This research was funded by National and European Funds via the Portuguese Science and Technology Foundation (FCT), European Regional Development Fund (FEDER), and Programa Operacional Factores de Competitividade (COMPETE): 2020.09481.BD, UIDP/04539/2020 (CIBB), and POCI-01-0145-FEDER-007440. The authors would like to thank the support of iLAB - Microscopy and Bioimaging Lab, a facility of the Faculty of Medicine of the University of Coimbra and a member of the national infrastructure PPBI-Portuguese Platform of BioImaging (POCI-01-0145-FEDER-022122), as well as support from FSE CENTRO-04-3559-FSE-000142.

All animal procedures performed in this study were approved by the Coimbra Institute for Clinical and Biomedical Research (iCBR) Animal Welfare Body (ORBEA, #9/2018) and complied with the Animal Care National and European Directives and with the ARRIVE guidelines.
1. Experimental design
<ol>
	<li>Pair-house 13 week old male Wistar rats in ventilated cages under controlled environmental conditions of temperature (22 &#176;C &#177; 1 &#176;C), humidity (50%-60%), and light (12 h light-dark cycle) and with ad libitum access to tap water and standard rodent chow.</li>
	<li>After a 2 week period of acclimatization, arbitrarily assign the rats into two groups.</li>
	<li>Feed the control (CTRL, n = 6) and high-fat diet groups (HFD, n = 6) with standard chow and a high-fat diet (45% kcal/fat), respectively, for 24 weeks.</li>
	<li>Monitor the body weight (BW) weekly. Record the food and beverage consumption daily per cage.</li>
</ol>
2. Liver sample preparation
<ol>
	<li>Liver dissection
	<ol>
		<li>Prepare the peristaltic pump: Run 70% ethanol through the tubing, connect a 27 G needle to the outlet end of the tubing, and prime the tubing with ice-cold (4 &#176;C) 1x phosphate-buffered saline (PBS, pH ~7.4 ) (e.g., 200 rpm on a peristaltic pump with 1.6 mm I.D. silicon tubing, IV mini drip set). Adjust for the body weight (e.g., for a 100-150 g rat, use a flow rate of approximately 10-12 mL/min).</li>
		<li>Anesthetize the rat by an intraperitoneal injection using an anesthesia protocol (the final concentration of ketamine = 75 mg/kg, and the final concentration of medetomidine = 1 mg/kg). 
		NOTE: Make sure the rat is completely anesthetized using the toe pinch response method.</li>
		<li>Place the rat on the dissection tray.</li>
		<li>Sanitize the fur thoroughly with 70% ethanol, and dry it with a paper towel.</li>
		<li>Using scissors, make a &#34;U&#34;-shaped incision through the skin, and cut open below the diaphragm. Then, cut the rib cage rostrally on the edges to expose the heart.</li>
		<li>While the 1x PBS is running, pass the needle through the left ventricle into the ascending aorta, and clamp. Then, the right atrium is cut to allow drainage once the perfusion has begun. 
		NOTE: The liver should begin to blanch as blood is replaced with PBS.</li>
		<li>Using scissors and Dumont forceps, remove the liver carefully, and rinse with 1x PBS.</li>
		<li>Transfer the liver onto a Petri dish, and weigh it.</li>
		<li>Using a scalpel, collect hepatic tissue samples of 5 mm in thickness from the lateral side (1 cm from the edge) of the left lobe of the liver for the embedding process. 
		NOTE The remaining tissue can be stored at &#8722;80 &#176;C for long-term storage.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Liver tissue embedding
	<ol>
		<li>Prepare a dry ice container, and properly label cryomolds with the sample ID and orientation.</li>
		<li>Place a few drops of cryo embedding matrix onto the center of the cryomold to make the optimal cutting temperature (OCT).</li>
		<li>Ensure the tissue sample is properly oriented for a transverse section. 
		NOTE: Make sure that the side touching the bottom of the cryomold is the side that will be sectioned first.</li>
		<li>Carefully drop more OCT onto the cryomold until it is completely covered. Try to avoid the formation of air bubbles. If necessary, with plain forceps, remove any bubbles inside the OCT.</li>
		<li>Rapidly place the cryomold with the OCT-covered sample in a dry ice container. 
		&#8203;NOTE: The tissues can be stored at &#8722;80 &#176;C for 3 years.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
3. Frozen tissue sectioning
<ol>
	<li>Adjust the cryostat temperature (chamber: &#8722;21 &#176;C; specimen: &#8722;18 &#176;C), and insert a new sterile blade.</li>
	<li>Place the samples in the cryostat for 30 min before allowing the temperature to equilibrate.</li>
	<li>Make a single layer of OCT on the specimen disc to allow sample adhesion. Allow the OCT to freeze, and mount the tissue sample in the desired orientation. 
	NOTE: The cutting surface should be parallel to the blade. To maintain good adhesion, place the heat extractor on the top of the sample. The previous steps can also be performed in a dry ice container with dry ice.</li>
	<li>Place the sample in the specimen head, and trim the surface of the tissue (a few 30 &#181;m tissue sample sections).</li>
	<li>Once the region of interest is accessible for sectioning, cut 12 &#181;m thick sections, and place them onto labeled microscope slides kept at room temperature (RT). 
	NOTE: To collect the section, slowly move the slide toward the tissue section. Each slide can collect two liver sections.</li>
	<li>Allow the slides to dry for 10 min at RT. 
	&#8203;NOTE: The slides can be stored at &#8722;20 &#176;C for 6-12 months or at &#8722;80 &#176;C for up to 3 years.</li>
</ol>
4. BODIPY staining
<ol>
	<li>Thaw the slides in a slide staining system at RT for 30 min.</li>
	<li>Wash with 1x PBS (3x for 5 min each).</li>
	<li>Circle the section with a hydrophobic layer using a barrier pen.</li>
	<li>Prepare 500 &#181;g/mL BODIPY 493/503&#160;stock solution: Dissolve 1 mg of BODIPY 493/503in 2 mL of solvent (90% DMSO; 10% 1x PBS). Protect from light. Sonicate in an ultrasonic bath for 1 h (9.5-10 W) at 37 &#176;C. 
