DPS acknowledges past and present support in part from grant #2665 and #2934, respectively, from the PVA Research Foundation. PKS is an Alberta Innovates &#8211; Health Solutions Scientist, operating funds were provided by the Leblanc Chair for Spinal Cord Research, University of Calgary.

NOTE: All animal procedures were performed under guidelines set by the Institutional Animal Care and Use committee at the University of Louisville, adhering to Federal regulations.
1. Preparation of Low Ca2+ and 2 mM Ca2+ Artificial Cerebrospinal Fluid (aCSF) Perfusates
<ol>
	<li>Prepare 2x low Ca2+ (0.1 mM) Stock C buffer, 2x normal Ca2+ (2 mM) Stock A buffer, and 2x Stock B buffer as described in Table 1. The individual s...

<ol>
	<li>Chew, D. J., Fawcett, J. W., Andrews, M. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+challenges+of+long-distance+axon+regeneration+in+the+injured+CNS.">The challenges of long-distance axon regeneration in the injured CNS.</a> Prog Brain Res. 201, 253-294 (2012).</li><li>Eva, R., Andrews, M. R., Franssen, E. H., Fawcett, J. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Intrinsic+mechanisms+regulating+axon+regeneration:+an+integrin+perspective.">Intrinsic mechanisms regulating axon regeneration: an integrin perspective.</a> Int Rev Neurobiol. 106, 75-104 (2012).</li><li>McCall, J., Weidner, N., Blesch, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Neurotrophic+factors+in+combinatorial+approaches+for+spinal+cord+regeneration.">Neurotrophic factors in combinatorial approaches for spinal cord regeneration.</a> Cell Tissue Res. 349, 27-37 (2012).</li><li>Pernet, V., Schwab, M. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+role+of+Nogo-A+in+axonal+plasticity,+regrowth+and+repair.">The role of Nogo-A in axonal plasticity, regrowth and repair.</a> Cell Tissue Res. 349, 97-104 (2012).</li><li>Bradbury, E. J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Chondroitinase+ABC+promotes+functional+recovery+after+spinal+cord+injury.">Chondroitinase ABC promotes functional recovery after spinal cord injury.</a> Nature. 416, 636-640 (2002).</li><li>Cregg, J. M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Functional+regeneration+beyond+the+glial+scar.">Functional regeneration beyond the glial scar.</a> Exp Neurol. 253, 197-207 (2014).</li><li>Park, K. K., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Promoting+axon+regeneration+in+the+adult+CNS+by+modulation+of+the+PTEN/mTOR+pathway.">Promoting axon regeneration in the adult CNS by modulation of the PTEN/mTOR pathway.</a> Science. 322, 963-966 (2008).</li><li>Coleman, M. P., Freeman, M. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Wallerian+degeneration,+wld(s),+and+nmnat.">Wallerian degeneration, wld(s), and nmnat.</a> Annu Rev Neurosci. 33, 245-267 (2010).</li><li>Sulaiman, W., Gordon, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Neurobiology+of+peripheral+nerve+injury,+regeneration,+and+functional+recovery:+from+bench+top+research+to+bedside+application.">Neurobiology of peripheral nerve injury, regeneration, and functional recovery: from bench top research to bedside application.</a> Ochsner J. 13, 100-108 (2013).</li><li>Bradke, F., Fawcett, J. W., Spira, M. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Assembly+of+a+new+growth+cone+after+axotomy:+the+precursor+to+axon+regeneration.">Assembly of a new growth cone after axotomy: the precursor to axon regeneration.</a> Nat Rev Neurosci. 13, 183-193 (2012).</li><li>Erturk, A., Hellal, F., Enes, J., Bradke, F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Disorganized+microtubules+underlie+the+formation+of+retraction+bulbs+and+the+failure+of+axonal+regeneration.">Disorganized microtubules underlie the formation of retraction bulbs and the failure of axonal regeneration.</a> J Neurosci. 27, 9169-9180 (2007).</li><li>Seif, G. I., Nomura, H., Tator, C. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Retrograde+axonal+degeneration+'dieback'+in+the+corticospinal+tract+after+transection+injury+of+the+rat+spinal+cord:+a+confocal+microscopy+study.">Retrograde axonal degeneration 'dieback' in the corticospinal tract after transection injury of the rat spinal cord: a confocal microscopy study.</a> J Neurotrauma. 24, 1513-1528 (2007).</li><li>Fishman, P. S., Mattu, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Fate+of+severed+cortical+projection+axons.">Fate of severed cortical projection axons.</a> J Neurotrauma. 10, 457-470 (1993).