Name: use of microscale thermophoresis to measure protein-lipid interactions
Uploaded: 2022-02-10T12:30:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Use of Microscale Thermophoresis to Measure Protein-Lipid Interactions at JoVE.com

This research was supported by a grant from National Science Foundation (MCB 1818310) to RAF.&#160;This work was supported in part by the Chemical Biology Core Facility/Protein Crystallography Unit at the H. Lee Moffitt Cancer Center (NIH/NCI: P30-CA076292).

1. Preparation of materials
<ol>
	<li>Prepare phosphate buffered saline (PBS): 137 mM NaCl, 2.5 mM KCl, 10 mM NaH2PO4, and 2 mM KH2PO4, pH 7.41.</li>
	<li>Prepare NTA-Atto 647 N dye. Dilute stock NTA-Atto 647 N dye to 100 nM from a 100% DMSO solution into PBS without Tween.</li>
	<li>Express Vam7-His8 &#8211; Protein as a fusion protein in E. coli and purify using Ni-NTA and size exclusion chromatography8.</li>
	<li>Tit...

<ol>
	<li>Jerabek-Willemsen, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=MicroScale+Thermophoresis:+Interaction+analysis+and+beyond.">MicroScale Thermophoresis: Interaction analysis and beyond.</a> Journal of Molecular Structure. 1077, 101-113 (2014).</li><li>Chapman, D., Hochstrasser, R., Millar, D., Youderia, n. P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Engineering+proteins+without+primary+sequence+tryptophan+residues:+mutant+trp+repressors+with+aliphatic+substitutions+for+tryptophan+side+chains.">Engineering proteins without primary sequence tryptophan residues: mutant trp repressors with aliphatic substitutions for tryptophan side chains.</a> Gene. 163 (1), 1-11 (1995).</li><li>Duff, M. R., Grubbs, J., Howell, E. 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J., Baaske, P., Rothbauer, U., Braun, D., Duhr, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Protein-binding+assays+in+biological+liquids+using+microscale+thermophoresis.">Protein-binding assays in biological liquids using microscale thermophoresis.</a> Nature Communications. 1, 100 (2010).</li><li>Khavrutskii, L., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Protein+purification-free+method+of+binding+affinity+determination+by+microscale+thermophoresis.">Protein purification-free method of binding affinity determination by microscale thermophoresis.</a> Journal of Visualized Experiments. (78), (2013).</li><li>Seidel, S. A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Label-free+microscale+thermophoresis+discriminates+sites+and+affinity+of+protein-ligand+binding.">Label-free microscale thermophoresis discriminates sites and affinity of protein-ligand binding.</a> Angewandte Chemie International Edition English. 51 (42), 10656-10659 (2012).</li><li>Starr, M. L., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Phosphatidic+acid+induces+conformational+changes+in+Sec18+protomers+that+prevent+SNARE+priming.">Phosphatidic acid induces conformational changes in Sec18 protomers that prevent SNARE priming.</a> Journal of Biological Chemistry. 294 (9), 3100-3116 (2019).</li><li>Miner, G. L., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+Central+Polybasic+Region+of+the+Soluble+SNARE+(Soluble+N-Ethylmaleimide-sensitive+Factor+Attachment+Protein+Receptor)+Vam7+Affects+Binding+to+Phosphatidylinositol+3-Phosphate+by+the+PX+(Phox+Homology)+Domain.">The Central Polybasic Region of the Soluble SNARE (Soluble N-Ethylmaleimide-sensitive Factor Attachment Protein Receptor) Vam7 Affects Binding to Phosphatidylinositol 3-Phosphate by the PX (Phox Homology) Domain.</a> Journal of Biological Chemistry. 291 (34), 17651-17663 (2016).</li><li>Collins, M. D., Gordon, S. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Short-chain+phosphoinositide+partitioning+into+plasma+membrane+models.">Short-chain phosphoinositide partitioning into plasma membrane models.</a> Biophysical Journal. 105 (11), 2485-2494 (2013).</li><li>Zhao, H., Lappalainen, P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+simple+guide+to+biochemical+approaches+for+analyzing+protein-lipid+interactions.">A simple guide to biochemical approaches for analyzing protein-lipid interactions.</a> Molecular Biology of the Cell. 23 (15), 2823-2830 (2012).</li><li>Kaufmann, S. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Stress+proteins:+virulence+factors+of+intracellular+disease+agents.">Stress proteins: virulence factors of intracellular disease agents.</a> Immunitat und Infektion. 17 (4), 124-128 (1989).</li><li>le Maire, M., Champeil, P., Moller, J. V. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Interaction+of+membrane+proteins+and+lipids+with+solubilizing+detergents.">Interaction of membrane proteins and lipids with solubilizing detergents.</a> Biochimica et Biophysica Acta. 1508 (1-2), 86-111 (2000).</li><li>Corradi, V., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Emerging+Diversity+in+Lipid-Protein+Interactions.">Emerging Diversity in Lipid-Protein Interactions.</a> Chemical Reviews. 119 (9), 5775-5848 (2019).</li><li>Rainard, J. M., Pandarakalam, G. C., McElroy, S. P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Using+Microscale+Thermophoresis+to+Characterize+Hits+from+High-Throughput+Screening:+A+European+Lead+Factory+Perspective.">Using Microscale Thermophoresis to Characterize Hits from High-Throughput Screening: A European Lead Factory Perspective.</a> SLAS Discovery. 23 (3), 225-241 (2018).</li><li>Sparks, R. P., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+small-molecule+competitive+inhibitor+of+phosphatidic+acid+binding+by+the+AAA++protein+NSF/Sec18+blocks+the+SNARE-priming+stage+of+vacuole+fusion.">A small-molecule competitive inhibitor of phosphatidic acid binding by the AAA+ protein NSF/Sec18 blocks the SNARE-priming stage of vacuole fusion.</a> Journal of Biological Chemistry. 294 (46), 17168-17185 (2019).</li></ol>

