이 작품은 RESCEJ에 HL에 G. 해롤드 &amp; 라일라 Y. 매 더스 수상 및 NIH 보조금 (R24 GM080527)에 의해 NRSA 박사후 연구원 (NIH F32GM9037222가)이었다 지원 현재 전국에서 가르 연구원 개발 대상에서 지원 노화 연구소 (K01AG04435). 우리는 도움이 의견을 검토에게 감사의 말씀을 전합니다.

플라스미드 DNA, 바늘, 및 사출 식기 1 준비 <ol><li> 전용선 또는 맥시 미디 키트를 사용하여 플라스미드 DNA를 제조하고 ML 에탄올 침전을 사용하여 / 2.5 mg의 DNA를 집중한다. DNA 펠렛 클레아없는 탈 이온수에 용해한다. -20 ° C에서 10 ~ 20 ㎕의 분취 량의 DNA를 저장합니다. (가능한 벡터의리스트 보충 표 1 참조) </li><li> 100 × 15mm 페트리 접시에 배아를 유지하기위한 저점을 구성하는 아가 로스 사용하여 사출 요리를합니다. <ol><li> 각도 100 × 15mm 배양 접시에 75 × 50 유리 현미경 슬라이드를 놓습니다. 아가로 오스 페트리 접시에 히드라 매체 (24)에서 용융 2 %의 약 50 ㎖에 붓고. 또한, 첫번째 접시에 아가 로스를 부어 상단에 &quot;미세 주입 물고기 금형&quot;을 떠. </li><li> 아가로 오스가 고형화 된 후, 유리 슬라이드 나 주형을 제거한다. 유리 슬라이드가 사용 된 경우, 면도날 즐로 아가로 오스를 초과 절취드 벽을 형성한다. 접시에 히드라 매체를 붓고 즉시 사용하거나 필요할 때까지 4 ° C에 보관합니다. 참고 : 사용하는 사이에 4 ° C에 저장하는 경우 사출 요리를 재사용 할 수 있습니다. </li></ol></li><li> 75 당겨, 525을 가열 속도 100 시간들이되도록 배양 접시에 점토의 좁은 스트립으로 그들을 눌러 50 점 바늘 : 다음과 같은 조건을 사용하여 마이크로 피펫 풀러에 필라멘트 붕규산 유리 모세관에서 바늘을 당겨 접시의 바닥에 개최 병렬. </li><li> , 주사액을 제조 10 % 페놀 레드 2 μL로 2.5 ㎎ / ㎖ 플​​라스미드 DNA 용액을 3 ㎕의 결합. 와동 용액 간략하고 바늘을 막히게 할 수있는 입자를 제거하기 위해 마이크로 원심에서 최대 속도에서 10 분 동안이를 스핀. </li><li> 해부 현미경에서 작은 구멍을 만드 집게로 바늘에게 끝에서 몇 mm 클립. 참고 : 오픈의 적절한 크기의 유연성이 있습니다이 압력 변화를 수용하기 위해 단계 3.3에서 조절 될 수 있기 때문에 보내고. </li><li> 이 팁 아래로 수직으로 바늘을 잡고되도록 페트리 접시를 놓습니다. 바늘의 후단에 액체를 피펫으로 주입 용액의 약 0.5 μL와 바늘을로드. 모세관 작용은 니들의 선단부에 용액을 당길 수있다. </li></ol> 사출을위한 배아의 2 준비 <ol><li> 매일 계란을 생산 용종의 히드라 AEP 스트레인 문화를 스캔합니다. 이러한 폴립을 수집하고 별도의 배양 접시에 그들을 따로 설정합니다. 달걀 형성의 진행을 모니터하기 위해 하루 동안 이러한 폴립보기 몇 시간마다 관찰한다. 계란 외배엽 뚫고 후퇴 외배엽 세포의 반지에 앉아 때 그들은 주입 25에 있습니다. 수정이 가능하도록 주입하기 전에 적어도 한 시간 동안 고환을 가지고 여러 히드라와 함께 접시에 이러한 폴립을 놓습니다. 히드라 &lt;/ 엠&gt; 남성은 특별한 조작없이 정자를 발표 할 예정이다. </li><li> 여성은 약 400 μm의 직경이 25에서, 또는 1 - 8 세포 단계의 배아를 아르 완전히 형성 계란, AEP 식민지에서 발견되는 경우도 주입이를 수집합니다. 즉시 클 리빙을 시작했습니다 배아를 주입. 