</li><li>McPhail, L. T., Stirling, D. P., Tetzlaff, W., Kwiecien, J. M., Ramer, M. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+contribution+of+activated+phagocytes+and+myelin+degeneration+to+axonal+retraction/dieback+following+spinal+cord+injury.">The contribution of activated phagocytes and myelin degeneration to axonal retraction/dieback following spinal cord injury.</a> Eur J Neurosci. 20, 1984-1994 (2004).</li><li>Stirling, D. P., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Minocycline+treatment+reduces+delayed+oligodendrocyte+death,+attenuates+axonal+dieback,+and+improves+functional+outcome+after+spinal+cord+injury.">Minocycline treatment reduces delayed oligodendrocyte death, attenuates axonal dieback, and improves functional outcome after spinal cord injury.</a> J Neurosci. 24, 2182-2190 (2004).</li><li>Kerschensteiner, M., Schwab, M. E., Lichtman, J. W., Misgeld, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=In+vivo+imaging+of+axonal+degeneration+and+regeneration+in+the+injured+spinal+cord.">In vivo imaging of axonal degeneration and regeneration in the injured spinal cord.</a> Nat Med. 11, 572-577 (2005).</li><li>Kalb, J., Nielsen, T., Fricke, M., Egelhaaf, M., Kurtz, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=In+vivo+two-photon+laser-scanning+microscopy+of+Ca2++dynamics+in+visual+motion-sensitive+neurons.">In vivo two-photon laser-scanning microscopy of Ca2+ dynamics in visual motion-sensitive neurons.</a> Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 316, 341-347 (2004).</li><li>Hirase, H., Qian, L., Bartho, P., Buzsaki, G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Calcium+dynamics+of+cortical+astrocytic+networks+in+vivo.">Calcium dynamics of cortical astrocytic networks in vivo.</a> PLoS Biol. 2, 96 (2004).</li><li>Fenrich, K. K., Weber, P., Rougon, G., Debarbieux, F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Long-+and+short-term+intravital+imaging+reveals+differential+spatiotemporal+recruitment+and+function+of+myelomonocytic+cells+after+spinal+cord+injury.">Long- and short-term intravital imaging reveals differential spatiotemporal recruitment and function of myelomonocytic cells after spinal cord injury.</a> J Physiol. 591, 4895-4902 (2013).</li><li>Canty, A. J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=In-vivo+single+neuron+axotomy+triggers+axon+regeneration+to+restore+synaptic+density+in+specific+cortical+circuits.">In-vivo single neuron axotomy triggers axon regeneration to restore synaptic density in specific cortical circuits.</a> Nat Commun. 4, 2038 (2013).</li><li>Dibaj, P., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=NO+mediates+microglial+response+to+acute+spinal+cord+injury+under+ATP+control+in+vivo.">NO mediates microglial response to acute spinal cord injury under ATP control in vivo.</a> Glia. 58, 1133-1144 (2010).</li><li>Davalos, D., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Stable+in+vivo+imaging+of+densely+populated+glia,+axons+and+blood+vessels+in+the+mouse+spinal+cord+using+two-photon+microscopy.">Stable in vivo imaging of densely populated glia, axons and blood vessels in the mouse spinal cord using two-photon microscopy.</a> J Neurosci Methods. 169, 1-7 (2008).</li><li>Nimmerjahn, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Two-photon+imaging+of+microglia+in+the+mouse+cortex+in+vivo.">Two-photon imaging of microglia in the mouse cortex in vivo.</a> Cold Spring Harb Protoc. 2012, (2012).</li><li>Nimmerjahn, A., Kirchhoff, F., Helmchen, F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Resting+microglial+cells+are+highly+dynamic+surveillants+of+brain+parenchyma+in+vivo.">Resting microglial cells are highly dynamic surveillants of brain parenchyma in vivo.</a> Science. 308, 1314-1318 (2005).</li><li>Davalos, D., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Fibrinogen-induced+perivascular+microglial+clustering+is+required+for+the+development+of+axonal+damage+in+neuroinflammation.">Fibrinogen-induced perivascular microglial clustering is required for the development of axonal damage in neuroinflammation.</a> Nat Commun. 3, 1227 (2012).</li><li>Buttermore, E. D., Thaxton, C. L., Bhat, M. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Organization+and+maintenance+of+molecular+domains+in+myelinated+axons.">Organization and maintenance of molecular domains in myelinated axons.</a> J Neurosci Res. 91, 603-622 (2013).