The determination of Vam7-His8binding to DiC8-PA provided a robust fitted KD&#160;for the given interaction, which is slightly lower affinity than the measured KD of Vam7-His8&#160;to PA liposomes (unpublished). This difference is most likely due to the lack of a membrane, which generally results in lower affinity for membrane specific lipid binding interactions and therefore demonstrates the role for the liposome membrane scaffold to this interaction<sup class="x...

Microscale thermophoresis is a relatively new technique in determining disassociation constants (KD) as well as inhibition constants (IC50) between biochemically relevant ligands. The leading commercial retailer for MST (e.g., NanoTemper) offers two popular MST technologies: 1) Label free MST requiring a fluorescent tag, and 2) labeled thermophoresis using the inherent fluorescence of proteins dependent on the number of aromatic residues present in each protein1. A disadvantage of label-free thermophoresis is that in most cases, it does not allow for the measurement of protein-protein interactions. However, it may be possible to engineer proteins without aromatic amino acids such as tryptophan for use in label free thermophoresis2.
MST measures the movement of particles in response to the induction of microscopic temperature fields initiated by an infrared laser in currently available technologies1. MST can be used to measure protein-protein interactions, protein-lipid interactions, protein-small molecule, competition experiments, and even interactions between small-molecules so long as one can produce enough signal separation. Additionally, MST allows for the measurement of membrane-protein based interactions embedded in either liposomes or nanodiscs. Labeled thermophoresis takes advantage of the use of fluorescently labeled tags allowing for chemically controllable separation of signal between ligand and analyte. KD values can be obtained using thermophoresis for interactions involving protein binding at low nanomolar concentrations, which in most cases is a much lower concentration of protein than what is required for isothermal calorimetry (ITC)3. Additionally, MST does not have strict buffering requirements as required for surface plasmon resonance (SPR)4 and labeled thermophoresis can even be used to measure binding constants of proteins of interest from non-fully purified protein solutions5 with genetically inserted fluorescent tags6. A disadvantage of MST is that kinetic parameters cannot be obtained readily for MST as in SPR2.
Thermophoresis measurements depend on the local temperature difference of a solution. This heat can be generated from an infrared laser. The MST device has a fluorescence detector coupled to an infrared (IR) beam and can pick up changes in fluorescence from local concentration changes of the fluorescent molecules at the point where the IR laser is targeted. The MST device utilizes an IR targeted laser coupled directly to a fluorescence detector focused at the same point in which the heat is generated in the solution. This allows for robust detection of changes in temperature corresponding to the depletion of molecules at the point of heat generated by the IR laser. Measured fluorescence generally decreases closer to the IR laser in response to temperature increases. The differences measured as a result can be due to multiple factors including charge, size, or solvation entropy. These differences are measured as changes in fluorescence in response to induction of heat or movement of molecules from hot to colder parts of the capillary.
When loading a capillary with a given solution, it is important to leave air at either end of the capillary and not load the capillary completely full. The commercial capillary holds about 10 &#956;L of solution. One can achieve accurate measurements with 5 &#956;L of solution so long as the solution is manipulated to the center of the capillary, there are no air bubbles (potentially degas prior to loading capillary), and one is careful loading the rack to not jostle the solution from the center of the capillary, where the infrared laser is targeted. If the laser does not come in contact fully with solution, the result will most likely be one of three unusable outputs for that concentration: 1) no or low fluorescence detection, 2) higher fluorescence detection (potentially with jagged peak), or 3) fluorescence detection within other values from given titration, but with a jagged and unrounded peak.
For labeled thermophoresis it is optimal to have a fluorescence signal above 200 and below 2000 fluorescence units7. The MST device uses a range of LED intensities from 0 to 100, which can be selected to achieve a signal above 200 or below 2000. Alternatively, one can use different concentrations of the labeled ligand to modify the fluorescence signal to an optimal level. It is important to run a cap scan with a given MST measurement as a reference when analyzing data, as a poor cap scan can often result in a point that may later be determined to be an outlier. Each run should take approximately 30 min if measuring a single MST power with a cap scan. The commercial devices allow changes in MST power. In older software versions this could be set from 0 to 100; and in later versions one can select low, medium, or high MST. To achieve robust traces, a researcher may need to try each of these and decide which MST setting results in the most robust data for a given interaction.

