Name: laminar flow-based assays to investigate leukocyte recruitment on cultured vascular cells and adherent platelets
Uploaded: 2018-04-09T15:00:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Laminar Flow-based Assays to Investigate Leukocyte Recruitment on Cultured Vascular Cells and Adherent Platelets at JoVE.com

We thank Drs. Martin M. Schmitt and Line Fraemohs. This work was supported by the Netherlands Foundation for Scientific Research (ZonMW VIDI 016.126.358, the Landsteiner Foundation for Blood Transfusion Research (LSBR Nr. 1638) and Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (SFB1123/A2) awarded to R.R.K.

All methods described here have been approved by the Medical Ethical and Animal Ethical Boards of Maastricht University.
1. Flow-Based Assay with Human Cells
<ol>
	<li>Isolation of platelets from human blood
	<ol>
		<li>Draw venous blood in citrate (3.2%) anticoagulant.</li>
		<li>Add 1/15 volume of Acid Citrate Dextrose (ACD: 80 mM trisodium citrate, 52 mM citric acid and 183 mM glucose) to the blood.</li>
		<li>Centrifuge at 350 x g without brake for 15 min to obtain plate...

<ol>
	<li>Dinauer, M. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Primary+immune+deficiencies+with+defects+in+neutrophil+function.">Primary immune deficiencies with defects in neutrophil function.</a> American Society of Hematology. 2016 (1), 43-50 (2016).</li><li>Butcher, E. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Leukocyte-endothelial+cell+recognition:+three+(or+more)+steps+to+specificity+and+diversity.">Leukocyte-endothelial cell recognition: three (or more) steps to specificity and diversity.</a> Cell. 67 (6), 1033-1036 (1991).</li><li>Springer, T. 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L., Lutgens, E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Inflammation+and+immune+system+interactions+in+atherosclerosis.">Inflammation and immune system interactions in atherosclerosis.</a> Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences. 70 (20), 3847-3869 (2013).</li><li>Wang, Y., Sakuma, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Leukocyte+engagement+of+platelet+glycoprotein+Ibalpha+via+the+integrin+Mac-1+is+critical+for+the+biological+response+to+vascular+injury.">Leukocyte engagement of platelet glycoprotein Ibalpha via the integrin Mac-1 is critical for the biological response to vascular injury.</a> Circulation. 112 (19), 2993-3000 (2005).</li><li>Zhao, Z., Vajen, T., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Deletion+of+junctional+adhesion+molecule+A+from+platelets+increases+early-stage+neointima+formation+after+wire+injury+in+hyperlipidemic+mice.">Deletion of junctional adhesion molecule A from platelets increases early-stage neointima formation after wire injury in hyperlipidemic mice.</a> Journal of cellular and molecular medicine. , (2017).</li><li>Wang, Y., Gao, H., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Leukocyte+integrin+Mac-1+regulates+thrombosis+via+interaction+with+platelet+GPIb&#945;.">Leukocyte integrin Mac-1 regulates thrombosis via interaction with platelet GPIb&#945;.</a> Nature communications. 8, 15559 (2017).</li><li>Fujii, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=PDMS-based+microfluidic+devices+for+biomedical+applications.">PDMS-based microfluidic devices for biomedical applications.</a> Microelectronic Engineering. 61-62, 907-914 (2002).</li><li>Son, Y. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Determination+of+shear+viscosity+and+shear+rate+from+pressure+drop+and+flow+rate+relationship+in+a+rectangular+channel.">Determination of shear viscosity and shear rate from pressure drop and flow rate relationship in a rectangular channel.</a> Polymer. 48 (2), 632-637 (2007).</li><li>Brinkmann, V., Laube, B., Abu Abed, U., Goosmann, C., Zychlinsky, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Neutrophil+extracellular+traps:+how+to+generate+and+visualize+them.">Neutrophil extracellular traps: how to generate and visualize them.</a> Journal of visualized experiments : JoVE. (36), e1724 (2010).</li><li>Swamydas, M., Lionakis, M. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Isolation,+purification+and+labeling+of+mouse+bone+marrow+neutrophils+for+functional+studies+and+adoptive+transfer+experiments.">Isolation, purification and labeling of mouse bone marrow neutrophils for functional studies and adoptive transfer experiments.</a> Journal of visualized experiments : JoVE. (77), e50586 (2013).</li><li>Schmitt, M. M. N., Megens, R. T. 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This in vitro assay is a straightforward method to investigate underlying mechanisms of leukocyte recruitment during vascular inflammation, but there are some critical points to be noted. The first requirement for successfully performing this assay is the perfusion of leukocytes over an intact and confluent vascular or platelet monolayer. This can be achieved by prior coating of the surfaces with collagen type I. In general, when working with primary vascular cells, it is important to gently detach cells using t...