	NOTE: The solution can be stored at &#8722;20 &#176;C for at least 30 days.</li>
	<li>Prepare the BODIPY staining solution (1 &#181;g/mL) by adding 2 &#181;L of BODIPY 493/503 stock solution and 0.1 &#181;L of DAPI stock solution (5 mg/mL) to 997.9 &#181;L of 1x PBS.</li>
	<li>Incubate the slides (75 &#181;L/slide) with BODIPY 493/503 (1 &#181;g/mL) and DAPI (0.1 &#181;g/mL) at RT for 40 min. 
	NOTE: Keep the slides in the dark from this step onward.</li>
	<li>Wash the slides with 1x PBS (3x for 5 min each).</li>
	<li>Mount the slides with coverslips using a fluorescence mounting medium, allow them to dry for 30 min, and seal them with nail polish. 
	&#8203;NOTE: The slides can be stored at 4 &#176;C until imaging.</li>
</ol>
5. Lipid quantification
<ol>
	<li>Measure the serum total cholesterol and TG levels using an automatic, validated method and equipment.</li>
	<li>Measure the hepatic TG levels using a triglycerides colorimetric assay kit (Table of Materials) according to the manufacturer&#39;s protocol.</li>
</ol>
6. Image acquisition
<ol>
	<li>Place the slide on the laser scanning confocal microscope slide holder.</li>
	<li>For image visualization and acquisition, use a confocal microscope with a 20x objective lens (plan-apochromat: 20x/0.8).</li>
	<li>To avoid cross-talk between the BODIPY 493/503 and DAPI, use the sequential (best signal) scan mode on the confocal software.</li>
	<li>Excite the BODIPY 593/503 using the 488 nm argon laser line and the DAPI using the 405 nm laser line. Set the emission ranges at 493-589 nm for BODIPY 493/503 and at 410-464 nm for DAPI.</li>
	<li>Use the following settings: pinhole: 1 AU, resolution: 1,024 pixels x 1,024 pixels, bit depth: 12, pixel size: 0.415 &#181;m, bidirectional mode, scan speed: 7 (~1.58 &#181;s/pixel for a 20x objective), line averaging: 2x, and digital zoom: 1. 
	NOTE: The abovementioned scanning parameters must be optimized for each confocal microscope and objective used.</li>
	<li>Set the gain and digital gain appropriately so that no saturated pixels are detected on the range indicator. 
	NOTE: Correct the background signal by adjusting the offset.</li>
	<li>Once the LDs are correctly identified, acquire the image with the BODIPY and DAPI channels. 
	NOTE: All the pictures must be acquired in the same conditions (exposure and general settings) for each color channel.</li>
	<li>To create wide-area images (Figure 2), change the objective to a10x objective lens (plan-neofluar: 10x/0.3).</li>
	<li>Select Tile Scan mode, and make mosaics of 5 per 5 images. 
	NOTE: In this work, each tile had an overlap of 10% in order to appropriately merge the tiles for analysis.</li>
	<li>To create 3D and orthogonal views (Figure 3A), place a drop of immersion oil on the top of the cover glass, and change the objective to a 40x objective lens (plan-neofluar: 40x/1.30 oil).</li>
	<li>Select Z-Stack mode, and by adjusting the Z plane, define the first and last positions for acquisition with an optical slice at an optimal thickness (~0.5 &#181;m) to ensure that all the droplets are captured. 
	NOTE: To speed up the image acquisition and avoid bleaching, the optical slice can be adjusted to a suboptimal size, ensuring at least 30% oversampling for a good 3D reconstruction.</li>
	<li>Select the Ortho module, and create orthogonal views.</li>
	<li>Acquire 3D images by selecting the 3D module following Transparency Rendering Mode with the confocal microscope software.</li>
</ol>
7. Analysis of images
<ol>
	<li>Process and analyze the single-plane images (20x magnification) with CellProfiler (version 4.2.5). 
	NOTE: The pipeline used in this work was adapted from Adomshick et al.45.</li>
	<li>Click on the Images module in the top-left corner of the CellProfiler window, and upload the images as .tiff files.</li>
	<li>Use the NamesAndTypes module to sort between BODIPY- (droplet) and DAPI- (nuclei) stained images based on the file names. Perform the LD analysis only with BODIPY-stained images.</li>
	<li>To start the pipeline constrution, click on Adjust Modules, and select the module ColorToGray to convert the images to grayscale images. 
	NOTE: To identify objects, grayscale images are required.</li>
	<li>Identify droplets by employing the IdentifyPrimaryObjects module using the grayscale image. 
	NOTE: The parameters in this module must be adjusted to accomplish good LD identification. In this work, defining LDs with a size between 6 pixels and 300 pixels and a threshold correction factor of 1.0 led to the most accurate identification.</li>
	<li>To measure the pixel intensity of the identified lipid droplets, add a MeasureObjectIntensity module.</li>
	<li>Add an additional FilterObjects module to ensure that only the strongest signals are quantified while less intense signals are excluded from the final lipid droplet analysis (minimum intensity: 0.15; maximum intensity:1 arbitrary unit).</li>
	<li>To measure the LDs related to the output data, add the MeasureObjectSizeShape module.</li>
	<li>Add an OverlayOutlines module at this point to overlay the identified droplet on the original image and, thus, ensure that the segmentation looks accurate on the unprocessed image as well. 
	NOTE: This is an optional (quality control) step.</li>
	<li>Add an ExportToSpreadsheet module at the end, and click on the Analyze Images button at the bottom-left corner.</li>
</ol>
8. Statistical analysis
<ol>
	<li>Express the results as mean &#177; standard error of the mean (S.E.M.) using any statistical analysis software application. 
	NOTE: In this study, GraphPad software was used for statistical analysis.</li>
	<li>Analyze the distribution of values using the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test to assess significant deviations from normality. Analyze the parametric data using the Student&#39;s unpaired t-test. 
	NOTE: Values of p &#60; 0.05 were considered statistically significant.</li>
</ol>