</li><li>Stirling, D. P., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Toll-like+receptor+2-mediated+alternative+activation+of+microglia+is+protective+after+spinal+cord+injury.">Toll-like receptor 2-mediated alternative activation of microglia is protective after spinal cord injury.</a> Brain. 137, 707-723 (2014).</li><li>Greenspan, P., Fowler, S. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Spectrofluorometric+studies+of+the+lipid+probe,+nile+red.">Spectrofluorometric studies of the lipid probe, nile red.</a> J Lipid Res. 26, 781-789 (1985).</li><li>Greenspan, P., Mayer, E. P., Fowler, S. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Nile+red:+a+selective+fluorescent+stain+for+intracellular+lipid+droplets.">Nile red: a selective fluorescent stain for intracellular lipid droplets.</a> J Cell Biol. 100, 965-973 (1985).</li><li>Ewald, A. J., Werb, Z., Egeblad, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Monitoring+of+vital+signs+for+long-term+survival+of+mice+under+anesthesia.">Monitoring of vital signs for long-term survival of mice under anesthesia.</a> Cold Spring Harb Protoc. 2011, (2011).</li><li>Tajima, Y., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cerebral+hemodynamic+response+to+acute+hyperoxia+in+awake+mice.">Cerebral hemodynamic response to acute hyperoxia in awake mice.</a> Brain Res. 1557, 155-163 (2014).</li><li>Andermann, M. L., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Chronic+cellular+imaging+of+entire+cortical+columns+in+awake+mice+using+microprisms.">Chronic cellular imaging of entire cortical columns in awake mice using microprisms.</a> Neuron. 80, 900-913 (2013).</li><li>Nimmerjahn, A., Mukamel, E. A., Schnitzer, M. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Motor+behavior+activates+Bergmann+glial+networks.">Motor behavior activates Bergmann glial networks.</a> Neuron. 62, 400-412 (2009).</li><li>Tsutsui, S., Stys, P. K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Metabolic+injury+to+axons+and+myelin.">Metabolic injury to axons and myelin.</a> Exp Neurol. 246, 26-34 (2013).</li><li>Matute, C., Ransom, B. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Roles+of+white+matter+in+central+nervous+system+pathophysiologies.">Roles of white matter in central nervous system pathophysiologies.</a> ASN Neuro. 4, (2012).</li><li>Matute, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Calcium+dyshomeostasis+in+white+matter+pathology.">Calcium dyshomeostasis in white matter pathology.</a> Cell Calcium. 47, 150-157 (2010).</li><li>Stys, P. K., Lipton, S. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=White+matter+NMDA+receptors:+an+unexpected+new+therapeutic+target.">White matter NMDA receptors: an unexpected new therapeutic target.</a> Trends Pharmacol Sci. 28, 561-566 (2007).</li><li>Baltan, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Surviving+anoxia:+a+tale+of+two+white+matter+tracts.">Surviving anoxia: a tale of two white matter tracts.</a> Crit Rev Neurobiol. 18, 95-103 (2006).</li><li>Stirling, D. P., Stys, P. K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mechanisms+of+axonal+injury:+internodal+nanocomplexes+and+calcium+deregulation.">Mechanisms of axonal injury: internodal nanocomplexes and calcium deregulation.</a> Trends Mol Med. 16, 160-170 (2010).</li><li>Wang, H., Fu, Y., Zickmund, P., Shi, R., Cheng, J. X. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Coherent+anti-stokes+Raman+scattering+imaging+of+axonal+myelin+in+live+spinal+tissues.">Coherent anti-stokes Raman scattering imaging of axonal myelin in live spinal tissues.</a> Biophys J. 89, 581-591 (2005).</li><li>Beirowski, B., Nogradi, A., Babetto, E., Garcia-Alias, G., Coleman, M. P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mechanisms+of+axonal+spheroid+formation+in+central+nervous+system+Wallerian+degeneration.">Mechanisms of axonal spheroid formation in central nervous system Wallerian degeneration.</a> J Neuropathol Exp Neurol. 69, 455-472 (2010).</li><li>Shi, R., Asano, T., Vining, N. C., Blight, A. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Control+of+membrane+sealing+in+injured+mammalian+spinal+cord+axons.">Control of membrane sealing in injured mammalian spinal cord axons.</a> J Neurophysiol. 84, 1763-1769 (2000).</li><li>Stirling, D. P., Cummins, K., Wayne Chen, ., R, S., Stys, P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Axoplasmic+reticulum+Ca(2+)+release+causes+secondary+degeneration+of+spinal+axons.">Axoplasmic reticulum Ca(2+) release causes secondary degeneration of spinal axons.</a> Ann Neurol. 75, 220-229 (2014).</li></ol>