Upon injury, inflammation, or infection, leukocytes quickly respond to pathogen- or damage-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs, DAMPs), change into an activated state, and move out of the blood stream to sites of inflammation and tissue damage. The ability of leukocytes to interact with their cellular and molecular environment is essential for their correct function as immune cells, as highlighted by genetic disorders such as leukocyte adhesion deficiency1. Leukocyte adhesion has been the subject of intense investigation during the past decades and this has resulted in the concept of the leukocyte adhesion cascade in the early 1990s2,3. Leukocyte adhesion is initiated by the selectin-mediated capture of leukocytes to the endothelium, causing the cells to roll over the vascular surface. This rolling enables leukocytes to scan for endothelium-bound migratory cues, e.g., chemokines, which induce the activation of integrins. Subsequently, the activated integrins mediate the binding to endothelial ligands, resulting in firm leukocyte arrest. Leukocytes may subsequently prepare to extravasate by crawling and spreading, before penetrating the endothelial monolayer and transmigrating into the underlying tissue. The basic concept of the canonical leukocyte cascade has remained largely unchanged since its introduction, with some intermediate steps added4. Nevertheless, the exact molecular mechanisms and the roles of the many players involved in leukocyte recruitment have not been clarified thus far, and leukocyte recruitment remains an important subject in the field of infection, inflammation, and (auto-) immune research.
For example, during vascular inflammatory diseases such as atherosclerosis, increased leukocyte recruitment into the vessel wall drives plaque development. Unstable atherosclerotic plaques might rupture, leading to massive activation of platelets and the coagulation system, and subsequently to occlusion of the vessel5. This may result in severe cardiovascular outcomes such as myocardial infarction or stroke. In addition, endothelial denudation as it occurs clinically, e.g. after stenting of a coronary artery, leads to a multitude of interactions of leukocytes and platelets to the exposed vessel wall interior (e.g., matrix components and smooth muscle cells) and of leukocytes with platelets covering the vascular injury. These interactions are important for the further development of the disease as monocyte-platelet interactions might drive neointima formation6,7. In addition, platelet-leukocyte interactions mediated by leukocyte integrin Mac-1 (&#945;M&#946;2) and platelet GPIb&#945;&#160;have recently been identified as novel drivers of thrombosis in mice8.
Given the wide availability of human and animal blood as a source of leukocytes and platelets for research, and the broad spectrum of isolated matrix molecules and immortalized cell lines of leukocyte and vascular origin, it is feasible to simulate leukocyte interactions under flow in a laboratory setting, using specially designed flow perfusion chambers. Many variants have been designed over the past decades, ranging from vacuum-driven to self-adhesive perfusion chambers. All variants have in common that the immobile part (e.g., cultured vascular cells or matrix proteins) is assembled into a larger leak-proof chamber equipped with a pre-defined channel enabling perfusion of fluids over the immobile part. In addition, advances in molding technology enabled the development of custom-made solutions based on silica polymers9. The viscosity and flow rate of the perfused fluids and the height of the channel mainly determine the shear stress characteristics of the flow perfusion device10. In this article, we present an in vitro method to study underlying mechanisms of the adhesion, de-adhesion, and transmigration of leukocytes under venous and arterial flow regimes. The advantage of the methods presented here is that they can be performed using a common camera-connected fluorescence microscope, and do not require a experimenters to possess high technical proficiency. The in vitro assay can be manipulated in many ways (e.g., by adding inhibitors or blocking antibodies), and is thus applicable in different models of vascular inflammation and allows the investigation of adhesion protein functions or the evaluation of specific compounds.

