We thank Sidney Walker for providing technical help. This work was supported in part by a grant from the National Institute of Health (1R01EY024712-01A1).

Ethics Statement: Procedures involving animal subjects have been approved by the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC) at Virginia Tech.
Caution: Extreme precautions must be taken when handling and disposing several components used in this protocol. Before use, the local institutional guidelines and health and safety practices must be established and followed, particularly for osmium tetroxide, which is volatile and extremely poisonous, uranyl acetate, which is both a heavy metal and source of radioactivity, and lead nit...

The authors declare that they have no competing financial interests. Emily K Benson is a paid employee of Renovo Neural Inc., and Grahame J Kidd serves as Scientific Director for 3DEM at Renovo Neural Inc., which is a commercial provider of serial block-face SEM services and analysis.

The complexity of the nervous system poses a significant challenge in reconstructing large tissue volumes and analyzing the morphology and distribution of organelles such as mitochondria with adequate resolution. Multiple cells including neurons, oligodendrocytes and astrocytes with numerous processes extended in three dimensions interact within the brain tissue 43. Since mitochondria resides both in the soma of cells and distant processes, mitochondrial morphology is extremely pleomorphic in the nervous syste...

Mitochondria are dynamic organelles which change their shape and location depending on the cellular cues and needs, in tight interaction with cell cytoskeleton, and in response to cellular events such as calcium currents in neurons 1. Mitochondria also interact with other cellular organelles e.g. endoplasmic reticulum, which in turn regulates their dynamics and metabolism2. Mitochondrial morphology shows heterogeneity in different cell types i.e. the shape of the organelle varies from tubular to that consisting of sheets, sacks and ovals 3. It has been shown that mitochondrial fusion and fission cycle proteins can regulate the location, size, shape and distribution of mitochondria 4. Moreover, changes in mitochondrial shape are associated with neurodegeneration, neuronal plasticity, muscle atrophy, calcium signaling, reactive oxygen species generation as well as lifespan and cell death implicating that cell-specific mitochondrial morphology is critical for the maintenance of normal cellular function 5-11.
A major bioenergetic function of mitochondria is to generate adenosine triphosphate (ATP) by executing a series of metabolic reactions that involve complete breakdown of nutrients (i.e. glucose, fatty-acids or amino-acids) via the TCA cycle and OXPHOS pathways 12. The human brain constitutes only 2% of body weight however it consumes ~20% of total energy produced making it an extremely energy demanding organ 13. It is therefore not surprising that mitochondrial dysfunction in humans leads to a large number of neurological manifestations 14-17. Genetic mutations in OXPHOS components that impair ATP generation leads to mitochondrial disorders 17,18, which are clinically heterogeneous group of disorders with a prevalence of ~1 : 5,000 individuals, and one of the most common cause of metabolic disorders in children and adults. Deficit of mitochondria-derived ATP affects multiple organ systems with high energy demanding organs such as brain, heart and skeletal muscles being predominantly affected in these patients 14,17,18. In recent years, multiple studies have provided evidence for mitochondrial dysfunction in both neurodevelopmental and neurodegenerative disorders 15-17,19,20. Since mitochondria are essential and critical for brain development and function, it is imperative to develop protocols that can analyze changes in brain mitochondrial morphology, structure, size, number and distribution under both healthy and diseased states. Mouse models with mitochondrially-targeted green fluorescent protein (GFP) have been produced to visualize mitochondrial movements and localization in the brain 21,22. While this is an extremely useful tool to examine mitochondrial motility and general distribution, there are some drawbacks which include limited resolution and sensitivity of fluorescence microscopy. These attributes make it difficult to track the relatively small sized mitochondria. Similarly, serial transmission electron microscopy has been successfully used to view synaptic mitochondria 23, but this method is very time consuming. Mitochondrial morphology is known to be highly dynamic as they undergo continuous fission and fusion cycles, and in most cells mitochondria maintain a highly connected network 24-26. Neurons are highly polarized cells with multiple dendrites and extended axons, and mitochondria that form a connected reticular network in the cell body may have to separate as they make their way through these neurites (Figure 1). This makes brain mitochondria extremely varied in size and shape. For example, using serial block-face scanning electron microscopy (SBFSEM) technique, we previously observed that the difference in the volume or size of extrasynaptic mitochondria to mitochondria present in the nerve terminals may be as much as sixteen fold 27.
There are several approaches for performing volume analyses 28, which includes serial section TEM 29, automated tape collecting ultramicrotome SEM 30, focused ion beam SEM 31, and SBFSEM 32. The SBFSEM analysis has advantages in that it has the resolution to provide quantitative data on the morphological shape, size, distribution and number of organelles such as mitochondria in areas up to 1 mm of the brain. The technical operation is also the least demanding, with data acquisition and analysis within capabilities of many biological labs that lack previous EM experience. The advent of commercial instruments for generating serial section-like images has made 3D ultrastructural analysis of tissues a routine technique, which further permits an unbiased volumetric analysis in a rapid and repeatable manner28. The SBFSEM was first described and used in the field of neurobiology in 2004 32, based on an idea introduced by Leighton in 1981 33. Multiple studies since then have established this technique as a major tool in reconstruction analysis of neuronal circuitry 34. Furthermore, for many smaller scale projects, it provides reconstruction analysis to identify cellular organelles 27,35-39. Since, the acquired images are derived from low voltage back scatter electrons, new staining protocols which combine different known heavy metal staining techniques were developed to increase the resolution 40.
In this paper, we provide a protocol for utilizing 3D electron microscopy imaging and volumetric analysis of brain mitochondria based on methods that have previously been used by us and others 38,39,41. The tissue post-processing methods used were as previously described by Deerinck et al40.