The authors have nothing to disclose.

We describe a method of imaging ex vivo spinal cord myelinated axons (i.e., gracile fasciculus) combined with a laser-induced spinal cord injury to study the dynamic progression of both primary and secondary myelinated axonal degeneration over time. Ex vivo imaging of the surface of the spinal cord overcomes many of the complications associated with in vivo imaging such as motion artifacts and the potential of experimenter-induced hypoxia during prolonged imaging sessions. This protoco...

Degeneration of axons is a prominent cause of morbidity spanning several neurological conditions including neurotrauma, stroke, autoimmune, and neurodegenerative diseases. Unlike the peripheral nervous system (PNS), central nervous system (CNS) axons have a limited capacity to regenerate once injured due to both intrinsic and extrinsic barriers (i.e., inhibitory molecules to axonal growth produced during scar formation and liberated during myelin degeneration)1-7. Although several of these barriers have been extensively explored, therapeutic interventions aimed to prevent CNS axonal degeneration, promote robust axonal regeneration, and restore functional connectively, remain limited.
Axons once separated from their soma undergo a stereotypical process of degeneration known as Wallerian degeneration that is characterized by axonal swelling, spheroid formation and eventual fragmentation (reviewed in 8). In contrast, the proximal stump that remains in continuity with the soma of a transected peripheral axon, forms a swelling at its end, dies back to the nearest node of Ranvier, and can then initiate growth cone formation, a vital prerequisite necessary for subsequent axonal regeneration9-11. In contrast, the proximal axonal endings of many central axons form characteristic &#8220;endbulbs&#8221; or retraction bulbs, fail to form growth cones, and instead retract away from the injury site where they remain for months after injury12-15. In addition to the primary axonal injury, additional axonal damage/loss may also occur to axons that were largely spared from the initial injury. This delayed axonal loss of initially spared axons is referred to as secondary axonal degeneration. This inherent response of CNS axons to injury renders functional axonal regeneration an even more difficult goal to achieve in the brain and spinal cord.
Although hallmarks of axonal injury (e.g., spheroid formation, retraction bulbs) have been well characterized from post-mortem tissue and experimental models of axonal degeneration, elucidation of the molecular mechanisms underlying these dynamic processes has been restricted. Most of these studies relied on static endpoint observations that inherently failed to capture individual axonal responses over time. Though exogenously applied axonal tracers have been useful to elucidate axonal responses from static sections and during live imaging, the availability of genetically encoded axonal markers has greatly improved our ability to visualize axons in real-time using fluorescence microscopy. Indeed, a seminal report from Kerschensteiner and colleagues first provided direct evidence of axonal degeneration and regeneration in vivo using Thy1-GFP-S mice that encode green fluorescent protein in subsets of neurons that send their projections in the dorsal columns of the spinal cord16. Live imaging approaches using two photon laser scanning microscopy (TPLSM) and genetic fluorescent protein labeling of cells of interest continues to provide direct evidence and mechanistic insight into many diverse dynamic processes such as axonal degeneration, Ca2+ signaling, axonal regeneration, astrocyte physiology, microglial physiology, and response to injury17-25.