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			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:420px;">Inverted fluorescence microscope e.g. EVOS-FL</td>
			<td style="width:189px;">Life Technologies Europe bv</td>
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			<td style="width:189px;">University Hospital RWTH Aachen</td>
			<td style="width:163px;"></td>
			<td>Patent DE10328277A1: Baltus T, Dautzenberg R, Weber CPD. Str&#246;mungskammer zur in-vitro-Untersuchung von physiologischen Vorg&#228;ngen an Zelloberfl&#228;chen. 2005.&#160;</td>
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			<td>80608</td>
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			<td>10812</td>
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			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Collagen Type I, rat tail</td>
			<td>Life Technologies Europe bv</td>
			<td style="width:163px;">A1048301</td>
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			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Recombinant Human TNF-&#945;</td>
			<td>Peprotech</td>
			<td>300-01A</td>
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			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Thrombin Receptor Activator for Peptide 6 (TRAP - 6)</td>
			<td>Anaspec / Eurogentec</td>
			<td>24191</td>
			<td></td>
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			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">SYTO 13 green fluorescent nucleic acid stain</td>
			<td>Life Technologies Europe bv</td>
			<td>S7575</td>
			<td></td>
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			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:420px;">Hanks&#8217; Balanced Salt Solution 10x</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich Chemie</td>
			<td>H4641</td>
			<td></td>
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			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">HEPES buffer solution 1M, liquid</td>
			<td>Life Technologies Europe bv</td>
			<td>15630049</td>
			<td></td>
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			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">BUMINATE Albumin, 25%&#160;</td>
			<td>Baxter</td>
			<td>60010</td>
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			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:420px;">Water for injection</td>
			<td style="width:189px;">B. Braun</td>
			<td style="width:163px;">3624315</td>
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			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:420px;">Calcium chloride dihydrate</td>
			<td style="width:189px;">Merck</td>
			<td style="width:163px;">102382&#160;</td>
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			<td>Sigma-Aldrich Chemie</td>
			<td style="width:163px;">M2670</td>
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			<td>A6535</td>
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			<td style="width:189px;">Promocell GmbH</td>
			<td>C-12203</td>
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			<td style="width:189px;">Promocell GmbH</td>
			<td>C-22010</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:420px;">Primary Human Aortic Endothelial Cells (HAoEC)</td>
			<td style="width:189px;">ATCC</td>
			<td style="width:163px;">&#160;PCS-100-011</td>
			<td></td>
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			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:420px;">Vascular Cell Basal Medium&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:189px;">ATCC</td>
			<td style="width:163px;">PCS-100-030</td>
			<td></td>
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			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:420px;">Endothelial Cell Growth Kit-BBE</td>
			<td style="width:189px;">ATCC</td>
			<td style="width:163px;">PCS-100-040</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:420px;">Primary Human Aortic Smooth Muscle Cells (HAoSMC)</td>
			<td style="width:189px;">ATCC</td>
			<td style="width:163px;">PCS-100-012</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:420px;">Vascular Smooth Muscle Cell Growth Kit</td>
			<td style="width:189px;">ATCC</td>
			<td style="width:163px;">PCS-100-042</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:420px;">Human endothelial cell line, EA.hy926</td>
			<td style="width:189px;">ATCC</td>
			<td style="width:163px;">CRL-2922</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:420px;">Dulbecco&#39;s Modified Eagle&#39;s Medium (DMEM)</td>
			<td style="width:189px;">ATCC</td>
			<td style="width:163px;">30-2002</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:420px;">Mouse endothelial cell line, SV 40 transformed (SVEC4-10)</td>
			<td style="width:189px;">ATCC</td>
			<td style="width:163px;">CRL-2181</td>
			<td></td>
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		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:420px;">Human Monocytic cell line, THP-1</td>
			<td style="width:189px;">DSMZ</td>
			<td style="width:163px;">ACC-16</td>
			<td></td>
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			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">RPMI 1640 with Ultra-Glutamine</td>
			<td style="width:189px;">Lonza</td>
			<td>BE12-702F/U1</td>
			<td></td>
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		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:420px;">Mouse monocyte/macrophage RAW264.7</td>
			<td style="width:189px;">ATCC</td>
			<td style="width:163px;">TIB-71</td>
			<td></td>
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		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:420px;">Dulbecco&#39;s Modified Eagle&#39;s Medium (DMEM), high glucose</td>
			<td style="width:189px;">Gibco</td>
			<td style="width:163px;">11965092</td>
			<td></td>
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			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:420px;">Accutase</td>
			<td style="width:189px;">Promocell GmbH</td>
			<td>C-41310</td>
			<td></td>
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			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:420px;">Percoll</td>
			<td style="width:189px;">Sigma-Aldrich Chemie</td>
			<td>P1644</td>
			<td></td>
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			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:420px;">Histopaque 1119</td>
			<td style="width:189px;">Sigma-Aldrich Chemie</td>
			<td>11191</td>
			<td></td>
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		<tr height="19">
			<td height="19" style="height:19px;width:420px;">10x PBS</td>
			<td style="width:189px;">Life Technologies Europe bv</td>
			<td style="width:163px;">14200075</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
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			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:420px;">BD&#160;Vacutainer Plastic Blood Collection Tubes with Sodium Heparin</td>
			<td style="width:189px;">Becton Dickinson</td>
			<td style="width:163px;">367876</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:420px;">VACUETTE TUBE 9 ml 9NC Coagulation sodium citrate 3.2%&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:189px;">Greiner Bio</td>
			<td style="width:163px;">455322</td>
			<td></td>
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		<tr height="84">
			<td height="84" style="height:84px;width:420px;">HCl/EtOH mixture (1.2 mol/L HCl and 50% ethanol) in water</td>
			<td style="width:189px;">Sigma-Aldrich Chemie</td>
			<td style="width:163px;">Prepare by mixing 0.3L HCl (4 mol/L) with 0.7L of 70% v/v ethanol in a fume hood</td>
			<td></td>
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	</tbody>
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laminar flow-based assays to investigate leukocyte recruitment on cultured vascular cells and adherent platelets

The recruitment of leukocytes upon injury or inflammation to sites of injury or tissue damage has been investigated during recent decades and has resulted in the concept of the leukocyte adhesion cascade. However, the exact molecular mechanisms involved in leukocyte recruitment have not yet been fully identified. Since leukocyte recruitment remains an important subject in the field of infection, inflammation, and (auto-) immune research, we present a straightforward laminar flow-based assay to study underlying mechanisms of the adhesion, de-adhesion, and transmigration of leukocytes under venous and arterial flow regimes. The in vitro assay can be used to study the molecular mechanisms that underlie the interactions between leukocytes and their cellular partners in different models of vascular inflammation. This protocol describes a laminar flow-based assay using a parallel-flow chamber and an inverted phase contrast microscope connected to a camera to study the interactions of leukocytes and endothelial cells or platelets, which can be visualized and recorded then analyzed offline. Endothelial cells, platelets, or leukocytes can be pretreated with inhibitors or antibodies to determine the role of specific molecules during this process. Shear conditions, i.e. arterial or venous shear stress, can be easily adapted by the viscosity and flow rate of the perfused fluids and the height of the channel.

To study endothelial-leukocyte adhesion, fluorescently labeled THP-1 cells were perfused over a TNF&#945;- or non-stimulated endothelial monolayer for 2 min at 3 dyne/cm2. The total number of adherent monocytic cells was determined after 2 min of perfusion by capturing 6 independent fields over a period of 2-6 min. The adherent cells were quantified in at least 6 pictures captured with an inverted phase contrast/fluorescence microscope (e.g., EVOS-FL) using 10X magnifi...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Laminar Flow-based Assays to Investigate Leukocyte Recruitment on Cultured Vascular Cells and Adherent Platelets at JoVE.com

Laminar Flow-based Assays to Investigate Leukocyte Recruitment on Cultured Vascular Cells and Adherent Platelets

Leukocytes avidly interact with vascular cells and platelets after vessel wall injury or during inflammation. Here, we describe a straightforward laminar flow-based assay to characterize the molecular mechanisms that underlie the interactions between leukocytes and their cellular partners.

