapatma ve Post-cerrahi <ol><li> Elektroporasyon bittiğinde, geri özgün konumunda testis yerleştirin. </li><li> Cerrahi sütür (materyalleri görmek) ile iç kas tabakası diker. </li><li> Sütür klipleri (Malzemeler tabloya bakınız) kullanılarak cilt kapatın. Cildi zekâ çekinh cımbız. Kas tabakası dışlamak emin olun. En fazla 5 mm mesafede klipsleri, her bir koyun. Not: cerrahi dikiş fare tarafından yutulabilir Çünkü, sütür klipler cilt lezyonu kapatılması için tercih edilir. </li><li> Fare 37 ° C sıcak pad üzerinde temperli steril boş fare kafes içinde yerleştirilen steril kağıt havlu üzerinde anestezi kurtarmak için izin verin. Ped, bir ısı derecesi oluşturarak kafesin yarısının ısınma sağlamalıdır. Hayvan için bu durum kafeste sıcaklık çeşitli bireysel, en rahat alanı aramak için mümkün kılar. Ek olarak, stres daha da azaltılabilir, böylece steril kağıt havlu tabakası ile fare kapsamaktadır. Not: fare vücut yüzeyi vücut kütlesi ile ilgili olarak olağanüstü yüksek olması nedeniyle daha büyük hayvanlar ile karşılaştırıldığında, termal destek kemirgen başarılı bir şekilde geri kazanılması için özel bir önem taşımaktadır. </li><li> Işletilen hayvan tamamen uyanmış zaman, i aktarmaktam donanımlı bir yeni fare kafesine daha kurtarma için t. Eski kafes ya da bir grup farenin geri hayvan koyma. Kafes yara enfeksiyonu önlemek için mümkün olduğunca temiz ve steril olduğundan emin olun. Tüm kurtarma sürecini izlemek. Tamamen iyileşti ve normal davranmaya görünüyor kadar geri hayvan bakım tesisi için fareyi aktarmak için, bekle. Not: Ek per- ve ameliyat sonrası stratejiler Pritchett-Coming KR ve ark 6 tarafından tartışılmıştır. </li></ol>