In contrast to axons, very little is known of myelin responses to injury in real-time. Myelin is a vital component of white matter produced and maintained by oligodendrocytes in the CNS and Schwann cells in the PNS. Myelin insulates 99% of the surface of axons and by doing so provides a high-resistance, low-capacitance protective covering that supports rapid and efficient saltatory impulse propagation, recently reviewed by Buttermore et al.26. To capture the dynamic response of myelin to injury we use the solvatochromic, lipophilic fluorescent dye Nile Red27. The solvatochromic properties of this vital stain allow spectral shifts of its emission spectrum that is dependent on the physico-chemical environment28,29. These properties are useful to gain insight into mechanisms of axomyelinic injury and can be visualized using appropriately selected dichroics and emission filters or resolved using spectral microscopy27. For example, Nile Red&#8217;s emission spectrum is blue-shifted in less polar, lipid-rich environments such as those found in adipocytes and normal CNS myelin (peak emission ~ 580-590 nm)27. In contrast, this vital dye&#8217;s emission spectrum peaks at ~ 625 nm in endbulbs formed as axons undergo axonal dieback27. Although the precise mechanisms underlying these spectral shifts specifically in endbulbs versus normal myelin remain unclear, such spectral changes may reveal underlying alterations in protein accumulation or disorganization leading to exposure of hydrophobic binding sites 27.
While in vivo imaging is the ultimate metric for observing spinal cord axonal injury dynamics in their native environment, it is technically challenging and requires substantial surgical expertise, and often repeat surgeries to expose the dorsal column that may introduce experimental artifacts (e.g., inflammation and scar formation). In addition, costly equipment is often needed to allow suspension and positioning of an intact animal under the microscope objective lens. The animals need to be carefully monitored as well to ensure they remain warm, to ensure fluids are replenished, and to ensure there are no signs of hypoxia due to prolonged anesthetized imaging sessions. The latter is extremely important as axons and myelin absolutely require constant perfusion and adequate oxygen levels to remain viable. However, this is often not reported or monitored in most in vivo studies to date. In addition, movement artifacts due to heart rate and breathing (isoflurane anesthetized adult mouse: ~ 300-450 beats per min (BPM) is optimal to maintain 97-98% oxygen saturation (normal rate ~ 632 BPM) and ~ 55-65 breaths per min (normal rate is ~ 163 breaths per min), respectively))30 encountered during in vivo spinal cord imaging make differentiating primary and secondary axonal injury responses using high resolution fluorescence microscopy challenging as even the fastest laser scans unavoidably are subject to these movement artifacts. Advances in ultrafast resonant scanners combined with an implantable rigid vertebral framed window may allow imaging of the murine spinal cord in awake animals, but faster scan times inevitably reduce the signal to noise ratio degrading image quality. Further improvements in spinal cord imaging techniques as currently used for brain imaging may overcome many of these obstacles and limit potential confounds introduced by inadequate tissue perfusion, e.g., 31-33.
Much of what is known about white matter physiology and mechanisms of white matter injury has been determined using in vitro or ex vivo preparations of white matter from optic nerve, peripheral nerve, and strips of spinal cord white matter34-41. These preparations continue to advance our knowledge of white matter injury mechanisms as they allow controlled changes in environmental factors, controlled application of drugs and reagents, functional assessments using electrophysiology, and direct fluorescence microscopy observations of axons and myelin in living tissue. Yet, some previous approaches to observe axons from spinal cord dorsal column strips or ventral white matter strips unavoidably injure surface axons during the removal stage that may influence the response of closely opposed axons. To capitalize on the experimental manipulations above and avoid damage to the very fibers under investigation, we use an ex vivo cervical spinal cord model as it prevents direct contact of the dorsal aspect of the cord. Thus, the architecture of the pia mater and adjacent superficial dorsal column axons remain viable and unperturbed during isolation.