The recruitment of leukocytes upon injury or inflammation to sites of injury or tissue damage has been investigated during recent decades and has resulted ...

The overall goal of this experiment is to investigate the mechanisms behind the interactions of leukocytes to adherent vascular cells or platelets under flow conditions. This method can help answer key questions in the immunology field such as how leukocytes are recruited to sites of inflammation. The main advantage of this technique is that it's cost effective, user friendly, and allows the investigation of a great variety of experimental conditions.This method can provide insight into leukocyte adhesion. It can also be applied to other systems such as the adhesion of tumor cells to immobilized cells or substrates under flow conditions. Demonstrating the procedure will be Annemiek Dickhout, an engineer and a PhD student working in my laboratory.After obtaining blood samples, add 1/15th volume of acid citrate dextrose to the blood. Next, centrifuge the blood sample by setting the brakes off at 350 times g for 15 minutes to obtain platelet-rich plasma. Then transfer the supernatant obtained to a 15 milliliter conical tube and add 1/10th volume of acid citrate dextrose to it.Again, centrifuge the suspension by setting the brakes off at 1, 120 times g for 15 minutes to obtain platelet-poor plasma. Next, discard the supernatant. Next, carefully resuspend the platelet pellet in platelet buffer maintained at pH 6.6 using a Pasteur pipette with a wide bore.Then add 1/10th volume of acid citrate dextrose to it and gently mix it. Next, centrifuge the platelets at 1, 120 times g for 15 minutes to form the pellet. After the centrifugation is over, discard the supernatant and resuspend the platelets in one milliliter of platelet buffer maintained at pH 7.5.Then use an automated hematology analyzer to measure the platelet concentration in 1/10th dilution. Finally, adjust the cell count with platelet buffer maintained at pH 7.5. To secure the adherent platelets, immerse the glass coverslip in 1.2 molar 50%volume by volume of hydrochloric acid ethanol mixture.After immersing, wash the coverslip twice with ultrapure water. Then use nitrogen to dry the coverslip. Next, use 100 microliters of 30 micrograms per milliliter of rat collagen type one to pre-coat the glass coverslip.After coating the glass coverslip, incubate the coverslips at room temperature for 30 minutes. Then expel the collagen solution and wash the coverslip with phosphate buffered saline thrice. Next, use 1%bovine serum albumin in HEPES buffer to block the collagen coated coverslips for 30 minutes at room temperature.After 30 minutes, wash the coverslips and then dry them to mount in the perfusion chamber. After mounting the coverslips, keep the platelets ready. To immobilize the platelets, transfer 70 microliters of platelet suspension to a channel and incubate for 1-1/2 hours at 37 degrees Celsius and 5%carbon dioxide.Then replace the nonadherent platelets with blocking buffer for 30 minutes at room temperature. Use one micromolar of cell-permeant green fluorescence nucleic acid stain to fluorescently label the leukocytes. After labeling, incubate the leukocytes for 30 minutes at 37 degrees Celsius.Then centrifuge the cells at 300 times g for five minutes to pellet the cells. Resuspend in phosphate buffered saline to wash the cells. Then centrifuge the cells at 300 times g for five minutes.Based on the flow rate, suspend five milliliters of the cells in assay buffer. Then heat a water bath to maintain 37 degrees Celsius. Next, set aside a 50 milliliter perfusion syringe and install it on the syringe holder.Then set the pump on with draw mode with the pump volume at zero milliliter and diameter at 26.70 millimeter. Next, attach a Luer lock coupler to the syringe and connect the tubing with the elbow Luer connector to the Luer lock coupler. Then attach the free end of the tubing to the flow chamber.To adhere the leukocytes to the immobilized platelets, connect the microslide with the syringe. To perfuse the leukocytes and then adhere to a bed of vascular or platelet monolayer, attach a second tubing to a 50 milliliter conical tube containing the assay buffer and then fill the tubing using a one milliliter pipette. Once the tubing is filled, squeeze it and connect it to the flow chamber.Before perfusing the leukocytes, add three millimolar of calcium chloride and two millimolar of magnesium chloride to the cell suspension. Then incubate the cells at 37 degrees Celsius for five minutes. To remove possible air stuck in the chamber and in the tubing, perfuse with assay buffer before perfusing the cells.Next, squeeze the tubes to close the end and switch the tubing from the assay buffer to the cell suspension thereby preventing any trapped air bubbles within. For the first cells to arrive, perfuse the cells at appropriate flow rate and shear stress. Keep perfusing the cells, maintaining the flow rate and shear stress for two minutes.Then capture six images of the rolling and adherent cells between two to six minutes using a fluorescence microscope with 10X magnification connected to a digital camera. In this assay, adhesion of green fluorescently labeled THP1 cells with the endothelial cells was analyzed in the presence or absence of tumor necrosis vector alpha stimulation. The graph and the fluorescence images obtained show significant increase in THP1 cell arrest upon stimulating the endothelial cells with tumor necrosis vector alpha in comparison to the control.When recorded in time lapse, transendothelial migration of primary monocytes can be monitored over time. Next, adhesion of fluorescently labeled neutrophils with immobilized platelet monolayer in a flow chamber was analyzed in the presence or absence of TRAP-6 stimulation. The plot obtained shows a sharp increase in the adhesion of neutrophils to the TRAP-6 stimulated platelets in comparison to the control.Next, platelets were obtained from JAM-A deficient mice to study its adhesion with raw 264.7 mouse monocyte in the presence of surface receptor inhibitors. The graph and the fluorescence images obtained show significant decrease in the adhesion of the mouse monocytes with the platelets when compared to the control. Further, to study the adhesion of raw 264.7 cells with platelets, JAM-A positive and deficient mice were exposed to incremental increase of shear stress.From the graph, it's clear that the adhesion of raw 264.7 cells with platelets obtained from JAM-A deficient mice are more resistant to shear stress than JAM-A positive platelets. Once mastered, this technique can be done in one day if performed properly. While attempting this procedure, it is important to very gently wash your platelets during isolation so that your platelets do not become pre-activated or aggregated.It is also crucial to make sure that you don't have any air bubbles in your flow system because the system might get congested and to ensure a stable and even shear stress. Following this procedure, underlying mechanisms of leukocyte recruitment during vascular inflammation can be investigated.