참고 :이 완전히 형성 계란과 단세포 접합체 사이의 차이를 말할 수 없습니다, 따라서 이러한 사출 이전에 남성 배양해야한다. </li><li> 주입하기 전에 # 15 블레이드와 메스를 사용하여 배아 위 아래 부모 조직의 대부분을 제거합니다. 부착 본체 컬럼의 작은 조각으로 만 배아 남기기 것이 필요한 경우 집게 배아를 조작하는 데 사용된다. 참고 : 재생됩니다 멀리 배아에서 해부과 여성은 히드라 식민지에 남아 있도록 저장해야 조직. </li><li> 파스퇴르 피펫을 사용하여, 그들 벽으로 평행하게 배치, 사출 접시에 배아 이동아가로 오스 통. </li></ol> 플라스미드 DNA의 3 미세 주입 <ol><li> 철판에 앉아 자기 스탠드에 microinjector를 탑재합니다. 조이스틱 미세 조작기에 바늘을 보유하고 microinjector의 부분 주입 홀더를 탑재합니다. 자기 스탠드, 철판에 조이스틱을 조작하는 사람을 마운트합니다. 해부 현미경의 우측이 전체 세트 업을 배치하고, 관찰 필드에 표시되도록 주입 홀더를 위치. </li><li> 아가 물마루의 수 직벽을 왼쪽으로되도록 배향 해부 현미경으로 배아 주입 접시를 놓는다. 주입 홀더에 바늘을 삽입하고 접시에 히드라 매체에 바늘의 끝을 내립니다. </li><li> 광유는 바늘과 주입 용액의 일정한 흐름의 상단을 채울 때까지 천천히 HYDR로 바늘을 종료 관찰 시계 방향 주사기 손잡이를 돌려매체. 스트림이 너무 강한 경우, 노브를 시계 반대 방향으로 돌려 압력을 낮 춥니 다. 정기적으로 (바늘 단계 1.5에서 잘린 된 방법, 즉) 바늘 구멍의 크기에 따라 적절한 압력을 얻기 위해이 단계를 연습합니다. 참고 : 스트림이 너무 강하면, 배아 주입 생존하지 않을 것이다. </li><li> 해부 현미경을 통해 보면서 제 배아 필드의 중앙에 위치하도록, 사출 접시를 이동. 그것은 그 배아를 만지지 않도록 바늘을 이동합니다. 바늘로 배아를 관통하는 미세 조작기를 사용합니다. 참고 : 아가로 오스 통의 수직 벽 바늘에 의해 밀려되는 배아를 유지합니다. </li><li> 주사액은 배아 1 또는 2 초 내로 유동하고 신속 바늘을 제거 할 수있다. 배아가 둘 이상의 셀이있는 경우, 각각의 셀을 개별적으로 주입. 바늘의 끝과 다음 셀을 정렬하는 배아 방향을 집게를 사용합니다. </li><li> 첫번째 엠브리 후O는 다음 배아 주입 위치에 있도록 접시를 이동 절차를 반복 주입; 모든 배아가 주입 될 때까지 계속합니다. </li></ol> (4) 배양 및 배아의 부화 <ol><li> 고환이 몇 히드라와 함께 접시에 주입 된 배아의 모든 이동 (이 모든 배아가 수정 된 것을 확인하는 것입니다). 그들은 배아를 계속하는 동안 18 ° C 배양기에서 배아를 품어. </li><li> 표피 단계에 도달하면, 히드라 매체로 채워진 24 웰 플레이트의 각 웰에 각각 주입 된 배아를 이동합니다. </li><li> 18 ° C에서 어둠 속에서 이주에 대한 주입 된 배아를 품어. </li><li> 이주의 잠복기 후, 해부 현미경 아래의 각 주입 배아를 확인합니다. 표피 단계의 배아는 부모의 조직의 작은 조각에서 분리하고 부모의 조직 재생 어느 곳 사례를 참고. 그것은 마일되지 않도록 즉시 재생 용종을 제거새로운 부화에 staken. </li><li> RT에서 수족관 빛 아래에서 주입 된 배아의 요리를 이동합니다. 매일 판을 확인하고 새끼를 수집합니다. 히드라 폴립의 전형적인 핑크 색상은 그들이 먹는 미아에서 오기 때문에 새 새끼는 흰색 될 것입니다. </li><li> 형질 전환 유전자의 발현을 검출하기 위해 형광 현미경으로 관찰 파묻혀. </li></ol>