<table>
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Cy5 Maleimide Mono-Reactive Dye</td>
			<td>GE Healthcare</td>
			<td>PA23031</td>
			<td>For protein labeleing</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Graphpad Prsim</td>
			<td>Graphpad software</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Monolith NT.115 Capillaries (1000 count)</td>
			<td>Nanotemper</td>
			<td>MO-K022</td>
			<td>Capillaries for MST</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Monolith NT.115 machine</td>
			<td>Nanotemper</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>University equipment</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NTA-Atto 647 N</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>2175</td>
			<td>label for His tags</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Phosphatidylinositol 3-phosphate diC8 (PI(3)P diC8)</td>
			<td>Echelon</td>
			<td>P-3008</td>
			<td>Lipid for binding experiments</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

use of microscale thermophoresis to measure protein-lipid interactions

The ability to determine the binding affinity of lipids to proteins is an essential part of understanding protein-lipid interactions in membrane trafficking, signal transduction and cytoskeletal remodeling. Classic tools for measuring such interactions include surface plasmon resonance (SPR) and isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC). While powerful tools, these approaches have setbacks. ITC requires large amounts of purified protein as well as lipids, which can be costly and difficult to produce. Furthermore, ITC as well as SPR are very time consuming, which could add significantly to the cost of performing these experiments. One way to bypass these restrictions is to use the relatively new technique of microscale thermophoresis (MST). MST is fast and cost effective using small amounts of sample to obtain a saturation curve for a given binding event. There currently are two types of MST systems available. One type of MST requires labeling with a fluorophore in the blue or red spectrum. The second system relies on the intrinsic fluorescence of aromatic amino acids in the UV range. Both systems detect the movement of molecules in response to localized induction of heat from an infrared laser. Each approach has its advantages and disadvantages. Label-free MST can use untagged native proteins; however, many analytes, including pharmaceuticals, fluoresce in the UV range, which can interfere with determination of accurate KD values. In comparison, labeled MST allows for a greater diversity of measurable pairwise interactions utilizing fluorescently labeled probes attached to ligands with measurable absorbances in the visible range as opposed to UV, limiting the potential for interfering signals from analytes.

This is a sample output using the affinity analysis. The labeled MST was used to determine the binding constant of the Vam7-His8&#160;to the soluble dioctanoyl (DiC8) PA of one of its natural substrates9. Figure 1 presents the thermophoretic traces from one trial of a 1:1 titration of DiC8 PA starting at 500 &#956;M against 50 nM of Vam7-His8. Initial fluorescence (time before infrared laser turned on), Tjump (time initially after infrared laser turned on), and thermo...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Use of Microscale Thermophoresis to Measure Protein-Lipid Interactions at JoVE.com

Use of Microscale Thermophoresis to Measure Protein-Lipid Interactions

Microscale thermophoresis obtains binding constants quickly at low material cost. Either labeled or label free microscale thermophoresis is commercially available; however, label free thermophoresis is not capable of the diversity of interaction measurements that can be performed using fluorescent labels. We provide a protocol for labeled thermophoresis measurements.