Assessing Hepatic Steatosis with 3D Fluorescence Lipid Droplet Reconstruction

The authors have nothing to disclose.

This BODIPY 493/503 fluorescence-based protocol for LD assessment aimed to develop a new imaging approach for the evaluation of hepatic steatosis. Given the strong correlation between obesity and fatty liver disease, the Western-style high-fat diet was used to establish an animal model of hepatic steatosis26. A robust increase in hepatic TG contents was confirmed by a quantitative triglycerides colorimetric assay kit, which suggested a heightened hepatic lipidosis scenario in the HFD-fed animals. ...

Lipid droplets (LDs), classically viewed as energy depots, are specialized cellular organelles that mediate lipid storage, and they comprise a hydrophobic neutral lipid core, which mainly contains cholesterol esters and triglycerides (TGs), encapsulated by a phospholipid monolayer1,2,3.
LD biogenesis occurs in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), starting with the synthesis of triacylglycerol (TAG) and sterol esters. Neutral lipids are diffused between the leaflets of the ER bilayer at low concentrations but coalesce into oil lenses that grow and bud into nearly spherical droplets from ER membrane when their intracellular concentration increases4. Subsequently, proteins from the ER bilayer and cytosol, particularly the perilipin (PLIN) protein family, translocate to the surfaces of the LDs to facilitate budding5,6,7,8,9.
Through new fatty acid synthesis and LD fusion or coalescence, LDs grow into different sizes. Accordingly, the size and number of LDs differ considerably across different cell types. Small droplets (300-800 nm diameter), which are known as initial LDs (iLDs), can be formed by nearly all cells4. Later in LD formation, most cells are able to convert some iLDs into larger ones-expanding LDs (eLDs &#62;1 &#181;m in diameter). Yet, just specific cell types, such as adipocytes and hepatocytes, have the capacity to form giant or supersized LDs (up to tens of microns in diameter)4,10.
LDs play a very important role in the regulation of cellular lipid metabolism, suppressing lipotoxicity, and preventing ER stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, and, ultimately, cell death caused by free fatty acids (FAs)11,12,13,14. Furthermore, LDs have also been implicated in the regulation of gene expression, viral replication protein sequestration, and membrane trafficking and signaling15,16,17. Therefore, the misregulation of LD biogenesis is a hallmark of chronic diseases associated with metabolic syndrome, obesity, type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), and/or arteriosclerosis, to name just a few18,19,20.
The liver, as a metabolic hub, is mostly responsible for lipid metabolism by storing and processing lipids, and, therefore, it is constantly threatened by lipotoxicity21. Hepatic steatosis (HS) is a common feature of a series of progressive liver diseases and is characterized by excessive intracellular lipid accumulation in the form of cytosolic LDs that, ultimately, may lead to liver metabolic dysfunction, inflammation, and advanced forms of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease22,23,24,25. HS occurs when the rate of fatty acid oxidation and export as triglycerides within very low-density lipoproteins (VLDLs) is lower than the rate of hepatic fatty acid uptake from the plasma and de novo fatty acid synthesis26. The hepatic accumulation of lipids often occurs in two forms-microvesicular and macrovesicular steatosis-and these display distinct cytoarchitectonic characteristics27. Typically, microvesicular steatosis is characterized by the presence of small LDs dispersed throughout the hepatocyte with the nucleus placed centrally, whereas macrovesicular steatosis is characterized by the presence of a single large LD that occupies the greater part of the hepatocyte, pushing the nucleus to the periphery28,29. Notably, these two types of steatosis are often found together, and it remains unclear how these two LD patterns influence disease pathogenesis, as evidence is still inconsistent31,32,33,34. Yet, such type of analysis is often employed as a &#34;reference standard&#34; in preclinical and clinical studies to understand the dynamic behavior of LDs and characterize hepatic steatosis29,34,35,36.
Liver biopsies, the gold standard for diagnosing and grading HS, are routinely assessed by histological hematoxylin and eosin (H&#38;E) analysis, where lipid droplets are evaluated as unstained vacuoles in H&#38;E-stained liver sections37. While acceptable for macrovesicular steatosis evaluation, this type of staining generally narrows the assessment of microvesicular steatosis38. Lipid-soluble diazo dyes, such as Oil Red O (ORO), are classically combined with brightfield microscopy to analyze intracellular lipid stores, but these still have a number of disadvantages: (i) the usage of ethanol or isopropanol in the staining process, which often causes the disruption of the native LDs and occasional fusion despite the cells being fixed39; (ii) the time-consuming nature, as ORO solution requires fresh powder dissolving and filtering due to the limited shelf life, thus contributing to less consistent results; (iii) and the fact that ORO stains more than just lipid droplets and often overestimates hepatic steatosis38.
Consequently, cell-permeable lipophilic fluorophores, such as Nile Red, have been used in either live or fixed samples to overcome some of the aforementioned limitations. However, the non-specific nature of cellular lipid organelle labeling repeatedly narrows LD assessments40. Moreover, the spectral properties of Nile Red vary according to the polarity of the environment, which can often lead to spectral shifts41.
The lipophilic fluorescent probe 1,3,5,7,8-pentamethyl-4-bora-3a,4adiaza-s-indacene (excitation wavelength: 480 nm; emission maximum: 515 nm; BODIPY 493/503) exhibits hydrophobicity characteristics that allow its rapid uptake by intracellular LDs, accumulates in the lipid droplet core, and, subsequently, emits bright green fluorescence12. Unlike Nile Red, BODIPY 493/503 is insensitive to the environment polarity and has been shown to be more selective, as it displays high brightness for LD imaging. In order to stain neutral LDs, this dye can be used in live or fixed cells and successfully coupled with other staining and/or labeling methods42. Another advantage of the dye is that it requires little effort to place into a solution and is stable, thus eliminating the need to freshly prepare it for each experiment42. Even though the BODIPY 493/503 probe has been successfully employed to visualize the localization and dynamics of LDs in cell cultures, some reports have also demonstrated the reliable use of this dye as an LD imaging tool in tissues including the human vastus lateralis muscle43, the rat soleus muscle42, and the mouse intestine44.