<ol>
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E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Oocyte+development+in+Hydra+involves+selection+from+competent+precursor+cells.">Oocyte development in Hydra involves selection from competent precursor cells.</a> Dev Biol. 224, 326-338 (2000).</li><li>Lenhoff, H. M., Lenhoff, H. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Hydra: Research Methods. , 53-62 (1983).</li></ol>

The authors have nothing to disclose

히드라는 정기적으로 무성하게 재현하지만, 생산 배우자를 시작합니다 환경 자극을 필요로한다. 이러한 자극은 대부분의 하이 드라 종에 대해 잘 정의되지 않고 변형에 변형과 다를 수 있습니다. 성적인 될 히드라을 유도 실험실 환경에서 어려울 수 있기 때문에 형질 히드라의 생산에 상당한 장애물 정기적 배아를 획득한다. AEP 균주 25 그러나, 실험실에서 쉽게...

히드라 재생, 패턴 형성을 연구하고, 약 250년 2에 대한 줄기 세포에 사용 된 히드라 세 세포 계보로 구성된 간단한 몸 계획이 있습니다. 외배엽 상피, 내배엽 상피와 간질을. 관형 본체는 하나의 셀 층 각각 외배엽과 내배엽 상피 계통에 의해 형성된다. 신체 열에있는 상피 세포의 유사 분열 모두이다. 상피 세포가 사지 3으로 변위되는 경우, 반구 끝에 경구 단부 또는 피트 (기저 디스크)에서 헤드 (입과 촉수), 이들은 세포주기의 G2 단계에서 체포 세포 운명 4 변경. 간질 혈통의 세포는 상피 세포 사이의 간극 내에 상주. 이 계보는 몸의 열 다섯의 외배엽 상피 층에있는 다 능성 줄기 세포에 의해 지원됩니다. 격자 간 줄기 세포는 체세포 세 CEL을 야기리터 유형 (신경, 동맥 세포 및 nematocytes)와 생식 세포 6,7. 분류학상의 문 자포의 일원으로서, 모든 bilaterians에 자매 그룹은 히드라는 다세포 동물에서 공유 근본적인 생물학적 과정에 빛을 발산 할 수 있습니다. 최근까지, 이러한 노력은 유전자 기능의 신뢰성 섭동 방법의 부족에 의해 방해 하였다. 그러나, 형질 전환 방법 (1)의 발전과 함께, 이제 이러한 줄기 세포 기능, 재생, 및 패터닝과 같은 다세포 동물에 공통의 기본 메커니즘을 더 잘 이해하기 위해 히드라 충분히 활용할 수있다. 형질 전환 하이 드라 라인은 새끼의 상당한 주파수에서 임의의 통합과 키메라 식 결과 배아에 플라스미드 DNA의 주입에 의해 설정됩니다. 특정 계보에 균일 한 표정으로 라인이 무성 전파에 의해 설립 될 수있다. clonally transg을 전파 할 수있는 능력enic 히드라 라인은 유성 생식에 의해 전파 될 수있는 동물 모델의 대다수 위에 장점이다. 또한, 형질 전환 된 세포를 동물에 의한 투명도 및 내인성 형광 단백질 (8)의 부재로 생체 내에서 용이하게 추적 할 수있다. 제 형질 히드라 라인 보낸 7 년 같은 라인이 다양한 애플리케이션에 사용되어, 하나 만들었다. 상이한 세포 유형에서 형광 단백질의 발현이 가능 세포의 움직임을 추적하는 세포 모양의 변화를 관찰하고, 야생형 조건에서 화학적 섭동 1,5,9-12 후 두 세포의 운명을 추적했다. 또한, 다양한 다른 계통의 형광 단백질의 발현은 특정 세포 집단의 FACS 분리 가능하다. 이 기술은 줄기 세포 고유의 mRNA와 혈통 고유의 작은 RNA를 13, 14의 순서 사용되어왔다. 발기인의 동안이 히드라 액틴 유전자 중 하나는 가장 널리 사용되고 몇몇 세포 타입 특이 적 프로모터는 형질 전환 식별 히드라 9,11,15,16에서 GFP의 발현을 구동하기 위해 사용되어왔다. 미래에, 셀 타입 특이 적 프로모터는 특정 세포 유형의 관찰 및 수집을 허용한다. 또한, 형질 전환 방법은 성공적 Wnt3 촉진제 (17)의 시스 - 작용 조절 요소를 정의하는 데 사용 하였다. 히드라 형질 전환 방법의 개발은 이소성 발현, 과다 발현 및 넉다운하여 유전자의 기능을 테스트하기위한 강력한 접근 방식을 제공한다. 형질 전환 동물은 기능 및 셀룰러 지역화 18-20 모두를 조사하기 위하여 형광 표지 된 단백질을 발현하는되었습니다. 또한, GFP 형질 전환 유전자의 3&#39;UTR에 헤어핀 RNA의 발현은 표적 유전자의 녹다운 (21, 22)로 이끈다. 이러한 방식에서 GFP는 식별하기 위해 필요하다및 형질 전환 라인의 작성 중에 유전자 변형 조직을 추적 할 수 있습니다. 그러나, 일부 경우에 GFP 분자 태그 단백질의 기능을 방해 할 가능성이있다. 최근의 연구는 히드라 유전자가 오페론 구조로 배열 될 수 있다는 것을 보여줍니다, 즉 polycistronic 성적 증명서는 트랜스 - 스 플라이 싱 리더 첨가하여 분리하고 별도로 23 번역하는, 만들어집니다. 단백질 또는 오페론 및 하류 위치에 형광 단백질 유전자의 상류 위치에서 RNA의 머리핀을 코딩하는 유전자를 배치함으로써, 하나의 단백질 또는 RNA 머리핀을 코딩하는 유전자를 태그하지 않고 유전자 변형 조직을 추적 할 수있다. 이 방법은 유전자를 넉다운 14 달성하기 위해 DsRed2와 오페론 구성 머리핀 RNA를 발현하기 위해 사용되어왔다.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0">
	<tbody>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">AEP Hydra Strain</td>
			<td style="width:112px;">NA</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">NA</td>
			<td style="width:576px;">Email: Celina Juliano at celina.juliano@yale.edu or Hiroshi Shimizu bubuchin2006@yahoo.co.jp</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">High Speed Maxi Kit</td>
			<td style="width:112px;">Qiagen</td>
			<td align="right" style="width:119px;">12662</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">100 x 15 mm Petri Dishes</td>
			<td style="width:112px;">BD Falcon</td>
			<td align="right" style="width:119px;">351029</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">75 x 50 mm Glass Microscope Slide</td>
			<td style="width:112px;">Sigma</td>
			<td>CLS294775X50</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Microinjection Fish Mold</td>
			<td style="width:112px;">IBI Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">FM-600</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">Borosilicate Glass with Filament</td>
			<td style="width:112px;">Sutter Instrument</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">BF100-50-10</td>
			<td>O.D.: 1.0 mm, I.D.: 0.50 mm, 10 cm length</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">Flaming/Brown Micropipette Puller</td>
			<td style="width:112px;">Sutter Instrument</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">P-97</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Phenol Red</td>
			<td style="width:112px;">Sigma</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">P3532</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Jewelers Forceps, Durmont #5</td>
			<td style="width:112px;">Sigma</td>
			<td>F6521</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Scalpel Blade #15</td>
			<td style="width:112px;">Fisher</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">50-822-421</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Mineral oil</td>
			<td style="width:112px;">Sigma</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">M8410-500ML</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Microinjector</td>
			<td style="width:112px;">Narishige</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">IM-9B</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Magnetic Stand</td>
			<td style="width:112px;">Narishige</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">GJ-1</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Iron Plate</td>
			<td style="width:112px;">Narishige</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">IP</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Joystick Micromanipulator</td>
			<td style="width:112px;">Narishige</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">MN-151</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