laminar-flow-based-assays-to-investigate-leukocyte-recruitment-on

Research

JoVE Journal

Immunology and Infection

Imaging Leukocyte Adhesion to the Vascular Endothelium at High Intraluminal Pressure

Worldwide, hypertension is reported to be in approximately a quarter of the population and is the leading biomedical risk factor for mortality worldwide. In the vasculature hypertension is associated with endothelial dysfunction and increased inflammation leading to atherosclerosis and various disease states such as chronic kidney disease2, stroke3 and heart failure4. An initial step in vascular inflammation leading to atherogenesis is the adhesion cascade which involves the rolling, tethering, adherence and subsequent transmigration of leukocytes through the endothelium. Recruitment and accumulation of leukocytes to the endothelium is mediated by an upregulation of adhesion molecules such as vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 (VCAM-1), intracellular cell adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1) and E-selectin as well as increases in cytokine and chemokine release and an upregulation of reactive oxygen species5. In vitro methods such as static adhesion assays help to determine mechanisms involved in cell-to-cell adhesion as well as the analysis of cell adhesion molecules. Methods employed in previous in vitro studies have demonstrated that acute increases in pressure on the endothelium can lead to monocyte adhesion, an upregulation of adhesion molecules and inflammatory markers6 however, similar to many in vitro assays, these findings have not been performed in real time under physiological flow conditions, nor with whole blood. Therefore, in vivo assays are increasingly utilised in animal models to demonstrate vascular inflammation and plaque development. Intravital microscopy is now widely used to assess leukocyte adhesion, rolling, migration and transmigration7-9. When combining the effects of pressure on leukocyte to endothelial adhesion the in vivo studies are less extensive. One such study examines the real time effects of flow and shear on arterial growth and remodelling but inflammatory markers were only assessed via immunohistochemistry10. Here we present a model for recording leukocyte adhesion in real time in intact pressurised blood vessels using whole blood perfusion. The methodology is a modification of an ex vivo vessel chamber perfusion model9 which enables real-time analysis of leukocyte -endothelial adhesive interactions in intact vessels. Our modification enables the manipulation of the intraluminal pressure up to 200 mmHg allowing for study not only under physiological flow conditions but also pressure conditions. While pressure myography systems have been previously demonstrated to observe vessel wall and lumen diameter11 as well as vessel contraction this is the first time demonstrating leukocyte-endothelial interactions in real time. Here we demonstrate the technique using carotid arteries harvested from rats and cannulated to a custom-made flow chamber coupled to a fluorescent microscope. The vessel chamber is equipped with a large bottom coverglass allowing a large diameter objective lens with short working distance to image the vessel. Furthermore, selected agonist and/or antagonists can be utilized to further investigate the mechanisms controlling cell adhesion. Advantages of this method over intravital microscopy include no involvement of invasive surgery and therefore a higher throughput can be obtained. This method also enables the use of localised inhibitor treatment to the desired vessel whereas intravital only enables systemic inhibitor treatment.

This is a method to visualise leukocyte adhesion to the endothelium in harvested pressurised vessels. The technique enables studying vascular adhesion under shear flow with differing intraluminal pressures up to 200 mmHg thus mimic-ing the pathophysiological conditions of high blood pressure.

Worldwide, hypertension is reported to be in approximately a quarter of the population and is the leading biomedical risk factor for mortality worldwide. ...

The Insect Galleria mellonella as a Powerful Infection Model to Investigate Bacterial Pathogenesis