<ol>
	<li>Reuter, K., Schlatt, S., Ehmcke, J., Wistuba, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Fact+or+fiction:+In+vitro+spermatogenesis.">Fact or fiction: In vitro spermatogenesis.</a> Spermatogenesis. 2, 245-252 (2012).</li><li>Hunter, D., Anand-Ivell, R., Danner, S., Ivell, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Models+of+in+vitro+spermatogenesis.">Models of in vitro spermatogenesis.</a> Spermatogenesis. 2, 32-43 (2012).</li><li>Zizzi, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=fluorescent+protein+as+indicator+of+nonviral+transient+transfection+efficiency+in+endometrial+and+testicular+biopsies.">fluorescent protein as indicator of nonviral transient transfection efficiency in endometrial and testicular biopsies.</a> Microsc. Res. Tech. 73, 229-233 (2010).</li><li>Williams, R. S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Introduction+of+foreign+genes+into+tissues+of+living+mice+by+DNA-coated+microprojectiles.">Introduction of foreign genes into tissues of living mice by DNA-coated microprojectiles.</a> Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 88, 2726-2730 (1991).</li><li>Bockmann, R. A., de Groot, B. L., Kakorin, S., Neumann, E., Grubmuller, H., Kinetics, <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=statistics,+and+energetics+of+lipid+membrane+electroporation+studied+by+molecular+dynamics+simulations.">statistics, and energetics of lipid membrane electroporation studied by molecular dynamics simulations.</a> Biophys. J. 95, 1837-1850 (2008).</li><li>Pritchett-Corning, K. R., Luo, Y., Mulder, G. B., White, W. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Principles+of+rodent+surgery+for+the+new+surgeon.">Principles of rodent surgery for the new surgeon.</a> J. Vis. Exp. (47), (2011).</li><li>Brinster, R. L., Avarbock, M. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Germline+transmission+of+donor+haplotype+following+spermatogonial+transplantation.">Germline transmission of donor haplotype following spermatogonial transplantation.</a> Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 91, 11303-11307 (1994).</li><li>Schlatt, S., Von, S. V., Schepers, A. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Male+germ+cell+transplantation:+an+experimental+approach+with+a+clinical+perspective.">Male germ cell transplantation: an experimental approach with a clinical perspective.</a> Br. Med. Bull. 56, 824-836 (2000).</li><li>Walantus, W., Castaneda, D., Elias, L., Kriegstein, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=In+utero+intraventricular+injection+and+electroporation+of+E15+mouse+embryos.">In utero intraventricular injection and electroporation of E15 mouse embryos.</a> J. Vis. Exp. (6), (2007).</li><li>Matsui, A., Yoshida, A. C., Kubota, M., Ogawa, M., Shimogori, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mouse+in+utero+electroporation:+controlled+spatiotemporal+gene+transfection.">Mouse in utero electroporation: controlled spatiotemporal gene transfection.</a> J. Vis. Exp. (54), (2011).</li><li>Blackshaw, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=In+vivo+electroporation+of+developing+mouse+retina.">In vivo electroporation of developing mouse retina.</a> J. Vis. Exp. (52), (2011).</li><li>Yomogida, K., Yagura, Y., Nishimune, Y. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Electroporated+transgene-rescued+spermatogenesis+in+infertile+mutant+mice+with+a+sertoli+cell+defect.">Electroporated transgene-rescued spermatogenesis in infertile mutant mice with a sertoli cell defect.</a> Biol. Reprod. 67, 712-717 (2002).</li><li>Ryoki, S., Park, H., Ohmori, Y., Shoji-Tanaka, A., Muramatsu, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=An+integrase+facilitates+long-lasting+foreign+gene+expression+in+vivo+in+mouse+spermatogenic+cells.">An integrase facilitates long-lasting foreign gene expression in vivo in mouse spermatogenic cells.</a> J. Biosci. Bioeng. 91, 363-367 (2001).</li><li>Umemoto, Y., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Gene+transfer+to+mouse+testes+by+electroporation+and+its+influence+on+spermatogenesis.">Gene transfer to mouse testes by electroporation and its influence on spermatogenesis.</a> J. Androl. 26, 264-271 (2005).</li><li>Muramatsu, T., Shibata, O., Ryoki, S., Ohmori, Y., Okumura, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Foreign+gene+expression+in+the+mouse+testis+by+localized+in+vivo+gene+transfer.">Foreign gene expression in the mouse testis by localized in vivo gene transfer.</a> Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 233, 45-49 (1997).</li><li>Hibbitt, O., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=In+vivo+gene+transfer+by+electroporation+allows+expression+of+a+fluorescent+transgene+in+hamster+testis+and+epididymal+sperm+and+has+no+adverse+effects+upon+testicular+integrity+or+sperm+quality.">In vivo gene transfer by electroporation allows expression of a fluorescent transgene in hamster testis and epididymal sperm and has no adverse effects upon testicular integrity or sperm quality.</a> Biol. Reprod. 74, 95-101 (2006).</li><li>Yamazaki, Y., Yagi, T., Ozaki, T., Imoto, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=In+vivo+gene+transfer+to+mouse+spermatogenic+cells+using+green+fluorescent+protein+as+a.">In vivo gene transfer to mouse spermatogenic cells using green fluorescent protein as a.</a> J. Exp. Zool. 286, 212-218 (2000).</li><li>Dhup, S., Majumdar, S. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Transgenesis+via+permanent+integration+of+genes+in+repopulating+spermatogonial+cells+in+vivo.">Transgenesis via permanent integration of genes in repopulating spermatogonial cells in vivo.</a> Nat. Methods. 5, 601-603 (2008).</li><li>Huang, Z., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=In+vivo+transfection+of+testicular+germ+cells+and+transgenesis+by+using+the+mitochondrially+localized+jellyfish+fluorescent+protein+gene.">In vivo transfection of testicular germ cells and transgenesis by using the mitochondrially localized jellyfish fluorescent protein gene.</a> FEBS Lett. 487, 248-251 (2000).</li><li>Majumdar, S. S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+method+for+rapid+generation+of+transgenic+animals+to+evaluate+testis+genes+during+sexual+maturation.">A method for rapid generation of transgenic animals to evaluate testis genes during sexual maturation.</a> J. Reprod. Immunol. 83, 36-39 (2009).</li><li>Yomogida, K., Yagura, Y., Tadokoro, Y., Nishimune, Y. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Dramatic+expansion+of+germinal+stem+cells+by+ectopically+expressed+human+glial+cell+line-derived+neurotrophic+factor+in+mouse+Sertoli+cells.">Dramatic expansion of germinal stem cells by ectopically expressed human glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor in mouse Sertoli cells.</a> Biol. Reprod. 69, 1303-1307 (2003).</li><li>Ike, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Transient+expression+analysis+of+the+mouse+ornithine+decarboxylase+antizyme+haploid-specific+promoter+using+in+vivo+electroporation.">Transient expression analysis of the mouse ornithine decarboxylase antizyme haploid-specific promoter using in vivo electroporation.</a> FEBS Lett. 559, 159-164 (2004).</li><li>Gonzalez-Gonzalez, E., Lopez-Casas, P. P., Del, M. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Gene+silencing+by+RNAi+in+mouse+Sertoli+cells.">Gene silencing by RNAi in mouse Sertoli cells.</a> Reprod. Biol. Endocrinol. 6, 29 (2008).</li><li>Tang, H., Kung, A., Goldberg, E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Regulation+of+murine+lactate+dehydrogenase+C+(Ldhc)+gene+expression.">Regulation of murine lactate dehydrogenase C (Ldhc) gene expression.</a> Biol. Reprod. 78, 455-461 (2008).</li><li>Yomgogida, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mammalian+testis:+a+target+of+in+vivo+electroporation.">Mammalian testis: a target of in vivo electroporation.</a> Dev. Growth Differ. 50, 513-515 (2008).</li><li>Hayes, K. E., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=An+Evaluation+of+Analgesic+Regimens+for+Abdominal+Surgery+in+Mice.">An Evaluation of Analgesic Regimens for Abdominal Surgery in Mice.</a> J Am Assoc Lab Anim Sci. 6, 18-23 (2000).</li></ol>

Sansar Michaelis, Alexander Sobczak ve Joachim M. Weitzel&#39;in, Üreme Biyoloji Enstitüsü, Çiftlik Hayvanı Biyoloji Leibniz Enstitüsü (FBN), Dummerstorf Almanya&#39;yı istihdam hiçbir rakip mali çıkarlarının olmadığını beyan ederim.

Özellikle erkek infertilitesi ve kaçınılmaz spermatogenez alanında üreme biyolojisi alanında, araştırma canlı organizmalar üzerinde dayanır. Testis işlevini incelemek amacıyla, yeterli hücre kültürü / in vitro bir sistem haploid olgun sperm 1,2 diploid spermatogonyum tüm önemli morfolojik değişiklikler yansıtma kapasitesine kurulmuştur. Böylece, genetik olarak değiştirilmiş hayvanların üretimi genellikle gereklidir ve erkek üreme biyolojisi böyle değe...