The ability to determine the binding affinity of lipids to proteins is an essential part of understanding protein-lipid interactions in membrane ...

Labeled microscale thermophoresis obtains disassociation constants, or KDs, of diverse biochemical interactions efficiently. This protocol and the accompanied video give the approximate affinity for Vam7, the only soluble SNARE protein in yeast, to phosphatidic acid. This is the way that Vam7 associates with two membranes before interacting with other proteins.This method obtains KDs rapidly for diverse biochemical interactions at low cost, with high reproducibility and with minimal protein cost. This technique is suitable for first-stage pharmaceutical development, allowing for readily obtainable KDs to determine potential lead compounds. Before beginning an analysis, turn on the power switch on the back of the MST device and open the control software.Confirm that the computer is attached to the device and in connected status and set the MST Before to 3 seconds, the MST to 30 seconds, and the Fluorescence Recovery to after 1 second. For each capillary tube, enter the name of the target ligand, the name of the ligand analyte, the concentration of the target, and the highest titration concentration using the autofill titration ratio. Select a range of MST powers and enter values for each power to test for the most robust binding fit.To prepare labeled MST samples, dilute a Vam7-octahistidine solution to a 200 nanomolar concentration and an NTA-Atto 647 dye to 100 nanomolar concentration, both in PBS. Mix the Vam7-octahistidine and the NTA-Atto 647 dye at a 1:1 volumetric ratio and allow the mixture to sit at room temperature protected from light for 30 minutes. At the end of the incubation, centrifuge the dye and protein mixture and store the solution at 4 degrees Celsius for up to a few hours before use.Then, prepare the sample, take dyed ligand and expose the analyte. For microscale thermophoresis of the sample, open the device and slide the capillary rack out. Load the sample capillaries into the rack with the highest concentration at position one and select the Red channel in the control software.Then, load the rack in the instrument. Then select a range of MST power and start the Cap Scan MST Measurement and evaluate the shift response. Thermophoretic traces from one trial of a 1:1 titration of DiC8 PA starting at 500 micromoles against 50 nanomolar NTA-Atto 647 labeled Vam7 domain are shown here.The initial fluorescence, time jump, and thermophoresis can be observed, allowing KD to be calculated from any one or a combination of these measurements. A saturation curve can be plotted from these results, for example, for the thermophoresis with the time jump output, as illustrated in the graph. Generally, MST results are determined using log scale, taking into account the protein concentration to determine the binding affinity by selecting the KD model and inputting the protein concentration.When performing this protocol, ensure that the solution is in the center of the capillary and that there's no air bubbles and that the capillary does not have dust or solution on the outside of the capillary. Isothermal titration calorimetry or surface plasmon resonance could be used to validate the experimental KD obtained. If there is potential cooperative binding, ITC would be the next logical method performed, given resources.This technique has enabled traditional biology researchers to incorporate biophysical screening techniques into their research for determining pathway relationships. One example of this technique is cell lysase with the target protein expressed endogenously, where the GFP tag is a novel way to perform a traditional pull-down assay.

use-of-microscale-thermophoresis-to-measure-protein-lipid-interactions

Research

JoVE Journal

Biochemistry

Mapping the Binding Site of an Aptamer on ATP Using MicroScale Thermophoresis

Characterization of molecular interactions in terms of basic binding parameters such as binding affinity, stoichiometry, and thermodynamics is an essential step in basic and applied science. MicroScale Thermophoresis (MST) is a sensitive biophysical method to obtain this important information. Relying on a physical effect called thermophoresis, which describes the movement of molecules through temperature gradients, this technology allows for the fast and precise determination of binding parameters in solution and allows the free choice of buffer conditions (from buffer to lysates/sera). MST uses the fact that an unbound molecule displays a different thermophoretic movement than a molecule that is in complex with a binding partner. The thermophoretic movement is altered in the moment of molecular interaction due to changes in size, charge, and hydration shell. By comparing the movement profiles of different molecular ratios of the two binding partners, quantitative information such as binding affinity (pM to mM) can be determined. Even challenging interactions between molecules of small sizes, such as aptamers and small compounds, can be studied by MST. Using the well-studied model interaction between the DH25.42 DNA aptamer and ATP, this manuscript provides a protocol to characterize aptamer-small molecule interactions. This study demonstrates that MST is highly sensitive and permits the mapping of the binding site of the 7.9 kDa DNA aptamer to the adenine of ATP.