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			<td>C57BL/6J mice</td>
			<td>Jackson laboratory&#160;</td>
			<td>664</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Isoflurane</td>
			<td>VETone, tradename Fluriso</td>
			<td>501017</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dissection tray</td>
			<td>Fisher scientific&#160;</td>
			<td>S65105&#160;</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dissection scissors</td>
			<td>Ted Pella Inc.</td>
			<td>1316</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Butterfly canula</td>
			<td>Exel International</td>
			<td>26704</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Phosphate buffer saline</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>P4417-100TAB</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Filter (0.45 micron)</td>
			<td>EMD Millipore</td>
			<td>NC0813356</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dissection microscope</td>
			<td>Olympus</td>
			<td>SZ61</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Vibratome sectioning system</td>
			<td>Ted Pella Inc.</td>
			<td>Vibratome 3000</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium Cacodylate</td>
			<td>EMS</td>
			<td>12300</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tannic Acid</td>
			<td>EMS</td>
			<td>21700</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Potassium Ferrocyanide</td>
			<td>J.T. Baker</td>
			<td>14459-95-1</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Osmium Tetroxide 4% Solution</td>
			<td>EMS</td>
			<td>19150</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Thiocarbohydrazide</td>
			<td>EMS</td>
			<td>21900</td>
			<td></td>
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			<td>L-Aspartic Acid</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>A93100</td>
			<td></td>
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			<td>Potassium Hydroxide</td>
			<td>Acros Organics</td>
			<td>43731000</td>
			<td></td>
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			<td>Lead Nitrate</td>
			<td>EMS</td>
			<td>17900</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>EMbed-812 EMBEDDING KIT</td>
			<td>EMS</td>
			<td>14120</td>
			<td>Contains Embed 812&#160; resin, DDSA, NMA, and DMP-30.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glutaraldehyde 25% EM Grade</td>
			<td>Polysciences Inc.</td>
			<td>1909</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Paraformaldehyde</td>
			<td>EMS</td>
			<td>19202</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Uranyl Acetate</td>
			<td>EMS</td>
			<td>22400</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ethanol</td>
			<td>EMS</td>
			<td>15055</td>
			<td></td>
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			<td>Propylene Oxide</td>
			<td>EMS</td>
			<td>20400</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Embedding Mold</td>
			<td>EMS</td>
			<td>70907</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Aluminum specimen pin</td>
			<td>EMS</td>
			<td>70446</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Colloidal Silver Liquid</td>
			<td>EMS</td>
			<td>12630</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Razor</td>
			<td>EMS</td>
			<td>72000</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Super Glue (Loctite Gel Control)</td>
			<td>Loctite</td>
			<td>234790</td>
			<td>Hardware/craft stores carry this item</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Conductive epoxy</td>
			<td>Ted Pella Inc.</td>
			<td>16043</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Scanning electron microscope</td>
			<td>Zeiss</td>
			<td>Sigma VP</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>In chamber ultramicrotome for SEM</td>
			<td>Gatan Inc.</td>
			<td>3View2</td>
			<td>Can be designed for other SEMs</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Trimming microscope for pin preparation</td>
			<td>Gatan Inc.</td>
			<td colspan="2">supplied as part of 3View system</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Low kV backscattered electron detector</td>
			<td>Gatan Inc.</td>
			<td>3V-BSED</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ImageJ/ Fiji processing package&#160;</td>
			<td colspan="2">ImageJ ver 1.50b, FIJI download Oct 1, 2015</td>
			<td><a href="http://zoi.utia.cas.cz/files/imagej_api.pdf">http://zoi.utia.cas.cz/files/imagej_api.pdf</a></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>http://rsb.info.nih.gov/ij/</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td><a href="http://www.icmr.ucsb.edu/programs/3DWorkshop/Uchic-2015_FIJI_Tutorial.pdf">http://www.icmr.ucsb.edu/programs/3DWorkshop/Uchic-2015_FIJI_Tutorial.pdf</a></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td><a href="http://fiji.sc/TrakEM2">http://fiji.sc/TrakEM2</a></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