Here we describe a relatively simple approach that allows direct visualization of central myelinated axons as they dynamically respond to a focal injury in real-time up to 8 - 10+ hr after injury. The laser-induced spinal cord injury (LiSCI) model allows differentiation between primary and secondary axonal injury mechanisms as the primary lesion (ablation site) remains spatially constrained over time. The open-bath imaging chamber is accessible to therapeutic intervention, reagent delivery, and environmental manipulations. Putative axomyelinic protective agents can be quickly assessed in real-time by direct observations versus lengthy and costly experiments involving tissue processing, sectioning, immunostaining, image capture, and analysis and therefore provides a useful surrogate model to assess acute responses and protective manipulations before testing the experimental agents in live animals.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="968">
	<tbody>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:376px;">Material/ Equipment</td>
			<td style="width:139px;">Company</td>
			<td style="width:113px;">Catalog Number</td>
			<td style="width:341px;">Comments/Description</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Large bath chamber with slice supports</td>
			<td>Warner Instruments</td>
			<td>RC-27L</td>
			<td>For ex vivo imaging chamber</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Standard Slice Supports</td>
			<td>Warner Instruments</td>
			<td>SS-3</td>
			<td>For ex vivo imaging chamber</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Plastic Slice hold-down for RC-27L and RC-29 chambers</td>
			<td>Warner Instruments</td>
			<td>SHD-27LP/10</td>
			<td>For ex vivo imaging chamber</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:376px;">Suction Tube, Series 20 Classic Design, left handed</td>
			<td style="width:139px;">Warner Instruments</td>
			<td style="width:113px;">ST-1L</td>
			<td>For ex vivo imaging chamber</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Solution In-line heater/cooler</td>
			<td>Warner Instruments</td>
			<td>SC-20</td>
			<td>To regulate perfusate temperature during imaging</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:376px;">Bipolar temperature controller</td>
			<td style="width:139px;">Warner Instruments</td>
			<td style="width:113px;">CL-100</td>
			<td>To regulate perfusate temperature during imaging</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:376px;">Liquid Cooling System</td>
			<td style="width:139px;">Warner Instruments</td>
			<td style="width:113px;">LCS-1</td>
			<td>To regulate perfusate temperature during imaging</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:376px;">Cable assembly for heater controllers</td>
			<td style="width:139px;">Warner Instruments</td>
			<td style="width:113px;">CC-28</td>
			<td>To regulate perfusate temperature during imaging</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:376px;">Replacement bead thermisitor for CC-28 cable</td>
			<td style="width:139px;">Warner Instruments</td>
			<td style="width:113px;">TS-70B</td>
			<td>To regulate perfusate temperature during imaging</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:376px;">Magnetic holder with suction tubing</td>
			<td style="width:139px;">Bioscience Tools</td>
			<td style="width:113px;">MTH-S</td>
			<td>To hold the stainless steel vacuum suction tubing&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:376px;">Adjustable holder</td>
			<td style="width:139px;">Bioscience Tools</td>
			<td style="width:113px;">MTH</td>
			<td>To hold the temperature probe</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:376px;">clear silicone sealant</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>For ex vivo imaging chamber</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:376px;">superglue</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>For ex vivo imaging chamber</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:376px;">thin plexiglass strips</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>For ex vivo imaging chamber</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:376px;">nile red</td>
			<td style="width:139px;">Life Technologies</td>
			<td>N-1142</td>
			<td>For labeling myelin</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