MicroScale Thermophoresis (MST) is a sensitive technology to characterize aptamer-target interactions. This manuscript describes an MST protocol to characterize aptamer-small molecule interactions.

Characterization of molecular interactions in terms of basic binding parameters such as binding affinity, stoichiometry, and thermodynamics is an ...

Quantitative Immunofluorescence to Measure Global Localized Translation

The mechanisms regulating mRNA translation are involved in various biological processes, such as germ line development, cell differentiation, and organogenesis, as well as in multiple diseases. Numerous publications have convincingly shown that specific mechanisms tightly regulate mRNA translation. Increased interest in the translation-induced regulation of protein expression has led to the development of novel methods to study and follow de novo protein synthesis in cellulo. However, most of these methods are complex, making them costly and often limiting the number of mRNA targets that can be studied. This manuscript proposes a method that requires only basic reagents and a confocal fluorescence imaging system to measure and visualize the changes in mRNA translation that occur in any cell line under various conditions. This method was recently used to show localized translation in the subcellular structures of adherent cells over a short period of time, thus offering the possibility of visualizing de novo translation for a short period during a variety of biological processes or of validating changes in translational activity in response to specific stimuli.

This manuscript describes a method to visualize and quantify localized translation events in subcellular compartments. The approach proposed in this manuscript requires a basic confocal imaging system and reagents and is rapid and cost-effective.

The mechanisms regulating mRNA translation are involved in various biological processes, such as germ line development, cell differentiation, and ...

Biotinylated Cell-penetrating Peptides to Study Intracellular Protein-protein Interactions

Here we present a protocol to study intracellular protein-protein interactions that is based on the widely used biotin-avidin pull-down system. The modification presented includes the combination of this technique with cell-penetrating sequences. We propose to design cell-penetrating baits that can be incubated with living cells instead of cell lysates and therefore the interactions found will reflect those that occur within the intracellular context. Connexin43 (Cx43), a protein that forms gap junction channels and hemichannels is down-regulated in high-grade gliomas. The Cx43 region comprising amino acids 266-283 is responsible for the inhibition of the oncogenic activity of c-Src in glioma cells. Here we use TAT as the cell-penetrating sequence, biotin as the pull-down tag and the region of Cx43 comprised between amino acids 266-283 as the target to find intracellular interactions in the hard-to-transfect human glioma stem cells. One of the limitations of the proposed method is that the molecule used as bait could fail to fold properly and, consequently, the interactions found could not be associated with the effect. However, this method can be especially interesting for the interactions involved in signal transduction pathways because they are usually carried out by intrinsically disordered regions and, therefore, they do not require an ordered folding. In addition, one of the advantages of the proposed method is that the relevance of each residue on the interaction can be easily studied. This is a modular system; therefore, other cell-penetrating sequences, other tags, and other intracellular targets can be employed. Finally, the scope of this protocol is far beyond protein-protein interaction because this system can be applied to other bioactive cargoes such as RNA sequences, nanoparticles, viruses or any molecule that can be transduced with cell-penetrating sequences and fused to pull-down tags to study their intracellular mechanism of action.

This is a protocol to study intracellular protein-protein interactions based on the biotin-avidin pull-down system with the novelty of combining cell-penetrating sequences. The main advantage is that the target sequence is incubated with living cells instead of cell lysates and therefore the interactions will occur within the cellular context.

Here we present a protocol to study intracellular protein-protein interactions that is based on the widely used biotin-avidin pull-down system. The ...