The study of bacterial virulence often requires a suitable animal model. Mammalian models of infection are costly and may raise ethical issues. The use of insects as infection models provides a valuable alternative. Compared to other non-vertebrate model hosts such as nematodes, insects have a relatively advanced system of antimicrobial defenses and are thus more likely to produce information relevant to the mammalian infection process. Like mammals, insects possess a complex innate immune system1. Cells in the hemolymph are capable of phagocytosing or encapsulating microbial invaders, and humoral responses include the inducible production of lysozyme and small antibacterial peptides2,3. In addition, analogies are found between the epithelial cells of insect larval midguts and intestinal cells of mammalian digestive systems. Finally, several basic components essential for the bacterial infection process such as cell adhesion, resistance to antimicrobial peptides, tissue degradation and adaptation to oxidative stress are likely to be important in both insects and mammals1. Thus, insects are polyvalent tools for the identification and characterization of microbial virulence factors involved in mammalian infections.
Larvae of the greater wax moth Galleria mellonella have been shown to provide a useful insight into the pathogenesis of a wide range of microbial infections including mammalian fungal (Fusarium oxysporum, Aspergillus fumigatus, Candida albicans) and bacterial pathogens, such as Staphylococcus aureus, Proteus vulgaris, Serratia marcescens Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Listeria monocytogenes or Enterococcus faecalis4-7. Regardless of the bacterial species, results obtained with Galleria larvae infected by direct injection through the cuticle consistently correlate with those of similar mammalian studies: bacterial strains that are attenuated in mammalian models demonstrate lower virulence in Galleria, and strains causing severe human infections are also highly virulent in the Galleria model8-11. Oral infection of Galleria is much less used and additional compounds, like specific toxins, are needed to reach mortality.
G. mellonella larvae present several technical advantages: they are relatively large (last instar larvae before pupation are about 2 cm long and weight 250 mg), thus enabling the injection of defined doses of bacteria; they can be reared at various temperatures (20 &deg;C to 30 &deg;C) and infection studies can be conducted between 15 &deg;C to above 37 &deg;C12,13, allowing experiments that mimic a mammalian environment. In addition, insect rearing is easy and relatively cheap. Infection of the larvae allows monitoring bacterial virulence by several means, including calculation of LD5014, measurement of bacterial survival15,16 and examination of the infection process17. Here, we describe the rearing of the insects, covering all life stages of G. mellonella. We provide a detailed protocol of infection by two routes of inoculation: oral and intra haemocoelic. The bacterial model used in this protocol is Bacillus cereus, a Gram positive pathogen implicated in gastrointestinal as well as in other severe local or systemic opportunistic infections18,19.

The Insect Galleria mellonella as a Powerful Infection Model to Investigate Bacterial Pathogenesis

Oral and intra haemocolic infection of larvae of the greater wax moth Galleria mellonella is described. This insect can be used to study virulence factors of entomopathogenic as well as mammalian opportunistic bacteria. Rearing of the insects, methods of infection and examples of in vivo analysis are described.

The study of bacterial virulence often requires a suitable animal model. Mammalian models of infection are costly and may raise ethical issues. The use of ...

A Flow Adhesion Assay to Study Leucocyte Recruitment to Human Hepatic Sinusoidal Endothelium Under Conditions of Shear Stress

Leucocyte infiltration into human liver tissue is a common process in all adult inflammatory liver diseases. Chronic infiltration can drive the development of fibrosis and progression to cirrhosis. Understanding the molecular mechanisms that mediate leucocyte recruitment to the liver could identify important therapeutic targets for liver disease. The key interaction during leucocyte recruitment is that of inflammatory cells with endothelium under conditions of shear stress. Recruitment to the liver occurs within the low shear channels of the hepatic sinusoids which are lined by hepatic sinusoidal endothelial cells (HSEC). The conditions within the hepatic sinusoids can be recapitulated by perfusing leucocytes through channels lined by human HSEC monolayers at specific flow rates. In these conditions leucocytes undergo a brief tethering step followed by activation and firm adhesion, followed by a crawling step and subsequent transmigration across the endothelial layer. Using phase contrast microscopy, each step of this &#39;adhesion cascade&#39; can be visualized and recorded followed by offline analysis. Endothelial cells or leucocytes can be pretreated with inhibitors to determine the role of specific molecules during this process.

Leucocyte recruitment to the liver occurs within the specialized channels of the hepatic sinusoids which are lined by unique hepatic sinusoidal endothelial cells. Phase contrast microscopy of leucocyte recruitment across human hepatic sinusoidal endothelium under conditions of physiological shear stress can facilitate the elucidation of the molecular mechanisms which underlie this process.

Leucocyte infiltration into human liver tissue is a common process in all adult inflammatory liver diseases. Chronic infiltration can drive the ...

Large-Scale Purification of Porcine or Bovine Photoreceptor Outer Segments for Phagocytosis Assays on Retinal Pigment Epithelial Cells

Analysis of one of the vital functions of retinal pigment epithelial (RPE) cells, the phagocytosis of spent aged distal fragments of photoreceptor outer segments (POS) can be performed in vitro. Photoreceptor outer segments with stacks of membranous discs containing the phototransduction machinery are continuously renewed in the retina. Spent POS are eliminated daily by RPE cells. Rodent, porcine/bovine and human RPE cells recognize POS from various species in a similar manner. To facilitate performing large series of experiments with little variability, a large stock of POS can be isolated from porcine eyes and stored frozen in aliquots. This protocol takes advantage of the characteristic of photopigments that display an orange color when kept in the dark. Under dim red light, retinae are collected in a buffer from opened eyecups cut in halves. The retinal cell suspension is homogenized, filtered and loaded onto a continuous sucrose gradient. After centrifugation, POS are located in a discrete band in the upper part of the gradient that has a characteristic orange color. POS are then collected, spun, resuspended sequentially in wash buffers, counted and aliquoted. POS obtained this way can be used for phagocytosis assays and analysis of protein activation, localization or interaction at various times after POS challenge. Alternatively, POS can be labeled with fluorophores, e.g., FITC, before aliquoting for subsequent fluorescence quantification of POS binding or engulfment. Other possible applications include the use of modified POS or POS challenge combined with stress conditions to study the effect of oxidative stress or aging on RPE cells.