generation of transgenic hydra by embryo microinjection

As a member of the phylum Cnidaria, the sister group to all bilaterians, Hydra can shed light on fundamental biological processes shared among multicellular animals. Hydra is used as a model for the study of regeneration, pattern formation, and stem cells. However, research efforts have been hampered by lack of a reliable method for gene perturbations to study molecular function. The development of transgenic methods has revitalized the study of Hydra biology1. Transgenic Hydra allow for the tracking of live cells, sorting to yield pure cell populations for biochemical analysis, manipulation of gene function by knockdown and over-expression, and analysis of promoter function. Plasmid DNA injected into early stage embryos randomly integrates into the genome early in development. This results in hatchlings that express transgenes in patches of tissue in one or more of the three lineages (ectodermal epithelial, endodermal epithelial, or interstitial). The success rate of obtaining a hatchling with transgenic tissue is between 10% and 20%. Asexual propagation of the transgenic hatchling is used to establish a uniformly transgenic line in a particular lineage. Generating transgenic Hydra is surprisingly simple and robust, and here we describe a protocol that can be easily implemented at low cost.

형질 전환 하이 드라 라인 구축 아테 미아 노 플리 우스와 함께 2-3 일마다 형질 전환 새끼 피드. 부화 한 새끼는 때때로 부화 후 하루나 이틀 동안 먹지 않는다. 일부 새 새끼는 살아남지 못할 것이다, 따라서 식사를하지 않으며, 않습니다. 갓 부화가 외배엽 (그림 1A) 중 하나의 형질 전환 또는 내배엽 상피 조직의 경우, 동물이 꽃 봉오리 가장 형질 전환...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Generation of Transgenic Hydra by Embryo Microinjection at JoVE.com

Generation of Transgenic Hydra by Embryo Microinjection

Stably transgenic Hydra are made by microinjection of plasmid DNA into embryos followed by random genomic integration and asexual propagation to establish a uniform line. Transgenic Hydra are used to track cell movements, overexpress genes, study promoter function, or knock down gene expression using RNAi.