Herein, we propose an optimized BODIPY 493/503-based protocol as an alternative analytical approach for the evaluation of the LD number, area, and diameter in liver specimens from an animal model of hepatic steatosis. This procedure covers liver sample preparation, tissue sectioning, staining conditions, image acquisition, and data analysis.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>1.6 mm I.D. silicone tubing, I.V mini drip set</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>4,4-difluoro-1,3,5,7,8-pentametil-4-bora-3a,4a-diaza-s-indaceno (BODIPY 493/503)</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich, Lyon, France</td>
			<td>D3922</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>4&#39;,6-diamidino-2-phenylindole (DAPI)</td>
			<td>Molecular Probes Inc, Invitrogen, Eugene, OR</td>
			<td>D1306</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>70% ethanol</td>
			<td>Honeywell</td>
			<td>10191455</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Adobe Illustrator CC</td>
			<td>Adobe Inc.</td>
			<td>Used to design the figures</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Automatic analyzer Hitachi 717</td>
			<td>Roche Diagnostics Inc., Mannheim, Germany</td>
			<td>8177-30-0010</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Barrier pen (Liquid blocker super pap pen)</td>
			<td>Daido Sangyo Co., Ltd, Japon</td>
			<td>_</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Blade</td>
			<td>Leica</td>
			<td>221052145</td>
			<td>Used in the cryostat</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cell Profiler version 4.2.5</td>
			<td>https://cellprofiler.org/releases/</td>
			<td>Used to analyse the acquired images</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Coverslips</td>
			<td>Menzel-Glaser, Germany</td>
			<td>_</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cryomolds</td>
			<td>Tissue-Tek</td>
			<td>_</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cryostat (including specimen disc and heat extractor) CM3050 S</td>
			<td>Leica Biosystems</td>
			<td>_</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dimethyl Sulfoxide (DMSO)</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich, Lyon, France</td>
			<td>D-8418</td>
			<td>Used to dissolve Bodipy for the 5 mg/mL stock solution. CAUTION: Toxic 
			and flammable. Vapors may cause 
			irritation. Manipulate in a fume 
			hood. Avoid direct contact with skin. 
			Wear rubber gloves, protective eye 
			goggles.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dry ice container (styrofoam cooler)</td>
			<td>Novolab</td>
			<td>A26742</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dumont forceps</td>
			<td>Fine Science Tools, Germany</td>
			<td>11295-10</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glass Petri dish (H 25 mm, &#248; 
			150 mm)</td>
			<td>Thermo Scientific</td>
			<td>150318</td>
			<td>Used to weigh the liver after dissection</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glycergel</td>
			<td>DAKO Omnis</td>
			<td>S303023</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>GraphPad Prism software, version 9.3.1</td>
			<td>GraphPad Software, Inc., La Jolla, CA, USA</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>High-fat diet</td>
			<td>Envigo, Barcelona, Spain</td>
			<td>MD.08811</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ketamine (Nimatek&#160; 100 mg/mL)</td>
			<td>Dechra</td>
			<td>791/01/14DFVPT</td>
			<td>Used at a final concentration of 75 mg/kg</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Laser scanning confocal microscope&#160; (QUASAR detection unit; )</td>
			<td>Carl Zeiss, germany</td>
			<td>LSM 710 Axio Observer Z1 microscope</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Medetomidine (Sedator 1 mg/mL)</td>
			<td>Dechra</td>
			<td>1838 ESP / 020/01/07RFVPT</td>
			<td>Used at a final concentration of 1 mg/kg</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Needle</td>
			<td>BD microlance</td>
			<td>300635</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>No 15 Sterile carbon steel scalpel 
			Blade</td>
			<td>Swann-Morton</td>
			<td>205</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Objectives 10x (Plan-Neofluar 10x/0.3), 20x (Plan-Apochromat 20x/0.8) and 40x (Plan-Neofluar 40x/1.30 Oil)</td>
			<td>&#160;Carl Zeiss, Germany</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Paint brushes</td>
			<td>Van Bleiswijck Amazon B07W7KJQ2X</td>
			<td>&#160;Used to handle cryosections</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Peristaltic pump (Minipuls 3)</td>
			<td>Gilson</td>
			<td>1004170</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Phosphate-buffered saline (PBS, pH ~ 7.4)</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich, Lyon, France</td>
			<td>P3813</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Scalpel handle, 125 mm (5&#34;), No. 3</td>
			<td>Swann-Morton</td>
			<td>0208</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Slide staining system StainTray</td>
			<td>Simport Scientific</td>
			<td>M920</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Standard diet</td>
			<td>&#160;Mucedola</td>
			<td>4RF21</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Superfrost Plus microscope slides</td>
			<td>Menzel-Glaser, Germany</td>
			<td>J1800AMNZ</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tissue-Tek OCT mounting media</td>
			<td>VWR CHEMICALS</td>
			<td>361603E</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Triglycerides colorimetric assay kit</td>
			<td>Cayman Chemical</td>
			<td>10010303</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ultrasonic bath</td>
			<td>Bandelin Sonorex</td>
			<td>&#160;TK 52</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Vannas spring scissors - 3 mm 
			cutting edge</td>
			<td>Fine Science Tools, Germany</td>
			<td>15000-00</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ZEN Black software</td>
			<td>Zeiss</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