Memeli spermatogenez olgun haploid sperm içine geliştirmek amacıyla art arda mitoz, mayoz ve farklılaşma geçiren kendini yenileyen kök hücrelerin karmaşık bir süreç olarak kabul edilir. Bu morfolojik değişiklikler, farklı hücre tipleri tarafından orkestra ve derin girişimlerine rağmen, hücre kültürü 1,2 bu süreçleri taklit hala imkansız. Dolayısıyla, bugüne kadar spermatogenez üzerine araştırmalar in vivo model olarak yaşayan organizmalar dayanır. Genel olarak, gen fonksiyonu çalışmalar, genellikle transgenik hayvanlarda dayanmaktadır. Bununla birlikte, üretme ve hayvan modellerinde bu tür sürdürülmesi zaman alıcı ve maliyet-yoğun ve oldukça karmaşıktır. Bu üreten ve nesiller boyunca transgen korumak için gerekli uzun yetiştirme süreci atfedilir. Buna ek olarak, transgenik ya da nakavt yaklaşım bütün organizmanın genetik manipülasyon g hedeflerken fizyolojik bozulmalara neden eğilimliÖrneğin birden fazla bölgelerde, temel işlevleri, testis dışında veya sistemik ile enes. Bundan başka, bazı geçiş transfeksiyon yöntemleri bazı önemli dezavantajlar ile ilişkilidir. Lipofeksiyon 3 ve mikro-parçacık bombardımanı 4 dokuya zarar verebilir ve yeterli transfeksiyon verimi açısından belirli bir hücre derinliği ile sınırlıdır, oysa Örneğin, virüs aracılı gen transferi tipik dezavantajları, immün reaksiyonlar ve ilave güvenlik düzenlemelerinin olası provokasyon bulunmaktadır. Buna karşılık, geçici nakiller başka bir ortak yolu olarak elektroporasyon (AP), in vivo nakil ve tutarlı in vivo gen analizi etkinleştirmek için umut verici bir teknik teşkil görünüyor. Genel olarak, AP nanosaniye olan sonuç olarak aracılı gözenek ile yerel zar gerilimine bağlı olarak dinamik bir olgu olarak adlandırılır. Bu boşluklar milisaniye boyunca muhafaza edilebilir, yeterli To DNA, RNA veya küçük moleküllerin 5 erişim izni. Uygulanan gerilim çok yüksek olduğunda, EP genellikle geçici karakteri nedeniyle ısı üretimi ve hücre 5 sonuçta geri dönüşümsüz hasar ile çok kapsamlı geçirgenleştirmeden indüksiyonu ile karşılaşmaktadır. Burada, elektroporasyon in vivo gen testis özelliklerinin ortaya konması için genetik dönüşümü için uygulanan testis olma yeteneğine sahip bir etkin ve ekonomik bir transfeksiyon sistemi olduğunu göstermektedir. Bu makalede, götürücü kanal ve fare testis sonra elektroporasyon ile bir plazmid hazırlama işlemi, mikro-enjeksiyon giderir. Bu prosedür, spermatogenez işlemlerini incelemek için in vivo fare testis seminifer tüp hızlı, spesifik ve verimli transfeksiyona elde etmek için tercih edilen bir araç olabilir.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="3">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>
			centrifuge
			</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>1-15 PK</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>spectrophotometer</td>
			<td>Nanodrop</td>
			<td>ND-1000</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>micropipette puller</td>
			<td>Narishige</td>
			<td>PC-10</td>
			<td>vertical capillary puller</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>microinjection capillaries</td>
			<td>Clark</td>
			<td>GC100-10</td>
			<td>borosilicate standard wall</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>micropipette beveler</td>
			<td>Bachofer</td>
			<td>Typ 462</td>
			<td>rotating disk beveler</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>electroporator</td>
			<td>Nepagene</td>
			<td>CUY 21EDIT</td>
			<td>square wave electroporator</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>tweezer electrodes</td>
			<td>Nepagene</td>
			<td>CUY 650P5</td>
			<td>5 mm &#216; disk electrodes</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>stereo microscope</td>
			<td>Zeiss</td>
			<td>Stemi 2000-C</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>cold light source</td>
			<td>Zeiss</td>
			<td>KL 1500LCD</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>microinjection pump</td>
			<td>Eppendorf</td>
			<td>Femtojet</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>micromanipulator</td>
			<td>homemade</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>XYZ cross table</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>surgical instruments</td>
			<td>FST</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>scissors, forceps, 
			needle holder</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>fine forceps</td>
			<td>FST</td>
			<td>Dumont #5, #7</td>
			<td>efferent ducts preparation</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Michel clip applying stapler</td>
			<td>FST</td>
			<td>Michel, 12029-12</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Michel suture clips</td>
			<td>FST</td>
			<td>Michel, 12040-01</td>
			<td>7.5 x 1.75 mm</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>surgical suture</td>
			<td>Catgut 00</td>
			<td>Catgut 
			Markenkirchen</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>syringe, with 30G needle</td>
			<td>B. Braun</td>
			<td>Omnican 40</td>
			<td>to load micropipette and 
			for anesthesia</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>plasmid isolation kit</td>
			<td>Promega</td>
			<td>Cat. # A2495</td>
			<td>plasmid Midiprep</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>plasmid pEGFP-C1</td>
			<td>Clontech</td>
			<td>Cat. #6084-1</td>
			<td>CMV-promoter + EGFP</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>plasmid pDsRed2-N1</td>
			<td>Clontech</td>
			<td>Cat. #6084-1</td>
			<td>CMV-promoter + DsRed2</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fast Green dye</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>F7258-25G</td>
			<td>for dilution in ddH2O</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>10x PBS, pH 7.4</td>
			<td>Carl Roth</td>
			<td>3957.1</td>
			<td>NaCl [1.37 M]</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>6781.1</td>
			<td>KCl [27 mM]</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>T106.2</td>
			<td>Na2HPO4+2H2O [100 mM]</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>3904.1</td>
			<td>KH2PO4 [18 mM]</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>10% Ketamin</td>
			<td>Serum Werk 
			Bernburg</td>
			<td>Urotamin</td>
			<td>mix in a rate 1:1</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>2% Xylazin</td>
			<td>Serum Werk 
			Bernburg</td>
			<td>Xylazin</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sterilium</td>
			<td>Bode Chemie</td>
			<td>Sterillium</td>
			<td>disinfection</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>vet ointment</td>
			<td>S&#38;K Pharma 
			GmbH</td>
			<td>Kerato Biciron 5% 
			Augensalbe</td>
			<td>or similar to prevent 
			dryness of eyes</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>To-Pro-3 iodide</td>
			<td>Invitrogen</td>
			<td>T3605</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