형질 전환의 세대<em&gt; 히드라</em&gt; 배아 미세 주입에 의해

As a member of the phylum Cnidaria, the sister group to all bilaterians, Hydra can shed light on fundamental biological processes shared among ...

generation-of-transgenic-hydra-by-embryo-microinjection

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JoVE Journal

Biology

Generation of Transgenic Hydra by Embryo Microinjection

13.9K 조회수.  Yale University School of Medicine. Stably transgenic Hydra are made by microinjection of plasmid DNA into embryos followed by random genomic integration and asexual propagation to establish a uniform line. Transgenic Hydra are used to track cell movements, overexpress genes, study promoter function, or knock down gene expression using RNAi. 

비디오: Generation of Transgenic Hydra by Embryo Microinjection

Microinjection of A. aegypti Embryos to Obtain Transgenic Mosquitoes

In this video, Nijole Jasinskiene demonstrates the methodology employed to generate transgenic Aedes aegypti mosquitoes, which are vectors for dengue fever.  The techniques for correctly preparing microinjection needles, dessicating embryos, and performing microinjection are demonstrated.

In this video, Nijole Jasinskiene demonstrates the methodology employed to generate transgenic Aedes aegypti mosquitoes, which are vectors for dengue fever. The techniques for correctly preparing microinjection needles, dessicating embryos, and performing microinjection are demonstrated.

트렌스 제닉 모기를 구하는 A. aegypti의 태아의 Microinjection

In this video, Nijole Jasinskiene demonstrates the methodology employed to generate transgenic Aedes aegypti mosquitoes, which are vectors for dengue ...

연구

생물학

Generation of Stable Transgenic C. elegans Using Microinjection

Transgenic Caenorhabditis elegans can be readily created via microinjection of a DNA plasmid solution into the gonad 1. The plasmid DNA rearranges to form extrachromosomal concatamers that are stably inherited, though not with the same efficiency as actual chromosomes 2. A gene of interest is co-injected with an obvious phenotypic marker, such as rol-6 or GFP, to allow selection of transgenic animals under a dissecting microscope. The exogenous gene may be expressed from its native promoter for cellular localization studies. Alternatively, the transgene can be driven by a different tissue-specific promoter to assess the role of the gene product in that particular cell or tissue. This technique efficiently drives gene expression in all tissues of C. elegans except for the germline or early embryo 3. Creation of transgenic animals is widely utilized for a range of experimental paradigms. This video demonstrates the microinjection procedure to generate transgenic worms. Furthermore, selection and maintenance of stable transgenic C. elegans lines is described.

This video demonstrates the technique of microinjection into the gonad of C. elegans to create transgenic animals.

Microinjection을 사용하여 안정적인 트렌스​​ 제닉 C. 엘레간스의 생성

Transgenic Caenorhabditis elegans can be readily created via microinjection of a DNA plasmid solution into the gonad 1.  The plasmid DNA rearranges to ...

Microinjection Techniques for Studying Mitosis in the Drosophila melanogaster Syncytial Embryo

This protocol describes the use of the Drosophila melanogaster syncytial embryo for studying mitosis1. Drosophila has useful genetics with a sequenced genome, and it can be easily maintained and manipulated. Many mitotic mutants exist, and transgenic flies expressing functional fluorescently (e.g. GFP) - tagged mitotic proteins have been and are being generated. Targeted gene expression is possible using the GAL4/UAS system2. 

The Drosophila early embryo carries out multiple mitoses very rapidly (cell cycle duration, &asymp;10 min). It is well suited for imaging mitosis, because during cycles 10-13, nuclei divide rapidly and synchronously without intervening cytokinesis at the surface of the embryo in a single monolayer just underneath the cortex. These rapidly dividing nuclei probably use the same mitotic machinery as other cells, but they are optimized for speed; the checkpoint is generally believed to not be stringent, allowing the study of mitotic proteins whose absence would cause cell cycle arrest in cells with a strong checkpoint. Embryos expressing GFP labeled proteins or microinjected with fluorescently labeled proteins can be easily imaged to follow live dynamics (Fig. 1). In addition, embryos can be microinjected with function-blocking antibodies or inhibitors of specific proteins to study the effect of the loss or perturbation of their function3. These reagents can diffuse throughout the embryo, reaching many spindles to produce a gradient of concentration of inhibitor, which in turn results in a gradient of defects comparable to an allelic series of mutants. Ideally, if the target protein is fluorescently labeled, the gradient of inhibition can be directly visualized4. It is assumed that the strongest phenotype is comparable to the null phenotype, although it is hard to formally exclude the possibility that the antibodies may have dominant effects in rare instances, so rigorous controls and cautious interpretation must be applied. Further away from the injection site, protein function is only partially lost allowing other functions of the target protein to become evident.