analysis of brain mitochondria using serial block-face scanning electron microscopy

Human brain is a high energy consuming organ that mainly relies on glucose as a fuel source. Glucose is catabolized by brain mitochondria via glycolysis, tri-carboxylic acid (TCA) cycle and oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) pathways to produce cellular energy in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Impairment of mitochondrial ATP production causes mitochondrial disorders, which present clinically with prominent neurological and myopathic symptoms. Mitochondrial defects are also present in neurodevelopmental disorders (e.g. autism spectrum disorder) and neurodegenerative disorders (e.g. amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Alzheimer&#39;s and Parkinson&#39;s diseases). Thus, there is an increased interest in the field for performing 3D analysis of mitochondrial morphology, structure and distribution under both healthy and disease states. The brain mitochondrial morphology is extremely diverse, with some mitochondria especially those in the synaptic region being in the range of &#60;200 nm diameter, which is below the resolution limit of traditional light microscopy. Expressing a mitochondrially-targeted green fluorescent protein (GFP) in the brain significantly enhances the organellar detection by confocal microscopy. However, it does not overcome the constraints on the sensitivity of detection of relatively small sized mitochondria without oversaturating the images of large sized mitochondria. While serial transmission electron microscopy has been successfully used to characterize mitochondria at the neuronal synapse, this technique is extremely time-consuming especially when comparing multiple samples. The serial block-face scanning electron microscopy (SBFSEM) technique involves an automated process of sectioning, imaging blocks of tissue and data acquisition. Here, we provide a protocol to perform SBFSEM of a defined region from rodent brain to rapidly reconstruct and visualize mitochondrial morphology. This technique could also be used to provide accurate information on mitochondrial number, volume, size and distribution in a defined brain region. Since the obtained image resolution is high (typically under 10 nm) any gross mitochondrial morphological defects may also be detected.

We demonstrate that the brain mitochondrial morphology and size is heterogeneous in different neuronal sub-compartments. Confocal microscopy on low density neuronal cultures transduced with lentivirus expressing mitochondrially-targeted green fluorescent protein showed that mitochondria residing in neuronal soma form a reticular network, whereas those residing in distal neurites exhibit a discrete elongated morphology (Figure 1 A-B). Using the SBFSEM technique, the mitoch...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Analysis of Brain Mitochondria Using Serial Block-Face Scanning Electron Microscopy at JoVE.com

Analysis of Brain Mitochondria Using Serial Block-Face Scanning Electron Microscopy

Mitochondrial visualization and analysis from mammalian brain tissue is a challenging task. Here, we describe how three dimensional (3D) reconstruction analysis from the serial block-face scanning electron microscopy (SBFSEM) can be used to gain insights on the morphological and volumetric analysis of this critical energy generating organelle.

Human brain is a high energy consuming organ that mainly relies on glucose as a fuel source. Glucose is catabolized by brain mitochondria via glycolysis, ...