analysis of fluorescent-stained lipid droplets with 3d reconstruction for hepatic steatosis assessment

Lipid droplets (LDs) are specialized organelles that mediate lipid storage and play a very important role in suppressing lipotoxicity and preventing dysfunction caused by free fatty acids (FAs). The liver, given its critical role in the body's fat metabolism, is persistently threatened by the intracellular accumulation of LDs in the form of both microvesicular and macrovesicular hepatic steatosis. The histologic characterization of LDs is typically based on lipid-soluble diazo dyes, such as Oil Red O (ORO) staining, but a number of disadvantages consistently hamper the use of this analysis with liver specimens. More recently, lipophilic fluorophores 493/503 have become popular for visualizing and locating LDs due to their rapid uptake and accumulation into the neutral lipid droplet core. Even though most applications are well-described in cell cultures, there is less evidence demonstrating the reliable use of lipophilic fluorophore probes as an LD imaging tool in tissue samples. Herein, we propose an optimized boron dipyrromethene (BODIPY) 493/503-based protocol for the evaluation of LDs in liver specimens from an animal model of high-fat diet (HFD)-induced hepatic steatosis. This protocol covers liver sample preparation, tissue sectioning, BODIPY 493/503 staining, image acquisition, and data analysis. We demonstrate an increased number, intensity, area ratio, and diameter of hepatic LDs upon HFD feeding. Using orthogonal projections and 3D reconstructions, it was possible to observe the full content of neutral lipids in the LD core, which appeared as nearly spherical droplets. Moreover, with the fluorophore BODIPY 493/503, we were able to distinguish microvesicles (1 &#181;m &lt; d &#8804; 3 &#181;m), intermediate vesicles (3 &#181;m &lt; d &#8804; 9 &#181;m), and macrovesicles (d &gt; 9 &#181;m), allowing the successful discrimination of microvesicular and macrovesicular steatosis. Overall, this BODIPY 493/503 fluorescence-based protocol is a reliable and simple tool for hepatic LD characterization and may represent a complementary approach to the classical histological protocols.

The successful execution of this technique should result in clear lipid droplet staining for the simultaneous characterization of the LD morphology (shape and lipid core density based on the 3D reconstruction) along with their spatial distribution, number per total area, and average size (assessed with the pipeline above described, Figure 1).
<img alt="Figure 1" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/65206/65206fig01.jpg"...

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Author Spotlight: Analysis of Fluorescent-Stained Lipid Droplets with 3D Reconstruction for Hepatic Steatosis Assessment  

Herein, we demonstrate an optimized BODIPY 493/503 fluorescence-based protocol for lipid droplet characterization in liver tissue. Through the use of orthogonal projections and 3D reconstructions, the fluorophore allows for successful discrimination between microvesicular and macrovesicular steatosis and may represent a complementary approach to the classical histological protocols for hepatic steatosis assessment.

Analysis of Fluorescent-Stained Lipid Droplets with 3D Reconstruction for Hepatic Steatosis Assessment

Lipid droplets (LDs) are specialized organelles that mediate lipid storage and play a very important role in suppressing lipotoxicity and preventing ...

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Research

JoVE Journal

Biochemistry

5.7K Views.  University of Coimbra. Herein, we demonstrate an optimized BODIPY 493/503 fluorescence-based protocol for lipid droplet characterization in liver tissue. Through the use of orthogonal projections and 3D reconstructions, the fluorophore allows for successful discrimination between microvesicular and macrovesicular steatosis and may represent a complementary approach to the classical histological protocols for hepatic steatosis assessment.