This article describes the protocol for the purification of photoreceptor outer segment fragments (POS) via ultracentrifugation from porcine/bovine retinae using homogenization and sucrose gradient centrifugation. This protocol allows the preparation of large stocks of POS aliquots, labeled or unlabeled, that can then be stored at -80 &#176;C.

Analysis of one of the vital functions of retinal pigment epithelial (RPE) cells, the phagocytosis of spent aged distal fragments of photoreceptor outer ...

Analyzing the Effects of Stromal Cells on the Recruitment of Leukocytes from Flow

Stromal cells regulate the recruitment of circulating leukocytes during inflammation through cross-talk with neighboring endothelial cells. Here we describe two in vitro &#8220;vascular&#8221; models for studying the recruitment of circulating neutrophils from flow by inflamed endothelial cells. A major advantage of these models is the ability to analyze each step in the leukocyte adhesion cascade in order, as would occur in vivo. We also describe how both models can be adapted to study the role of stromal cells, in this case mesenchymal stem cells (MSC), in regulating leukocyte recruitment.
Primary endothelial cells were cultured alone or together with human MSC in direct contact on Ibidi microslides or on opposite sides of a Transwell filter for 24 hr. Cultures were stimulated with tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF&#945;) for 4 hr and incorporated into a flow-based adhesion assay. A bolus of neutrophils was perfused over the endothelium for 4 min. The capture of flowing neutrophils and their interactions with the endothelium was visualized by phase-contrast microscopy.
In both models, cytokine-stimulation increased endothelial recruitment of flowing neutrophils in a dose-dependent manner. Analysis of the behavior of recruited neutrophils showed a dose-dependent decrease in rolling and a dose-dependent increase in transmigration through the endothelium. In co-culture, MSC suppressed neutrophil adhesion to TNF&#945;-stimulated endothelium.
Our flow based-adhesion models mimic the initial phases of leukocyte recruitment from the circulation. In addition to leukocytes, they can be used to examine the recruitment of other cell types, such as therapeutically administered MSC or circulating tumor cells. Our multi-layered co-culture models have shown that MSC communicate with endothelium to modify their response to pro-inflammatory cytokines, altering the recruitment of neutrophils. Further research using such models is required to fully understand how stromal cells from different tissues and conditions (inflammatory disorders or cancer) influence the recruitment of leukocytes during inflammation.

The ability of inflamed endothelium to recruit leukocytes from flow is regulated by mesenchymal stromal cells. We describe two in vitro models incorporating primary human cells that can be used to assess neutrophil recruitment from flow and examine the role that mesenchymal stromal cells play in regulating this process.

Stromal cells regulate the recruitment of circulating leukocytes during inflammation through cross-talk with neighboring endothelial cells. Here we ...

In Vitro and In Vivo Model to Study Bacterial Adhesion to the Vessel Wall Under Flow Conditions

In order to cause endovascular infections and infective endocarditis, bacteria need to be able to adhere to the vessel wall while being exposed to the shear stress of flowing blood.
To identify the bacterial and host factors that contribute to vascular adhesion of microorganisms, appropriate models that study these interactions under physiological shear conditions are needed. Here, we describe an in vitro flow chamber model that allows to investigate bacterial adhesion to different components of the extracellular matrix or to endothelial cells, and an intravital microscopy model that was developed to directly visualize the initial adhesion of bacteria to the splanchnic circulation in vivo. These methods can be used to identify the bacterial and host factors required for the adhesion of bacteria under flow. We illustrate the relevance of shear stress and the role of von Willebrand factor for the adhesion of Staphylococcus aureus using both the in vitro and in vivo model.

In Vitro and In Vivo Model to Study Bacterial Adhesion to the Vessel Wall Under Flow Conditions

To study the interaction of bacteria with the blood vessels under shear stress, a flow chamber and an in vivo mesenteric intravital microscopy model are described that allow to dissect the bacterial and host factors contributing to vascular adhesion.

In order to cause endovascular infections and infective endocarditis, bacteria need to be able to adhere to the vessel wall while being exposed to the ...

Intravital Microscopy of Leukocyte-endothelial and Platelet-leukocyte Interactions in Mesenterial Veins in Mice

Intravital microscopy is a method that can be used to investigate different processes in different regions and vessels in living animals. In this protocol, we describe intravital microscopy of mesentery veins. This can be performed in a short period of time with reproducible results showing leukocyte-endothelial interactions in vivo. We describe an inflammatory setting after LPS challenge of the endothelium. But in this model one can apply many different types of inflammatory conditions, like bacterial, chemical or biological and investigate the administration of drugs and their direct effects on the living animal and its impact on leukocyte recruitment. This protocol has been applied successfully to a number of different treatments of mice and their effects on inflammatory response in vessels. Herein, we describe the visualization of leukocytes and platelets by fluorescently labeling these with rhodamine 6G. Additionally, any specific imaging can be performed using targeted fluorescently labeled molecules.

This simplified application of intravital microscopy of mesentery veins in mice can be used in different models of inflammation to observe leukocyte-endothelial and platelet-leukocyte interactions.

Intravital microscopy is a method that can be used to investigate different processes in different regions and vessels in living animals. In this ...