Measuring Interactions of Globular and Filamentous Proteins by Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy (NMR) and Microscale Thermophoresis (MST)

Filamentous proteins such as vimentin provide organization within cells by providing a structural scaffold with sites that bind proteins containing plakin repeats. Here, a protocol for detecting and measuring such interactions is described using the globular plakin repeat domain of envoplakin and the helical coil of vimentin. This provides a basis for determining whether a protein binds vimentin (or similar filamentous proteins) and for measurement of the affinity of the interaction. The globular protein of interest is labeled with 15N and titrated with vimentin protein in solution. A two-dimensional NMR spectrum is acquired to detect interactions by observing changes in peak shape or chemical shifts, and to elucidate effects of solution conditions including salt levels, which influence vimentin quaternary structure. If the protein of interest binds the filamentous ligand, the binding interaction is quantified by MST using the purified proteins. The approach is a straightforward way for determining whether a protein of interest binds a filament, and for assessing how alterations, such as mutations or solution conditions, affect the interaction.

Measuring Interactions of Globular and Filamentous Proteins by Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy NMR and Microscale Thermophoresis MST

Here, we present a protocol for the production and purification of proteins that are labeled with stable isotopes, and subsequent characterization of protein-protein interactions using Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) spectroscopy and MicroScale Thermophoresis (MST) experiments.

Filamentous proteins such as vimentin provide organization within cells by providing a structural scaffold with sites that bind proteins containing plakin ...

Atomic Absorbance Spectroscopy to Measure Intracellular Zinc Pools in Mammalian Cells

Transition metals are essential micronutrients for organisms but can be toxic to cells at high concentrations by competing with physiological metals in proteins and generating redox stress. Pathological conditions that lead to metal depletion or accumulation are causal agents of different human diseases. Some examples include anemia, acrodermatitis enteropathica, and Wilson&#8217;s and Menkes&#8217; diseases. It is therefore important to be able to measure the levels and transport of transition metals in biological samples with high sensitivity and accuracy in order to facilitate research exploring how these elements contribute to normal physiological functions and toxicity. Zinc (Zn), for example, is a cofactor in many mammalian proteins, participates in signaling events, and is a secondary messenger in cells. In excess, Zn is toxic and can inhibit absorption of other metals, while in deficit, it can lead to a variety of potentially lethal conditions.

Graphite furnace atomic absorption spectroscopy (GF-AAS) provides a highly sensitive and effective method for determining Zn and other transition metal concentrations in diverse biological samples. Electrothermal atomization via GF-AAS quantifies metals by atomizing small volumes of samples for subsequent selective absorption analysis using wavelength of excitation of the element of interest. Within the limits of linearity of the Beer-Lambert Law, the absorbance of light by the metal is directly proportional to concentration of the analyte. Compared to other methods of determining Zn content, GF-AAS detects both free and complexed Zn in proteins and possibly in small intracellular molecules with high sensitivity in small sample volumes. Moreover, GF-AAS is also more readily accessible than inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) or synchrotron-based X-ray fluorescence. In this method, the systematic sample preparation of different cultured cell lines for analyses in a GF-AAS is described. Variations in this trace element were compared in both whole cell lysates and subcellular fractions of proliferating and differentiated cells as proof of principle.

Cultured primary or established cell lines are commonly used to address fundamental biological and mechanistic questions as an initial approach before using animal models. This protocol describes how to prepare whole cell extracts and subcellular fractions for studies of zinc (Zn) and other trace elements with atomic absorbance spectroscopy.

Transition metals are essential micronutrients for organisms but can be toxic to cells at high concentrations by competing with physiological metals in ...

Use of Alu Element Containing Minigenes to Analyze Circular RNAs

In addition to linear mRNAs, many eukaryotic genes generate circular RNAs. Most circular RNAs are generated by joining a 5&#39; splice site with an upstream 3&#39; splice site within a pre-mRNA, a process called back-splicing. This circularization is likely aided by secondary structures in the pre-mRNA that bring the splice sites into close proximity. In human genes, Alu elements are thought to promote these secondary RNA structures, as Alu elements are abundant and exhibit base complementarities with each other when present in opposite directions in the pre-mRNA. Here, we describe the generation and analysis of large, Alu element containing reporter genes that form circular RNAs. Through optimization of cloning protocols, reporter genes with up to 20 kb insert length can be generated. Their analysis in co-transfection experiments allows the identification of regulatory factors. Thus, this method can identify RNA sequences and cellular components involved in circular RNA formation.

Use of Alu Element Containing Minigenes to Analyze Circular RNAs

We clone and analyze reporter genes generating circular RNAs. These reporter genes are larger than constructs to analyze linear splicing and contain Alu elements. To investigate the circular RNAs, the constructs are transfected into cells and resulting RNA is analyzed using RT-PCR after removal of linear RNA.