Video: Author Spotlight: Analysis of Fluorescent-Stained Lipid Droplets with 3D Reconstruction for Hepatic Steatosis Assessment  

Using Scaffold Liposomes to Reconstitute Lipid-proximal Protein-protein Interactions In Vitro

Studies of integral membrane proteins in vitro are frequently complicated by the presence of a hydrophobic transmembrane domain. Further complicating these studies, reincorporation of detergent-solubilized membrane proteins into liposomes is a stochastic process where protein topology is impossible to enforce. This paper offers an alternative method to these challenging techniques that utilizes a liposome-based scaffold. Protein solubility is enhanced by deletion of the transmembrane domain, and these amino acids are replaced with a tethering moiety, such as a His-tag. This tether interacts with an anchoring group (Ni2+ coordinated by nitrilotriacetic acid (NTA(Ni2+)) for His-tagged proteins), which enforces a uniform protein topology at the surface of the liposome. An example is presented wherein the interaction between Dynamin-related protein 1 (Drp1) with an integral membrane protein, Mitochondrial Fission Factor (Mff), was investigated using this scaffold liposome method. In this work, we have demonstrated the ability of Mff to efficiently recruit soluble Drp1 to the surface of liposomes, which stimulated its GTPase activity. Moreover, Drp1 was able to tubulate the Mff-decorated lipid template in the presence of specific lipids. This example demonstrates the effectiveness of scaffold liposomes using structural and functional assays and highlights the role of Mff in regulating Drp1 activity.

Using Scaffold Liposomes to Reconstitute Lipid-proximal Protein-protein Interactions In Vitro

This paper describes a method for assessing the interactions and assemblies of integral membrane proteins in vitro with various partner factors in a lipid-proximal environment.

Studies of integral membrane proteins in vitro are frequently complicated by the presence of a hydrophobic transmembrane domain. Further complicating ...

Lipid Droplet Isolation for Quantitative Mass Spectrometry Analysis

Lipid droplets are vital to the replication of a variety of different pathogens, most prominently the Hepatitis C Virus (HCV), as the putative site of virion morphogenesis. Quantitative lipid droplet proteome analysis can be used to identify proteins that localize to or are displaced from lipid droplets under conditions such as virus infections. Here, we describe a protocol that has been successfully used to characterize the changes in the lipid droplet proteome following infection with HCV. We use Stable Isotope Labeling with Amino Acids in Cell Culture (SILAC) and thus label the complete proteome of one population of cells with &#34;heavy&#34; amino acids to quantitate the proteins by mass spectrometry. For lipid droplet isolation, the two cell populations (i.e.&#160;HCV-infected/&#34;light&#34; amino acids and uninfected control/&#34;heavy&#34; amino acids) are mixed 1:1 and lysed mechanically in hypotonic buffer. After removing the nuclei and cell debris by low speed centrifugation, lipid droplet-associated proteins are enriched by two subsequent ultracentrifugation steps followed by three washing steps in isotonic buffer. The purity of the lipid droplet fractions is analyzed by western blotting with antibodies recognizing different subcellular compartments. Lipid droplet-associated proteins are then separated by SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) followed by Coomassie staining. After tryptic digest, the peptides are quantified by liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-ESI-MS/MS). Using this method, we identified proteins recruited to lipid droplets upon HCV infection that might represent pro- or antiviral host factors. Our method can be applied to a variety of different cells and culture conditions, such as infection with pathogens, environmental stress, or drug treatment.

Lipid droplets are important organelles for the replication of several pathogens, including the Hepatitis C Virus (HCV). We describe a method to isolate lipid droplets for quantitative mass spectrometry of associated proteins; it can be used under a variety of conditions, such as virus infection, environmental stress, or drug treatment.

Lipid droplets are vital to the replication of a variety of different pathogens, most prominently the Hepatitis C Virus (HCV), as the putative site of ...

Analysis of Histone Antibody Specificity with Peptide Microarrays

Post-translational modifications (PTMs) on histone proteins are widely studied for their roles in regulating chromatin structure and gene expression. The mass production and distribution of antibodies specific to histone PTMs has greatly facilitated research on these marks. As histone PTM antibodies are key reagents for many chromatin biochemistry applications, rigorous analysis of antibody specificity is necessary for accurate data interpretation and continued progress in the field. This protocol describes an integrated pipeline for the design, fabrication and use of peptide microarrays for profiling the specificity of histone antibodies. The design and analysis aspects of this procedure are facilitated by ArrayNinja, an open-source and interactive software package we recently developed to streamline the customization of microarray print formats. This pipeline has been used to screen a large number of commercially available and widely used histone PTM antibodies, and data generated from these experiments are freely available through an online and expanding Histone Antibody Specificity Database. Beyond histones, the general methodology described herein can be applied broadly to the analysis of PTM-specific antibodies.

This manuscript describes methods for applying peptide microarray technology to specificity profiling of antibodies that recognize histones and their post-translational modifications.

Post-translational modifications (PTMs) on histone proteins are widely studied for their roles in regulating chromatin structure and gene expression. The ...