in vivo microinjection and electroporation of mouse testis

Bu video ve makale katkı mikroenjeksiyon ve in vivo fare testis elektroporasyon kapsamlı bir açıklamasını verir. Testis fare hücreleri için bu özel teknik transfeksiyon spermatogenez benzersiz süreçlerin çalışma sağlar. Aşağıdaki protokol, plazmid yapıları ile fare testis hücrelerin transfeksiyonu odaklanmaktadır. Özellikle, kırmızı flöresanlı proteinin (DsRed2) ifade yeşil flüoresan protein (EGFP) ve ayrıca pDsRed2-N1 vektör geliştirilmiş ifade eden raportör vektör pEGFP-C1, ikinci. Her iki raportör genler kodlanan insan sitomegalovirüs hemen erken promoteri (CMV) kontrolü altındaydı. Fare testislerinde gen transferini gerçekleştirmek için, raportör plasmid yapıları, canlı farelerde testis enjekte edilir. Bu amaçla, bir hayvan anestetize testis maruz kalmakta ve mikroenjeksiyon site hazırlanır. Bizim tercih yerienjeksiyon testis ve epididim arasında spermlerin anatomik taşıma rotası olarak sonuçta bağlı rete testis ile, efferent kanal olduğunu. Bu şekilde, mikro enjeksiyon sonrası seminifer tüp doldurma sayesinde mükemmel lekeli DNA çözeltilerinin kullanılması ile idare ve kontrol edilir. Onun renkli tübül yapısı ile testisin yeterli dolgu gözlemledikten sonra, organ elektropore edilmiştir. Bu testis hücrelere DNA solüsyonu aktarılmasını sağlar. Inkübasyon 3 gün sonra, testis çıkarılır ve transfeksiyon başarı gösteren, yeşil ve kırmızı floresans mikroskobu altında incelendi. Genellikle, bu protokol DNA- ya RNA- teslim için kullanılabilir için canlı fare testisi içine inşa (over) ifade veya in vivo gen fonksiyon analizinde kolaylaştırılması, genleri yıkmak. Ayrıca, raportör gen ya da putatif düzenlenmesinden çalışmak için uygundurTory elemanları. Böylece, elektroporasyon tekniğinin ana avantajları, alternatif tekniklerle karşılaştırıldığında Gerekli düşük çaba yanı sıra ılımlı teknik ekipman ve becerileri ile birlikte hızlı performans vardır.

Kullanıldığı olarak in vivo fare testis mikro-enjeksiyon ve elektroporasyon gerçekleştirmek için protokole uygun olarak, deneysel ortamda, sınai olarak imal edilmiş mikropipetler elde etmek mümkün olsa da. Şekil 1 &#39;de gösterilmiş olduğu için, (Şekil 1A çekerek kendi pipetler oluşturmak için tercih edilen bir böylece) ve bizote (Şekil 1B) cam kapilerleri onlar bizim ihtiyaçlarını donatılmış. Mikro enjeksiyon ve elektroporasyon iç...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about In Vivo Microinjection and Electroporation of Mouse Testis at JoVE.com

In Vivo Microinjection and Electroporation of Mouse Testis

Testis fare hücreleri için bir transfeksiyon tekniği Spermatogenezisin benzersiz süreçleri incelemek için bu makalede, in vivo mikroenjeksiyon ve fare testis Elektroporasvon açıklar. Sunulan protokol, elektroporasyon ile cam kılcal hazırlanması götürücü kanalı yoluyla mikro-enjeksiyon, ve transfeksiyon adımlar içerir.

Fare Testis İn Vivo Mikroenjeksiyon ve Elektroporasyon

This video and article contribution gives a comprehensive description of microinjection and electroporation of mouse testis in vivo. This particular ...

in-vivo-microinjection-and-electroporation-of-mouse-testis

Research

JoVE Journal

Biology

In Vivo Microinjection and Electroporation of Mouse Testis

27.7K Görüntüleme.  Leibniz Institute for Farm Animal Biology (FBN).  Testis fare hücreleri için bir transfeksiyon tekniği Spermatogenezisin benzersiz süreçleri incelemek için bu makalede, in vivo mikroenjeksiyon ve fare testis Elektroporasvon açıklar. Sunulan protokol, elektroporasyon ile cam kılcal hazırlanması götürücü kanalı yoluyla mikro-enjeksiyon, ve transfeksiyon adımlar içerir. 