Microinjection Techniques for Studying Mitosis in the Drosophila melanogaster Syncytial Embryo

This protocol describes the use of microinjection and high resolution imaging in the Drosophila melanogaster syncytial embryo to study mitosis.

의 유사 분열 유학을위한 Microinjection 기법 Drosophila melanogaster Syncytial 엠브료

This protocol describes the use of the Drosophila melanogaster syncytial embryo  for studying mitosis1.  Drosophila has useful genetics with a sequenced ...

Production of Transgenic Xenopus laevis by Restriction Enzyme Mediated Integration and Nuclear Transplantation

Stable integration of cloned gene products into the Xenopus genome is necessary to control the time and place of expression, to express genes at later stages of embryonic development, and to define how enhancers and promoters regulate gene expression within the embryo. The protocol demonstrated here can be used to efficiently produce transgenic Xenopus laevis embryos. This transgenesis approach involves three parts: 1. Sperm nuclei are isolated from adult X. laevis testis by treatment with lysolecithin, which permeabilizes the sperm plasma membrane. 2. Egg extract is prepared by low speed centrifugation, addition of calcium to cause the extract to progress to interphase of the cell cycle, and a high-speed centrifugation to isolate interphase cytosol. 3. Nuclear transplantation: the nuclei and extract are combined with the linearized plasmid DNA to be introduced as the transgene and a small amount of restriction enzyme. During a short reaction, egg extract partially decondenses the sperm chromatin and the restriction enzyme generates chromosomal breaks that promote recombination of the transgene into the genome. The treated sperm nuclei are then transplanted into unfertilized eggs. Integration of the transgene usually occurs prior to the first embryonic cleavage such that the resulting embryos are not chimeric. These embryos can be analyzed without any need to breed to the next generation, allowing for efficient and rapid generation of transgenic embryos for analyses of promoter and gene function. Adult X. laevis resulting from this procedure also propagate the transgene through the germline and can be used to generate lines of transgenic animals for multiple purposes.

Production of Transgenic Xenopus laevis by Restriction Enzyme Mediated Integration and Nuclear Transplantation

This video protocol demonstrates a method for generating transgenic Xenopus laevis by introduction of transgenes into sperm nuclei followed by nuclear transplantation into unfertilized eggs.

트렌스 제닉 생산 Xenopus laevis 제한 효소 중재 통합 및 핵 이식에 의해

Stable integration of cloned gene products into the Xenopus genome is necessary to control the time and place of expression, to express genes at later ...

Generation of Transgenic C. elegans by Biolistic Transformation

The number of laboratories using the free living nematode C. elegans is rapidly growing. The popularity of this biological model is attributed to a rapid generation time and short life span, easy and inexpensive maintenance, fully sequenced genome, and array of RNAi resources and mutant animals. Additionally, analysis of the C. elegans genome revealed a great similarity between worms and higher vertebrates, which suggests that research in worms could be an important adjunct to studies performed in whole mice or cultured cells. A powerful and important part of worm research is the ability to use transgenic animals to study gene localization and function. Transgenic animals can be created either via microinjection of the worm germline or through the use of biolistic bombardment. Bombardment is a newer technique and is less familiar to a number of labs. Here we describe a simple protocol to generate transgenic worms by biolistic bombardment with gold particles using the Bio-Rad PDS-1000 system. Compared with DNA microinjection into hermaphrodite germline, this protocol has the advantage of not requiring special skills from the operator with regards to identifying worm anatomy or performing microinjection. Further multiple transgenic lines are usually obtained from a single bombardment. Also in contrast to microinjection, biolistic bombardment produces transgenic animals with both extrachromosomal arrays and integrated transgenes. The ability to obtain integrated transgenic lines can avoid the use of mutagenic protocols to integrate foreign DNA. In conclusion, biolistic bombardment can be an attractive method for the generation of transgenic animals, especially for investigators not interested in investing the time and effort needed to become skilled at microinjection.

Generation of Transgenic C. elegans by Biolistic Transformation

Transgenic worms are commonly used in C. elegans research. Described is a simple, yet effective, protocol to introduce transgenes into worms using biolistic bombardment with DNA-coated gold particles. The effort involved and results of bombardment compare favorably with microinjection for the generation of transgenic animals.

트렌스 제닉의 생성 C. 엘레간스 Biolistic 변환에 의해

The number of laboratories using the free living nematode C. elegans is rapidly growing. The popularity of this biological model is attributed to a rapid ...