A11-positive &#946;-amyloid Oligomer Preparation and Assessment Using Dot Blotting Analysis

&#946;-amyloid (A&#946;) is a hydrophobic peptide with an intrinsic tendency to self-assemble into aggregates. Among various aggregates, A&#946; oligomer is widely accepted as the leading neurotoxin in the progress of Alzheimer&#39;s disease (AD) and is considered to be the crucial event in the pathogenesis of AD. Therefore, A&#946; oligomer inhibitors might prevent neurodegeneration and have the potential to be developed as disease-modifying treatments of AD. However, different formation protocols of A&#946; oligomer might lead to oligomers with different characteristics. Moreover, there are not many methods to effectively screen A&#946;1-42 oligomer inhibitors. An A11 antibody can react with a subset of toxic A&#946;1-42 oligomer with anti-parallel &#946;-sheet structures. In this protocol, we describe how to prepare an A11-positive A&#946;1-42 oligomer-rich sample from a synthetic A&#946;1-42 peptide in vitro and to evaluate relative amounts of A11-positive A&#946;1-42 oligomer in samples by a dot blotting analysis using A11 and A&#946;1-42-specific 6E10 antibodies. Using this protocol, inhibitors of A11-positive A&#946;1-42 oligomer can also be screened from semi-quantitative experimental results.

This protocol describes how to prepare A&#946; oligomers from a synthetic peptide in vitro and to evaluate relative amounts of A&#946; oligomer by a dot blotting analysis.

&#946;-amyloid (A&#946;) is a hydrophobic peptide with an intrinsic tendency to self-assemble into aggregates. Among various aggregates, A&#946; oligomer ...

Fluorescent Silver Staining of Proteins in Polyacrylamide Gels

Silver staining is a colorimetric technique widely used to visualize protein bands in polyacrylamide gels following sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE). The classic silver stains have certain drawbacks, such as high background staining, poor protein recovery, low reproducibility, a narrow linear dynamic range for quantification, and limited compatibility with mass spectrometry (MS). Now, with the use of a fluorogenic Ag+ probe, TPE-4TA, we developed a fluorescent silver staining method for the total protein visualization in polyacrylamide gels. This new stain avoids the troublesome silver reduction step in traditional silver stains. Moreover, the fluorescent silver stain demonstrates good reproducibility, sensitivity, and linear quantification in protein detection, making it a useful and practical protein gel stain.

Here, we describe a detailed protocol outlining a new fluorescent staining technique for total protein detection in polyacrylamide gels. The protocol utilizes a silver ion-specific fluorescence turn-on probe, which detects Ag+-protein complexes, and eliminates certain limitations of traditional chromogenic silver stains.

Silver staining is a colorimetric technique widely used to visualize protein bands in polyacrylamide gels following sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide ...

Detergent-assisted Reconstitution of Recombinant Drosophila Atlastin into Liposomes for Lipid-mixing Assays

Membrane fusion is a crucial process in the eukaryotic cell. Specialized proteins are necessary to catalyze fusion. Atlastins are endoplasmic reticulum (ER) resident proteins implicated in homotypic fusion of the ER. We detail here a method for purifying a glutathione S-transferase (GST) and poly-histidine tagged Drosophila atlastin by two rounds of affinity chromatography. Studying fusion reactions in vitro requires purified fusion proteins to be inserted into a lipid bilayer. Liposomes are ideal model membranes, as lipid composition and size may be adjusted. To this end, we describe a reconstitution method by detergent removal for Drosophila atlastin into preformed liposomes. While several reconstitution methods are available, reconstitution by detergent removal has several advantages that make it suitable for atlastins and other similar proteins. The advantage of this method includes a high reconstitution yield and correct orientation of the reconstituted protein. This method can be extended to other membrane proteins and for other applications that require proteoliposomes. Additionally, we describe a FRET based lipid mixing assay of proteoliposomes used as a measurement of membrane fusion.

Detergent-assisted Reconstitution of Recombinant Drosophila Atlastin into Liposomes for Lipid-mixing Assays

Biological membrane fusion is catalyzed by specialized fusion proteins. Measuring the fusogenic properties of proteins can be achieved by lipid mixing assays. We present a method for purifying recombinant Drosophila atlastin, a protein that mediates homotypic fusion of the ER, reconstituting it to preformed liposomes, and testing for fusion capacity.

Membrane fusion is a crucial process in the eukaryotic cell. Specialized proteins are necessary to catalyze fusion. Atlastins are endoplasmic reticulum ...

Use of Microscale Thermophoresis to Measure Protein-Lipid Interactions

The ability to determine the binding affinity of lipids to proteins is an essential part of understanding protein-lipid interactions in membrane trafficking, signal transduction and cytoskeletal remodeling. Classic tools for measuring such interactions include surface plasmon resonance (SPR) and isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC). While powerful tools, these approaches have setbacks. ITC requires large amounts of purified protein as well as lipids, which can be costly and difficult to produce. Furthermore, ITC as well as SPR are very time consuming, which could add significantly to the cost of performing these experiments. One way to bypass these restrictions is to use the relatively new technique of microscale thermophoresis (MST). MST is fast and cost effective using small amounts of sample to obtain a saturation curve for a given binding event. There currently are two types of MST systems available. One type of MST requires labeling with a fluorophore in the blue or red spectrum. The second system relies on the intrinsic fluorescence of aromatic amino acids in the UV range. Both systems detect the movement of molecules in response to localized induction of heat from an infrared laser. Each approach has its advantages and disadvantages. Label-free MST can use untagged native proteins; however, many analytes, including pharmaceuticals, fluoresce in the UV range, which can interfere with determination of accurate KD values. In comparison, labeled MST allows for a greater diversity of measurable pairwise interactions utilizing fluorescently labeled probes attached to ligands with measurable absorbances in the visible range as opposed to UV, limiting the potential for interfering signals from analytes.