Video: In Vivo Microinjection and Electroporation of Mouse Testis

In Utero Intraventricular Injection and Electroporation of E15 Mouse Embryos

In-utero in-vivo injection and electroporation of the embryonic mouse neocortex provides a powerful tool for the manipulation of individual progenitors lining the walls of the lateral ventricle. This technique is now widely used to study the processes involved in corticogenesis by over-expressing or knocking down genes and observing the effects on cellular proliferation, migration, and differentiation. In comparison to traditional knockout strategies, in-utero electroporation provides a rapid means to manipulate a population of cells during a specific temporal window. In this video protocol we outline the experimental methodology for preparing mice for surgery, exposing the uterine horns through laporatomy, injecting DNA into the lateral ventricles of the developing embryo, electroporating DNA into the progenitors lining the lateral wall, and caring for animals post-surgery. Our laboratory uses this protocol for surgeries on E13-E16 mice, however, it is most commonly performed at E15, as shown in this video. 

E15 Fare Embriyolar Utero İntraventriküler Enjeksiyon ve Elektroporasyon

In-utero in-vivo injection and electroporation of the embryonic mouse neocortex provides a powerful tool for the manipulation of individual progenitors ...

Biyoloji

Single Cell Electroporation in vivo within the Intact Developing Brain

Single-cell electroporation (SCE) is a specialized technique allowing the delivery of DNA or other macromolecules into individual cells within intact tissue, including in vivo preparations. The distinct advantage of this technique is that experimental manipulations may be performed on individual cells while leaving the surrounding tissue unaltered, thereby distinguishing cell-autonomous effects from those resulting from global treatments. When combined with advanced in vivo imaging techniques, SCE of fluorescent markers permits direct visualization of cellular morphology, cell growth, and intracellular events over timescales ranging from seconds to days. While this technique is used in a variety of in vivo and ex vivo preparations, we have optimized this technique for use in Xenopus laevis tadpoles. In this video article, we detail the procedure for SCE of a fluorescent dye or plasmid DNA into neurons within the intact brain of the albino Xenopus tadpole. We also discuss methods to optimize yield, and show examples of live two-photon fluorescence imaging of neurons fluorescently labeled by SCE.

Single-cell electroporation (SCE) is a specialized technique allowing delivery of DNA or other macromolecules into individual cells within intact tissue, including in vivo preparations. Here we detail the procedure for SCE of a fluorescent dye or plasmid DNA into neurons within the intact brain of the Xenopus laevis tadpole.

Tek Hücre Elektroporasyon bozulmamış Gelişmekte olan beyin içindeki in vivo

Single-cell electroporation (SCE) is a specialized technique allowing the delivery of DNA or other macromolecules into individual cells within intact ...

In utero and ex vivo Electroporation for Gene Expression in Mouse Retinal Ganglion Cells

The retina and its sole output neuron, the retinal ganglion cell (RGC), comprise an excellent model in which to examine biological questions such as cell differentiation, axon guidance, retinotopic organization and synapse formation[1]. One drawback is the inability to efficiently and reliably manipulate gene expression in RGCs in vivo, especially in the otherwise accessible murine visual pathways. Transgenic mice can be used to manipulate gene expression, but this approach is often expensive, time consuming, and can produce unwanted side effects. In chick, in ovo electroporation is used to manipulate gene expression in RGCs for examining retina and RGC development. Although similar electroporation techniques have been developed in neonatal mouse pups[2], adult rats[3], and embryonic murine retinae in vitro[4], none of these strategies allow full characterization of RGC development and axon projections in vivo. To this end, we have developed two applications of electroporation, one in utero and the other ex vivo, to specifically target embryonic murine RGCs[5, 6]. 
With in utero retinal electroporation, we can misexpress or downregulate specific genes in RGCs and follow their axon projections through the visual pathways in vivo, allowing examination of guidance decisions at intermediate targets, such as the optic chiasm, or at target regions, such as the lateral geniculate nucleus. Perturbing gene expression in a subset of RGCs in an otherwise wild-type background facilitates an understanding of gene function throughout the retinal pathway. Additionally, we have developed a companion technique for analyzing RGC axon growth in vitro. We electroporate embryonic heads ex vivo, collect and incubate the whole retina, then prepare explants from these retinae several days later. Retinal explants can be used in a variety of in vitro assays in order to examine the response of electroporated RGC axons to guidance cues or other factors. In sum, this set of techniques enhances our ability to misexpress or downregulate genes in RGCs and should greatly aid studies examining RGC development and axon projections.

In utero and ex vivo Electroporation for Gene Expression in Mouse Retinal Ganglion Cells

Here we present two techniques for manipulating gene expression in murine retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) by in utero and ex vivo electroporation. These techniques enable one to examine how alterations in gene expression affect RGC development, axon guidance, and functional properties.

Fare Retina Ganglion Hücreleri Gen İfadesi utero ve ex vivo Elektroporasyon

The retina and its sole output neuron, the retinal ganglion cell (RGC), comprise an excellent model in which to examine biological questions such as cell ...