Retroviral Transduction of Helper T Cells as a Genetic Approach to Study Mechanisms Controlling their Differentiation and Function

Helper T cell development and function must be tightly regulated to induce an appropriate immune response that eliminates specific pathogens yet prevents autoimmunity. Many approaches involving different model organisms have been utilized to understand the mechanisms controlling helper T cell development and function. However, studies using mouse models have proven to be highly informative due to the availability of genetic, cellular, and biochemical systems. One genetic approach in mice used by many labs involves retroviral transduction of primary helper T cells. This is a powerful approach due to its relative ease, making it accessible to almost any laboratory with basic skills in molecular biology and immunology. Therefore, multiple genes in wild type or mutant forms can readily be tested for function in helper T cells to understand their importance and mechanisms of action. We have optimized this approach and describe here the protocols for production of high titer retroviruses, isolation of primary murine helper T cells, and their transduction by retroviruses and differentiation toward the different helper subsets. Finally, the use of this approach is described in uncovering mechanisms utilized by microRNAs (miRNAs) to regulate pathways controlling helper T cell development and function.

Many experimental systems have been utilized to understand the mechanisms regulating T cell development and function in an immune response. Here a genetic approach using retroviral transduction is described, which is economic, time efficient, and most importantly, highly informative in identifying regulatory pathways.

Helper T cell development and function must be tightly regulated to induce an appropriate immune response that eliminates specific pathogens yet prevents ...

Using Phylogenetic Analysis to Investigate Eukaryotic Gene Origin

Phylogenetic analysis uses nucleotide or amino acid sequences or other parameters, such as domain sequences and three-dimensional structure, to construct a tree to show the evolutionary relationship among different taxa (classification units) at the molecular level. Phylogenetic analysis can also be used to investigate domain relationships within an individual taxon, particularly for organisms that have undergone substantial change in morphology and physiology, but for which researchers lack fossil evidence due to the organisms&#39; long evolutionary history or scarcity of fossilization.
In this text, a detailed protocol is described for using the phylogenetic method, including amino acid sequence alignment using Clustal Omega, and subsequent phylogenetic tree construction using both Maximum Likelihood (ML) of Molecular Evolutionary Genetics Analysis (MEGA) and Bayesian Inference via MrBayes. To investigate the origin of eukaryotic Sugars Will Eventually be Exported Transporters (SWEET) genes, 228 SWEETs including 35 SWEET proteins from unicellular eukaryotes and 57 SemiSWEET proteins from prokaryotes were analyzed. Interestingly, SemiSWEETs were found in prokaryotes, but SWEETs were found in eukaryotes. Two phylogenetic trees constructed using theoretically distinct methods have consistently&#160;suggested that the first eukaryotic SWEET gene might stem from the fusion of a bacterial SemiSWEET gene and an archaeal SemiSWEET gene.&#160;It is worth noting that one should be cautious to draw a conclusion based only on phylogenetic analysis, although it is useful to explain the underlying relationship between different taxa, which is difficult or even impossible to discern through experimental means.

A method of constructing a phylogenetic tree based on sequence homology of SWEETs from eukaryotes and SemiSWEETs from prokaryotes is described. Phylogenetic analysis is a useful tool for explaining the evolutionary relatedness between homologous proteins or genes from different organism groups.

Phylogenetic analysis uses nucleotide or amino acid sequences or other parameters, such as domain sequences and three-dimensional structure, to construct ...

A Co-culture Method to Investigate the Crosstalk Between X-ray Irradiated Caco-2 Cells and PBMC

The protocol adopted in this work aims at unraveling how X-rays perturb the functioning of the intestinal barrier, focusing on the interplay between colorectal tumor cells and the immune system. Colorectal carcinoma is among the most common type of cancer, typically treated by surgery, chemotherapy, and radiotherapy. Advantages of radiotherapy in targeting the tumor are well known. However, even limited exposures of healthy tissues are of great concern, particularly regarding the effects on the intestinal barrier and the immune system. The adopted setup allows to study the interplay between two cell populations in a condition more similar to the physiological one, when compared to normal cell cultures. For this purpose, we resort to different techniques and we used an in vitro co-culture model, based on Caco-2 cells differentiated as a monolayer and PBMC, sharing the same culture medium. This protocol has been developed to focus on both macroscopic effects, i.e. cell viability and Trans-Epithelial Electrical Resistance (TEER), and, through western blot, molecular alterations, i.e. the activation of inflammatory pathway in immune cells and the tight junction protein expression in Caco-2 cells. Initial evaluation of radiation effects on Caco-2 cell viability was assessed via the 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) and Trypan blue assays, while TEER was measured at fixed time intervals through an ohmmeter specifically designed for co-culture systems. In this way, the effects due to radiation, the presence of Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cells (PBMC), and eventually their synergistic effect, can be demonstrated. Through these complementary techniques, we observed a high radio-resistance of Caco-2 within the range of 2 - 10 Gy of X-rays and an increased Caco-2 monolayer permeability when PBMCs were added. In particular, PBMC presence was found to be associated with the variation in the tight junction scaffold proteins expression.

We present a protocol to investigate the crosstalk between X-ray-irradiated Caco-2 and peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC). The protocol starts with Caco-2 irradiation and set-up of the co-culture with PBMC; subsequently, trans-epithelial electrical resistance is measured regularly over 48 h and western blot performed in both Caco-2 and PBMC.

The protocol adopted in this work aims at unraveling how X-rays perturb the functioning of the intestinal barrier, focusing on the interplay between ...