Microscale thermophoresis obtains binding constants quickly at low material cost. Either labeled or label free microscale thermophoresis is commercially available; however, label free thermophoresis is not capable of the diversity of interaction measurements that can be performed using fluorescent labels. We provide a protocol for labeled thermophoresis measurements.

The ability to determine the binding affinity of lipids to proteins is an essential part of understanding protein-lipid interactions in membrane ...

Quantitative Analysis of the Cellular Lipidome of Saccharomyces Cerevisiae Using Liquid Chromatography Coupled with Tandem Mass Spectrometry

Lipids are structurally diverse amphipathic molecules that are insoluble in water. Lipids are essential contributors to the organization and function of biological membranes, energy storage and production, cellular signaling, vesicular transport of proteins, organelle biogenesis, and regulated cell death. Because the budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae is a unicellular eukaryote amenable to thorough molecular analyses, its use as a model organism helped uncover mechanisms linking lipid metabolism and intracellular transport to complex biological processes within eukaryotic cells. The availability of a versatile analytical method for the robust, sensitive, and accurate quantitative assessment of major classes of lipids within a yeast cell is crucial for getting deep insights into these mechanisms. Here we present a protocol to use liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) for the quantitative analysis of major cellular lipids of S. cerevisiae. The LC-MS/MS method described is versatile and robust. It enables the identification and quantification of numerous species (including different isobaric or isomeric forms) within each of the 10 lipid classes. This method is sensitive and allows identification and quantitation of some lipid species at concentrations as low as 0.2 pmol/&#181;L. The method has been successfully applied to assessing lipidomes of whole yeast cells and their purified organelles. The use of alternative mobile phase additives for electrospray ionization mass spectrometry in this method can increase the efficiency of ionization for some lipid species and can be therefore used to improve their identification and quantitation.

Quantitative Analysis of the Cellular Lipidome of Saccharomyces Cerevisiae Using Liquid Chromatography Coupled with Tandem Mass Spectrometry

We present a protocol using liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry to identify and quantify major cellular lipids in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. The described method for a quantitative assessment of major lipid classes within a yeast cell is versatile, robust, and sensitive.

Lipids are structurally diverse amphipathic molecules that are insoluble in water. Lipids are essential contributors to the organization and function of ...

Analysis of Neutral Lipid Synthesis in Saccharomyces cerevisiae by Metabolic Labeling and Thin Layer Chromatography

Neutral lipids (NLs) are a class of hydrophobic, chargeless biomolecules that play key roles in energy and lipid homeostasis. NLs are synthesized de novo&#160;from acetyl-CoA and are primarily present in eukaryotes in the form of triglycerides (TGs) and sterol-esters (SEs). The enzymes responsible for the synthesis of NLs are highly conserved from Saccharomyces cerevisiae (yeast) to humans, making yeast a useful model organism to dissect the function and regulation of NL metabolism enzymes. While much is known about how acetyl-CoA is converted into a diverse set of NL species, mechanisms for regulating NL metabolism enzymes, and how mis-regulation can contribute to cellular pathologies, are still being discovered. Numerous methods for the isolation and characterization of NL species have been developed and used over decades of research; however, a quantitative and simple protocol for the comprehensive characterization of major NL species has not been discussed. Here, a simple and adaptable method to quantify the de novo&#160;synthesis of major NL species in yeast is presented. We apply 14C-acetic acid metabolic labeling coupled with thin layer chromatography to separate and quantify a diverse range of physiologically important NLs. Additionally, this method can be easily applied to study in vivo reaction rates of NL enzymes or degradation of NL species over time.

Analysis of Neutral Lipid Synthesis in Saccharomyces cerevisiae by Metabolic Labeling and Thin Layer Chromatography

Here, a protocol is presented for the metabolic labeling of yeast with 14C-acetic acid, which is coupled with thin layer chromatography for the separation of neutral lipids.

Neutral lipids (NLs) are a class of hydrophobic, chargeless biomolecules that play key roles in energy and lipid homeostasis. NLs are synthesized de ...

Cryo-EM and Single-Particle Analysis with Scipion

Cryo-electron microscopy has become one of the most important tools in biological research to reveal the structural information of macromolecules at near-atomic resolution. In single-particle analysis, the vitrified sample is imaged by an electron beam and the detectors at the end of the microscope column produce movies of that sample. These movies contain thousands of images of identical particles in random orientations. The data need to go through an image processing workflow with multiple steps to obtain the final 3D reconstructed volume. The goal of the image processing workflow is to identify the acquisition parameters to be able to reconstruct the specimen under study. Scipion provides all the tools to create this workflow using several image processing packages in an integrative framework, also allowing the traceability of the results. In this article the whole image processing workflow in Scipion is presented and discussed with data coming from a real test case, giving all the details necessary to go from the movies obtained by the microscope to a high resolution final 3D reconstruction. Also, the power of using consensus tools that allow combining methods, and confirming results along every step of the workflow, improving the accuracy of the obtained results, is discussed.

Single-particle analysis in cryo-electron microscopy is one of the main techniques used to determine the structure of biological ensembles at high resolution. Scipion provides the tools to create the whole pipeline to process the information acquired by the microscope and achieve a 3D reconstruction of the biological specimen.

Cryo-electron microscopy has become one of the most important tools in biological research to reveal the structural information of macromolecules at ...