DNA Transfection of Mammalian Skeletal Muscles using In Vivo Electroporation

A growing interest in cell biology is to express transgenically modified forms of essential proteins (e.g. fluorescently tagged constructs and/or mutant variants) in order to investigate their endogenous distribution and functional relevance. An interesting approach that has been implemented to fulfill this objective in fully differentiated cells is the in vivo transfection of plasmids by various methods into specific tissues such as liver1, skeletal muscle2,3, and even the brain4. We present here a detailed description of the steps that must be followed in order to efficiently transfect genetic material into fibers of the flexor digitorum brevis (FDB) and interosseus (IO) muscles of adult mice using an in vivo electroporation approach. The experimental parameters have been optimized so as to maximize the number of muscle fibers transfected while minimizing tissue damages that may impair the quality and quantity of the proteins expressed in individual fibers. We have verified that the implementation of the methodology described in this paper results in a high yield of soluble proteins, i.e. EGFP and ECFP3, calpain, FKBP12, &beta;2a-DHPR, etc. ; structural proteins, i.e. minidystrophin and &alpha;-actinin; and membrane proteins, i.e. &alpha;1s-DHPR, RyR1, cardiac Na/Ca2+ exchanger , NaV1.4 Na channel, SERCA1, etc., when applied to FDB, IO and other muscles of mice and rats. The efficient expression of some of these proteins has been verified with biochemical3 and functional evidence5. However, by far the most common confirmatory approach used by us are standard fluorescent microscopy and 2-photon laser scanning microscopy (TPLSM), which permit to identify not only the overall expression, but also the detailed intracellular localization, of fluorescently tagged protein constructs. The method could be equally used to transfect plasmids encoding for the expression of proteins of physiological relevance (as shown here), or for interference RNA (siRNA) aiming to suppress the expression of normally expressed proteins (not tested by us yet). It should be noted that the transfection of FDB and IO muscle fibers is particularly relevant for the investigation of mammalian muscle physiology since fibers enzymatically dissociated from these muscles are currently one of the most suitable models to investigate basic mechanisms of excitability and excitation-contraction coupling under current or voltage clamp conditions2,6-8.

DNA Transfection of Mammalian Skeletal Muscles using In Vivo Electroporation

We describe detailed procedures for the efficient transfection of plasmid DNA into the fibers of foot muscles of live mice using electroporation and the subsequent visualization of protein expression using fluorescence microscopy.

Memeli İskelet Kaslar kullanarak DNA Transfeksiyon In Vivo Elektroporasyon

 A growing interest in cell biology is to express transgenically modified forms of essential proteins (e.g. fluorescently tagged constructs and/or mutant ...

Primary Culture and Plasmid Electroporation of the Murine Organ of Corti. 

In all mammals, the sensory epithelium for audition is located along the spiraling organ of Corti that resides within the conch shaped cochlea of the inner ear (fig 1). Hair cells in the developing cochlea, which are the mechanosensory cells of the auditory system, are aligned in one row of inner hair cells and three (in the base and mid-turns) to four (in the apical turn) rows of outer hair cells that span the length of the organ of Corti. Hair cells transduce sound-induced mechanical vibrations of the basilar membrane into neural impulses that the brain can interpret. Most cases of sensorineural hearing loss are caused by death or dysfunction of cochlear hair cells.
An increasingly essential tool in auditory research is the isolation and in vitro culture of the organ explant 1,2,9. Once isolated, the explants may be utilized in several ways to provide information regarding normative, anomalous, or therapeutic physiology. Gene expression, stereocilia motility, cell and molecular biology, as well as biological approaches for hair cell regeneration are examples of experimental applications of organ of Corti explants.
This protocol describes a method for the isolation and culture of the organ of Corti from neonatal mice. The accompanying video includes stepwise directions for the isolation of the temporal bone from mouse pups, and subsequent isolation of the cochlea, spiral ligament, and organ of Corti. Once isolated, the sensory epithelium can be plated and cultured in vitro in its entirety, or as a further dissected micro-isolate that lacks the spiral limbus and spiral ganglion neurons. Using this method, primary explants can be maintained for 7-10 days. As an example of the utility of this procedure, organ of Corti explants will be electroporated with an exogenous DsRed reporter gene. This method provides an improvement over other published methods because it provides reproducible, unambiguous, and stepwise directions for the isolation, microdissection, and primary culture of the organ of Corti.

Primary Culture and Plasmid Electroporation of the Murine Organ of Corti.

This procedure describes a method for the isolation and culture of the murine organ of Corti with or without the spiral limbus and spiral ganglion neurons. We also demonstrate a method for the expression of an exogenous reporter gene in the organ of Corti explant by electroporation.

İlköğretim Kültür ve Corti murin Organ Plazmid Elektroporasyon.

In all mammals, the sensory epithelium for audition is located along the spiraling organ of Corti that resides within the conch shaped cochlea of the ...

In vivo Imaging and Therapeutic Treatments in an Orthotopic Mouse Model of Ovarian Cancer

Human cancer and response to therapy is better represented in orthotopic animal models. This paper describes the development of an orthotopic mouse model of ovarian cancer, treatment of cancer via oral delivery of drugs, and monitoring of tumor cell behavior in response to drug treatment in real time using in vivo imaging system. In this orthotopic model, ovarian tumor cells expressing luciferase are applied topically by injecting them directly into the mouse bursa where each ovary is enclosed. Upon injection of D-luciferin, a substrate of firefly luciferase, luciferase-expressing cells generate bioluminescence signals. This signal is detected by the in vivo imaging system and allows for a non-invasive means of monitoring tumor growth, distribution, and regression in individual animals. Drug administration via oral gavage allows for a maximum dosing volume of 10 mL/kg body weight to be delivered directly to the stomach and closely resembles delivery of drugs in clinical treatments. Therefore, techniques described here, development of an orthotopic mouse model of ovarian cancer, oral delivery of drugs, and in vivo imaging, are useful for better understanding of human ovarian cancer and treatment and will improve targeting this disease.