Analysis of mRNA Nuclear Export Kinetics in Mammalian Cells by Microinjection

In eukaryotes, messenger RNA (mRNA) is transcribed in the nucleus and must be exported into the cytoplasm to access the translation machinery. Although the nuclear export of mRNA has been studied extensively in Xenopus oocytes1 and genetically tractable organisms such as yeast2 and the Drosophila derived S2 cell line3, few studies had been conducted in mammalian cells. Furthermore the kinetics of mRNA export in mammalian somatic cells could only be inferred indirectly4,5. In order to measure the nuclear export kinetics of mRNA in mammalian tissue culture cells, we have developed an assay that employs the power of microinjection coupled with fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH). These assays have been used to demonstrate that in mammalian cells, the majority of mRNAs are exported in a splicing dependent manner6,7, or in manner that requires specific RNA sequences such as the signal sequence coding region (SSCR) 6. In this assay, cells are microinjected with either in vitro synthesized mRNA or plasmid DNA containing the gene of interest. The microinjected cells are incubated for various time points then fixed and the sub-cellular localization of RNA is assessed using FISH. In contrast to transfection, where transcription occurs several hours after the addition of nucleic acids, microinjection of DNA or mRNA allows for rapid expression and allows for the generation of precise kinetic data.

Here we describe an assay that employs the power of microinjection coupled with fluorescent in situ hybridization in order to accurately measure the nuclear export kinetics of mRNA in mammalian somatic cells.

Microinjection하여 포유 동물 세포에서 mRNA 원자력 수출 속도론 분석

In eukaryotes, messenger RNA (mRNA) is transcribed in the nucleus and must be exported into the cytoplasm to access the translation machinery. Although ...

Analyzing the Function of Small GTPases by Microinjection of Plasmids into Polarized Epithelial Cells

Epithelial cells polarize their plasma membrane into biochemically and functionally distinct apical and basolateral domains where the apical domain faces the 'free' surfaces and the basolateral membrane is in contact with the substrate and neighboring cells. Both membrane domains are separated by tight junctions, which form a diffusion barrier. Apical-basolateral polarization can be recapitulated successfully in culture when epithelial cells such as Madin-Darby Canine Kidney (MDCK) cells are seeded at high density on polycarbonate filters and cultured for several days 1 2. Establishment and maintenance of cell polarity is regulated by an array of small GTPases of the Ras superfamily such as RalA, Cdc42, Rab8, Rab10 and Rab13 3 4 5 6 7. Like all GTPases these proteins cycle between an inactive GDP-bound state and an active GTP-bound state. Specific mutations in the nucleotide binding regions interfere with this cycling 8. For example, Rab13T22N is permanently locked in the GDP-form and thus dubbed 'dominant negative', whereas Rab13Q67L can no longer hydrolyze GTP and is thus locked in a 'dominant active' state 7. To analyze their function in cells both dominant negative and dominant active alleles of GTPases are typically expressed at high levels to interfere with the function of the endogenous proteins 9. An elegant way to achieve high levels of overexpression in a short amount of time is to introduce the plasmids encoding the relevant proteins directly into the nuclei of polarized cells grown on filter supports using microinjection technique. This is often combined with the co-injection of reporter plasmids that encode plasma membrane receptors that are specifically sorted to the apical or basolateral domain. A cargo frequently used to analyze cargo sorting to the basolateral domain is a temperature sensitive allele of the vesicular stomatitis virus glycoprotein (VSVGts045) 10. This protein cannot fold properly at 39&deg;C and will thus be retained in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) while the regulatory protein of interest is assembled in the cytosol. A shift to 31&deg;C will then allow VSVGts045 to fold properly, leave the ER and travel to the plasma membrane 11. This chase is typically performed in the presence of cycloheximide to prevent further protein synthesis leading to cleaner results. Here we describe in detail the procedure of microinjecting plasmids into polarized cells and subsequent incubations including temperature shifts that allow a comprehensive analysis of regulatory proteins involved in basolateral sorting.

This article details the procedures involved in overexpression and analysis of small GTPases in polarized epithelial cells using microinjection technique.

편광 상피 세포에 Plasmids의 Microinjection에 의해 작은 GTPases의 기능을 분석

Epithelial cells polarize their plasma membrane into biochemically and functionally distinct apical and basolateral domains where the apical domain faces ...