an ex vivo laser-induced spinal cord injury model to assess mechanisms of axonal degeneration in real-time

Injured CNS axons fail to regenerate and often retract away from the injury site. Axons spared from the initial injury may later undergo secondary axonal degeneration. Lack of growth cone formation, regeneration, and loss of additional myelinated axonal projections within the spinal cord greatly limits neurological recovery following injury. To assess how central myelinated axons of the spinal cord respond to injury, we developed an ex vivo living spinal cord model utilizing transgenic mice that express yellow fluorescent protein in axons and a focal and highly reproducible laser-induced spinal cord injury to document the fate of axons and myelin (lipophilic fluorescent dye Nile Red) over time using two-photon excitation time-lapse microscopy. Dynamic processes such as acute axonal injury, axonal retraction, and myelin degeneration are best studied in real-time. However, the non-focal nature of contusion-based injuries and movement artifacts encountered during in vivo spinal cord imaging make differentiating primary and secondary axonal injury responses using high resolution microscopy challenging. The ex vivo spinal cord model described here mimics several aspects of clinically relevant contusion/compression-induced axonal pathologies including axonal swelling, spheroid formation, axonal transection, and peri-axonal swelling providing a useful model to study these dynamic processes in real-time. Major advantages of this model are excellent spatiotemporal resolution that allows differentiation between the primary insult that directly injures axons and secondary injury mechanisms; controlled infusion of reagents directly to the perfusate bathing the cord; precise alterations of the environmental milieu (e.g., calcium, sodium ions, known contributors to axonal injury, but near impossible to manipulate in vivo); and murine models also offer an advantage as they provide an opportunity to visualize and manipulate genetically identified cell populations and subcellular structures. Here, we describe how to isolate and image the living spinal cord from mice to capture dynamics of acute axonal injury.

Details of an appropriate laboratory set up needed to isolate, maintain viability, and image the ex vivo spinal cord is shown in Figure 1. The microscope needs to be equipped with a tunable pulsed femtosecond laser, appropriate dicroics and emission filters, and a water-dipping objective lens with a high numerical aperture (&#8805;1.0). To ensure viability of the spinal cord during the dissection, the procedure should be performed in the presence of chilled oxygenated low Ca2+ aCSF th...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about An Ex Vivo Laser-induced Spinal Cord Injury Model to Assess Mechanisms of Axonal Degeneration in Real-time at JoVE.com

An Ex Vivo Laser-induced Spinal Cord Injury Model to Assess Mechanisms of Axonal Degeneration in Real-time

We present a protocol utilizing two-photon excitation time-lapse microscopy to simultaneously visualize the dynamics of axon and myelin injuries in real time. This proposed protocol permits studies of both intrinsic and extrinsic factors which can influence central myelinated axon fate after injury and contribute to permanent clinical disability.

An Ex Vivo Laser-induced Spinal Cord Injury Model to Assess Mechanisms of Axonal Degeneration in Real-time

Injured CNS axons fail to regenerate and often retract away from the injury site. Axons spared from the initial injury may later undergo secondary axonal ...

an-ex-vivo-laser-induced-spinal-cord-injury-model-to-assess

Research

JoVE Journal

Neuroscience

10.8K Görüntüleme.  University of Louisville. We present a protocol utilizing two-photon excitation time-lapse microscopy to simultaneously visualize the dynamics of axon and myelin injuries in real time. This proposed protocol permits studies of both intrinsic and extrinsic factors which can influence central myelinated axon fate after injury and contribute to permanent clinical disability. 