In vivo Imaging and Therapeutic Treatments in an Orthotopic Mouse Model of Ovarian Cancer

Orthotopic animal models of ovarian cancer replicate better human disease and therefore enhance our understanding of cancer progression and tumor response to therapy. A mouse model receives an intrabursal injection of luciferase-expressing ovarian tumor cells. Treatment is administered via oral gavage. Tumor growth is monitored by in vivo imaging system.

In vivo Görüntüleme ve Yumurtalık Kanseri Ortotopik Fare Modeli Tedavi Tedaviler

Human cancer and response to therapy is better represented in orthotopic animal models.  This paper describes the development of an orthotopic mouse model ...

Activation of Apoptosis by Cytoplasmic Microinjection of Cytochrome c

Apoptosis, or programmed cell death, is a conserved and highly regulated pathway by which cells die1. Apoptosis can be triggered when cells encounter a wide range of cytotoxic stresses. These insults initiate signaling cascades that ultimately cause the release of cytochrome c from the mitochondrial intermembrane space to the cytoplasm2. The release of cytochrome c from mitochondria is a key event that triggers the rapid activation of caspases, the key cellular proteases which ultimately execute cell death3-4.
The pathway of apoptosis is regulated at points upstream and downstream of cytochrome c release from mitochondria5. In order to study the post-mitochondrial regulation of caspase activation, many investigators have turned to direct cytoplasmic microinjection of holocytochrome c (heme-attached) protein into cells6-9. Cytochrome c is normally localized to the mitochondria where attachment of a heme group is necessary to enable it to activate apoptosis10-11. Therefore, to directly activate caspases, it is necessary to inject the holocytochrome c protein instead of its cDNA, because while the expression of cytochrome c from cDNA constructs will result in mitochondrial targeting and heme attachment, it will be sequestered from cytosolic caspases. Thus, the direct cytosolic microinjection of purified heme-attached cytochrome c protein is a useful tool to mimic mitochondrial cytochrome c release and apoptosis without the use of toxic insults which cause cellular and mitochondrial damage.
In this article, we describe a method for the microinjection of cytochrome c protein into cells, using mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs) and primary sympathetic neurons as examples. While this protocol focuses on the injection of cytochrome c for investigations of apoptosis, the techniques shown here can also be easily adapted for microinjection of other proteins of interest.

Activation of Apoptosis by Cytoplasmic Microinjection of Cytochrome c

In this protocol, we describe the direct cytoplasmic microinjection of cytochrome c protein into fibroblasts and primary sympathetic neurons. This technique allows for the introduction of cytochrome c protein into the cytoplasm of cells and mimics the release of cytochrome c from mitochondria, which occurs during apoptosis.

Sitokrom Sitoplazmik Mikroenjeksiyon Apoptoz aktivasyonu C</em

Apoptosis, or programmed cell death, is a conserved and highly regulated pathway by which cells die1.  Apoptosis can be triggered when cells encounter a ...

Mouse Oocyte Microinjection, Maturation and Ploidy Assessment

Mistakes in chromosome segregation lead to aneuploid cells. In somatic cells, aneuploidy is associated with cancer but in gametes, aneuploidy leads to infertility, miscarriages or developmental disorders like Down syndrome. Haploid gametes form through species-specific developmental programs that are coupled to meiosis. The first meiotic division (MI) is unique to meiosis because sister chromatids remain attached while homologous chromosomes are segregated. For reasons not fully understood, this reductional division is prone to errors and is more commonly the source of aneuploidy than errors in meiosis II (MII) or than errors in male meiosis 1,2. 
In mammals, oocytes arrest at prophase of MI with a large, intact germinal vesicle (GV; nucleus) and only resume meiosis when they receive ovulatory cues. Once meiosis resumes, oocytes complete MI and undergo an asymmetric cell division, arresting again at metaphase of MII. Eggs will not complete MII until they are fertilized by sperm. Oocytes also can undergo meiotic maturation using established in vitro culture conditions 3. Because generation of transgenic and gene-targeted mouse mutants is costly and can take long periods of time, manipulation of female gametes in vitro is a more economical and time-saving strategy. 
Here, we describe methods to isolate prophase-arrested oocytes from mice and for microinjection. Any material of choice may be introduced into the oocyte, but because meiotically-competent oocytes are transcriptionally silent 4,5 cRNA, and not DNA, must be injected for ectopic expression studies. To assess ploidy, we describe our conditions for in vitro maturation of oocytes to MII eggs. Historically, chromosome-spreading techniques are used for counting chromosome number 6. This method is technically challenging and is limited to only identifying hyperploidies. Here, we describe a method to determine hypo-and hyperploidies using intact eggs 7-8. This method uses monastrol, a kinesin-5 inhibitor, that collapses the bipolar spindle into a monopolar spindle 9 thus separating chromosomes such that individual kinetochores can readily be detected and counted by using an anti-CREST autoimmune serum. Because this method is performed in intact eggs, chromosomes are not lost due to operator error.

Oocytes are prone to aneuploidy due to errors in chromosome segregation during meiotic maturation. Aneuploid eggs can cause infertility, miscarriages or developmental disorders like Down syndrome. Here, we describe methods to introduce materials of choice into oocytes and methods to study meiotic maturation and assess ploidy.