Activation of Apoptosis by Cytoplasmic Microinjection of Cytochrome c

Apoptosis, or programmed cell death, is a conserved and highly regulated pathway by which cells die1. Apoptosis can be triggered when cells encounter a wide range of cytotoxic stresses. These insults initiate signaling cascades that ultimately cause the release of cytochrome c from the mitochondrial intermembrane space to the cytoplasm2. The release of cytochrome c from mitochondria is a key event that triggers the rapid activation of caspases, the key cellular proteases which ultimately execute cell death3-4.
The pathway of apoptosis is regulated at points upstream and downstream of cytochrome c release from mitochondria5. In order to study the post-mitochondrial regulation of caspase activation, many investigators have turned to direct cytoplasmic microinjection of holocytochrome c (heme-attached) protein into cells6-9. Cytochrome c is normally localized to the mitochondria where attachment of a heme group is necessary to enable it to activate apoptosis10-11. Therefore, to directly activate caspases, it is necessary to inject the holocytochrome c protein instead of its cDNA, because while the expression of cytochrome c from cDNA constructs will result in mitochondrial targeting and heme attachment, it will be sequestered from cytosolic caspases. Thus, the direct cytosolic microinjection of purified heme-attached cytochrome c protein is a useful tool to mimic mitochondrial cytochrome c release and apoptosis without the use of toxic insults which cause cellular and mitochondrial damage.
In this article, we describe a method for the microinjection of cytochrome c protein into cells, using mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs) and primary sympathetic neurons as examples. While this protocol focuses on the injection of cytochrome c for investigations of apoptosis, the techniques shown here can also be easily adapted for microinjection of other proteins of interest.

Activation of Apoptosis by Cytoplasmic Microinjection of Cytochrome c

In this protocol, we describe the direct cytoplasmic microinjection of cytochrome c protein into fibroblasts and primary sympathetic neurons. This technique allows for the introduction of cytochrome c protein into the cytoplasm of cells and mimics the release of cytochrome c from mitochondria, which occurs during apoptosis.

시토크롬의 세포질 Microinjection 의한 Apoptosis의 활성화 C</em

Apoptosis, or programmed cell death, is a conserved and highly regulated pathway by which cells die1.  Apoptosis can be triggered when cells encounter a ...

Generation of Myospheres From hESCs by Epigenetic Reprogramming

Generation of a homogeneous and abundant population of skeletal muscle cells from human embryonic stem cells (hESCs) is a requirement for cell-based therapies and for a "disease in a dish" model of human neuromuscular diseases. Major hurdles, such as low abundance and heterogeneity of the population of interest, as well as a lack of protocols for the formation of three-dimensional contractile structures, have limited the applications of stem cells for neuromuscular disorders. We have designed a protocol that overcomes these limits by ectopic introduction of defined factors in hESCs - the muscle determination factor MyoD and SWI/SNF chromatin remodeling complex component BAF60C - that are able to reprogram hESCs into skeletal muscle cells. Here we describe the protocol established to generate hESC-derived myoblasts and promote their clustering into tridimensional miniaturized structures (myospheres) that functionally mimic miniaturized skeletal muscles7.

Here, we describe a protocol based on epigenetic reprogramming of human embryonic stem cells (hESCs) toward generating a homogeneous population of skeletal muscle progenitors that under permissive culture conditions form three-dimensional clusters of contractile myofibers (myospheres), which recapitulate biological features of human skeletal muscles.

성적인 프로그램을 다시 만들에 의해 인간 배아 줄기 세포에서 Myospheres의 생성

Generation of a homogeneous and abundant population of skeletal muscle cells from human embryonic stem cells (hESCs) is a requirement for cell-based ...

Culturing Caenorhabditis elegans in Axenic Liquid Media and Creation of Transgenic Worms by Microparticle Bombardment

In this protocol, we present the required materials, and the procedure for making modified&#160;C. elegans&#160;Habituation and Reproduction media (mCeHR). Additionally, the steps for exposing and acclimatizing C. elegans grown on E. coli to axenic liquid media are described. Finally, downstream experiments that utilize axenic C. elegans illustrate the benefits of this procedure. The ability to analyze and determine C. elegans&#160;nutrient requirement was illustrated by growing N2 wild type worms in axenic liquid media with varying heme concentrations. This procedure can be replicated with other nutrients to determine the optimal concentration for worm growth and development or, to determine the toxicological effects of drug treatments. The effects of varied heme concentrations on the growth of wild type worms were determined through qualitative microscopic observation and by quantitating the number of worms that grew in each heme concentration. In addition, the effect of varied nutrient concentrations can be assayed by utilizing worms that express fluorescent sensors that respond to changes in the nutrient of interest. Furthermore, a large number of worms were easily produced for the generation of transgenic C. elegans using microparticle bombardment.

Culturing Caenorhabditis elegans in Axenic Liquid Media and Creation of Transgenic Worms by Microparticle Bombardment

C. elegans is usually grown on solid agar plates or in liquid cultures seeded with E. coli. To prevent bacterial byproducts from confounding toxicological and nutritional studies, we utilized an axenic liquid medium, CeHR, to grow and synchronize a large number of worms for a range of downstream applications.