The overall goal of the serial block-face scanning electron microscopy technique is to analyze mitochondrial morphology, structure, distribution, volume, and number in a defined region of the mouse brain. This method can help answer many key questions in neurobiology, such as whether changes in brain mitochondria structure, number, and distribution contribute substantially to neurodegenerative and neurodevelopmental disorders. The main advantage of this technique is that it automates the process of imaging serial sections by incorporating a custom ultramicrotome built into the low vacuum scanning electron microscope chamber.To begin the experiment, wash the previously prepared glutaraldehyde-fixed tissues three times for five minutes each in 0.1 molar cacodylate buffer. Post-fix the tissues with 1 milliliter of cacodylate buffered 0.1%tannic acid for 30 minutes at room temperature. After post-fixing, wash the tissues in cacodylate buffer.Dissolve 0.3 grams of potassium ferrocyanide and 0.86 grams of sodium cacodylate in 10 milliliters of distilled water. Just before use, add 10 milliliters of 4%osmium tetroxide and stain the tissues with 2%osmium ferrocyanide solution for 90 minutes on ice. After staining, wash the tissue in distilled water.Treat the samples with freshly prepared 1%thiocarbohydrazide or TCH solution for 20 minutes at room temperature. Then wash the samples. Next, stain the tissues with 2%aqueous osmium tetroxide for one hour.After staining, wash the tissues with distilled water. Incubate the samples overnight in 1%uranyl acetate in distilled water at 4 degrees Celsius. The next day, rinse the tissues in distilled water and incubate them with Welton's lead aspartate stain in an oven.Obtaining the best possible stainings of tissues is critical to imaging, as poor staining results in a charging phenomenon on the sample that makes imaging difficult or impossible. Wash the tissue in distilled water. Dehydrate the samples through a graded series of alcohol using chilled solutions of ethanol for five minutes each, followed by a 100%ethanol dehydration three times for 10 minutes each.Wash the samples two times for 15 minutes each in propylene oxide. Place the tissues in a 1:1 mix of embedding resin and propylene oxide, cap the vial, and incubate the tissues overnight. Uncap the vial after two hours so that the propylene oxide evaporates over the nine-hour period.Transfer the tissues to 100%fresh embedding resin in clean vials for two hours. Embed the samples in fresh embedding resin in flat molds containing printed paper labels and cure them in an oven. After one hour, check the tissue placement and alignment and adjust if necessary.Trim the samples to the area of interest and mount them onto an aluminum pin using gelling cyanoacrylate super glue. Then coat the sample with colloidal silver paste around the sides of the block to provide a conductive path to the aluminum pin. Examine the tissue specimens using a scanning electron microscope system equipped with an in-chamber ultramicrotome stage and a low kilovolt backscattered electron detector.Image the samples with these settings. Begin analysis by selecting Image, Type, then 8-bit to convert the images to 8-bit TIFF format from the original proprietary 16-bit. If automatic contrast and/or brightness conversion during this step is not ideal for images, reopen the 16-bit images and press Image, Adjust, Brightness/Contrast.Select a range that works for all images and press Apply. Then perform the conversion. If there was unacceptable image movement between slices, align the image stacks by selecting Plugins, Registration, and Linear Stack Alignment with SIFT and set the alignment for translation-only mode rather than rigid body.Enlarge the canvas size prior to registration by selecting Image, Adjust, Canvas Size. Alternatively, reduce the image to an area of interest by selecting the desired region and then cropping it. If necessary, scale images to a smaller, more manageable size using ImageJ, then selecting Image and Scale.Confocal microscopy on low-density neuronal cultures showed that mitochondria residing in neuronal soma form a reticular network, whereas those residing in distal neurites exhibit a discrete elongated morphology. Using the serial block-face scanning electron microscopy, or SBFSEM technique, the mitochondria, dendrites, and axonal varicosities were clearly observed in the mouse brain. Three-day reconstructions of mitochondria in the neurites of mouse brain tissue displayed a difference in size between dendritic and axonal mitochondria.Data extracted from a representative 2-D SBFSEM image revealed that the volume or size of mitochondria residing within the neuronal presynapses was significantly smaller than those residing in the extrasynaptic region. The images acquired by SBFSEM analysis provide increased resolution to visual the ultrastructural characteristics of individual mitochondria. It is possible to classify the cellular compartment of mitochondria by determining its proximity to readily identifiable structures like non-synaptic somatic mitochondria and presynaptic mitochondria.This technique can be done in about seven days, which includes three days of staining, two days for resin curing, one day of imaging to produce a stack suitable for this analysis, and about two to four hours for image post-processing in preparation for the analysis. This procedure can also be used in conjunction with other methods for imaging mitochondria such as live imaging with genetically labeled mitochondria to answer questions about mitochondrial trafficking and the dynamics of their fission and fusion.

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13.9K Görüntüleme.  Virginia Tech Carilion Research Institute. The overall goal of the serial block-face scanning electron microscopy technique is to analyze mitochondrial morphology, structure, distribution, volume, and number in a defined region of the mouse brain. This method can help answer many key questions in neurobiology, such as whether changes in brain mitochondria structure, number, and distribution contribute substantially to neurodegenerative and neurodevelopmental disorders. The main advantage of this technique is that it automates the proc...