Fare Oosit Mikroenjeksiyon, olgunlaşması ve ploidi Değerlendirmesi

Mistakes in chromosome segregation lead to aneuploid cells.  In somatic cells, aneuploidy is associated with cancer but in gametes, aneuploidy leads to ...

Germ Cell Transplantation and Testis Tissue Xenografting in Mice

Germ cell transplantation was developed by Dr. Ralph Brinster and colleagues at the University of Pennsylvania in 19941,2. These ground-breaking studies showed that microinjection of germ cells from fertile donor mice into the seminiferous tubules of infertile recipient mice results in donor-derived spermatogenesis and sperm production by the recipient animal2. The use of donor males carrying the bacterial &beta;-galactosidase gene allowed identification of donor-derived spermatogenesis and transmission of the donor haplotype to the offspring by recipient animals1. Surprisingly, after transplantation into the lumen of the seminiferous tubules, transplanted germ cells were able to move from the luminal compartment to the basement membrane where spermatogonia are located3. It is generally accepted that only SSCs are able to colonize the niche and re-establish spermatogenesis in the recipient testis. Therefore, germ cell transplantation provides a functional approach to study the stem cell niche in the testis and to characterize putative spermatogonial stem cells. To date, germ cell transplantation is used to elucidate basic stem cell biology, to produce transgenic animals through genetic manipulation of germ cells prior to transplantation4,5, to study Sertoli cell-germ cell interaction6,7, SSC homing and colonization3,8, as well as SSC self-renewal and differentiation9,10.
Germ cell transplantation is also feasible in large species11. In these, the main applications are preservation of fertility, dissemination of elite genetics in animal populations, and generation of transgenic animals as the study of spermatogenesis and SSC biology with this technique is logistically more difficult and expensive than in rodents. Transplantation of germ cells from large species into the seminiferous tubules of mice results in colonization of donor cells and spermatogonial expansion, but not in their full differentiation presumably due to incompatibility of the recipient somatic cell compartment with the germ cells from phylogenetically distant species12. An alternative approach is transplantation of germ cells from large species together with their surrounding somatic compartment. We first reported in 2002, that small fragments of testis tissue from immature males transplanted under the dorsal skin of immunodeficient mice are able to survive and undergo full development with the production of fertilization competent sperm13. Since then testis tissue xenografting has been shown to be successful in many species and emerged as a valuable alternative to study testis development and spermatogenesis of large animals in mice14.

Protocols for germ cell transplantation and testis tissue xenografting are described. Germ cell transplantation results in donor-derived spermatogenesis in recipient testes and represents a functional reconstitution assay for identification of spermatogonial stem cells (SSCs). Testis tissue xenografting reproduces testis development and spermatogenesis of various donor species in recipient mice.

Germ Hücre Nakli ve Testis Dokusu Farelerde Xenografting

Germ cell transplantation was developed by Dr. Ralph Brinster and colleagues at the University of Pennsylvania in 19941,2. These ground-breaking studies ...

In vivo Electroporation of Morpholinos into the Adult Zebrafish Retina

Many devastating inherited eye diseases result in progressive and irreversible blindness because humans cannot regenerate dying or diseased retinal neurons. In contrast, the adult zebrafish retina possesses the robust ability to spontaneously regenerate any neuronal class that is lost in a variety of different retinal damage models, including retinal puncture, chemical ablation, concentrated high temperature, and intense light treatment 1-8. Our lab extensively characterized regeneration of photoreceptors following constant intense light treatment and inner retinal neurons after intravitreal ouabain injection 2, 5, 9. In all cases, resident M&uuml;ller glia re-enter the cell cycle to produce neuronal progenitors, which continue to proliferate and migrate to the proper retinal layer, where they differentiate into the deficient neurons. 
	We characterized five different stages during regeneration of the light-damaged retina that were highlighted by specific cellular responses. We identified several differentially expressed genes at each stage of retinal regeneration by mRNA microarray analysis 10. Many of these genes are also critical for ocular development. To test the role of each candidate gene/protein during retinal regeneration, we needed to develop a method to conditionally limit the expression of a candidate protein only at times during regeneration of the adult retina. 
	Morpholino oligos are widely used to study loss of function of specific proteins during the development of zebrafish, Xenopus, chick, mouse, and tumors in human xenografts 11-14. These modified oligos basepair with complementary RNA sequence to either block the splicing or translation of the target RNA. Morpholinos are stable in the cell and can eliminate or "knockdown" protein expression for three to five days 12. 
	Here, we describe a method to efficiently knockdown target protein expression in the adult zebrafish retina. This method employs lissamine-tagged antisense morpholinos that are injected into the vitreous of the adult zebrafish eye. Using electrode forceps, the morpholino is then electroporated into all the cell types of the dorsal and central retina. Lissamine provides the charge on the morpholino for electroporation and can be visualized to assess the presence of the morpholino in the retinal cells. 
	Conditional knockdown in the retina can be used to examine the role of specific proteins at different times during regeneration. Additionally, this approach can be used to study the role of specific proteins in the undamaged retina, in such processes as visual transduction and visual processing in second order neurons.

In vivo Electroporation of Morpholinos into the Adult Zebrafish Retina

A method to conditionally knockdown a target protein&#x2019;s expression in the adult zebrafish retina is described, which involves intravitreally injecting antisense morpholinos and electroporating them into the retina. The resulting protein is knocked down for several days, which allows testing the protein&#x2019;s role in the regenerating or intact retina.

Morpholinos in vivo Elektroporasyon Yetişkin Zebra balığı Retina

Many devastating inherited eye diseases result in progressive and irreversible blindness because humans cannot regenerate dying or diseased retinal ...