In addition to linear mRNAs, many eukaryotic genes generate circular RNAs. Most circular RNAs are generated by joining a 5&#39; splice site with an ...

Nonradioactive Assay to Measure Polynucleotide Phosphorylation of Small Nucleotide Substrates

Polynucleotide kinases (PNKs) are enzymes that catalyze the phosphorylation of the 5&#39; hydroxyl end of DNA and RNA oligonucleotides. The activity of PNKs can be quantified using direct or indirect approaches. Presented here is a direct, in vitro approach to measure PNK activity that relies on a fluorescently-labeled oligonucleotide substrate and polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. This approach provides resolution of the phosphorylated products while avoiding the use of radiolabeled substrates. The protocol details how to set up the phosphorylation reaction, prepare and run large polyacrylamide gels, and quantify the reaction products. The most technically challenging part of this assay is pouring and running the large polyacrylamide gels; thus, important details to overcome common difficulties are provided. This protocol was optimized for Grc3, a PNK that assembles into an obligate pre-ribosomal RNA processing complex with its binding partner, the Las1 nuclease. However, this protocol can be adapted to measure the activity of other PNK enzymes. Moreover, this assay can also be modified to determine the effects of different components of the reaction, such as the nucleoside triphosphate, metal ions, and oligonucleotides.

This protocol describes a nonradioactive assay to measure kinase activity of polynucleotide kinases (PNKs) on small DNA and RNA substrates.

Polynucleotide kinases (PNKs) are enzymes that catalyze the phosphorylation of the 5&#39; hydroxyl end of DNA and RNA oligonucleotides. The activity of ...

CD Spectroscopy to Study DNA-Protein Interactions

Circular dichroism (CD) spectroscopy is a simple and convenient method to investigate the secondary structure and interactions of biomolecules. Recent advancements in CD spectroscopy have enabled the study of DNA-protein interactions and conformational dynamics of DNA in different microenvironments in detail for a better understanding of transcriptional regulation in vivo. The area around a potential transcription zone needs to be unwound for transcription to occur. This is a complex process requiring the coordination of histone modifications, binding of the transcription factor to DNA, and other chromatin remodeling activities. Using CD spectroscopy, it is possible to study conformational changes in the promoter region caused by regulatory proteins, such as ATP-dependent chromatin remodelers, to promote transcription. The conformational changes occurring in the protein can also be monitored. In addition, queries regarding the affinity of the protein towards its target DNA and sequence specificity can be addressed by incorporating mutations in the target DNA. In short, the unique understanding of this sensitive and inexpensive method can predict changes in chromatin dynamics, thereby improving the understanding of transcriptional regulation.

The interaction of an ATP-dependent chromatin remodeler with a DNA ligand is described using CD spectroscopy. The induced conformational changes on a gene promoter analyzed by the peaks generated can be used to understand the mechanism of transcriptional regulation.

Circular dichroism (CD) spectroscopy is a simple and convenient method to investigate the secondary structure and interactions of biomolecules. Recent ...

Concanavalin A-Based Sedimentation Assay to Measure Substrate Binding of Glucan Phosphatases

Glucan phosphatases belong to the larger family of dual specificity phosphatases (DSP) that dephosphorylate glucan substrates, such as glycogen in animals and starch in plants. The crystal structures of glucan phosphatase with model glucan substrates reveal distinct glucan-binding interfaces made of DSP and carbohydrate-binding domains. However, quantitative measurements of glucan-glucan phosphatase interactions with physiologically relevant substrates are fundamental to the biological understanding of the glucan phosphatase family of enzymes and the regulation of energy metabolism. This manuscript reports a Concanavalin A (ConA)-based in vitro sedimentation assay designed to detect the substrate binding affinity of glucan phosphatases against different glucan substrates.&#160;As a proof of concept, the dissociation constant (KD) of glucan phosphatase Arabidopsis thaliana Starch Excess4 (SEX4) and amylopectin was determined. The characterization of SEX4 mutants and other members of the glucan phosphatase family of enzymes further demonstrates the utility of this assay to assess the differential binding of protein- carbohydrate interactions. These data demonstrate the suitability of this assay to characterize a wide range of starch and glycogen interacting proteins.

This method describes a lectin-based in vitro sedimentation assay to quantify the binding affinity of glucan phosphatase and amylopectin. This co-sedimentation assay is reliable for measuring glucan phosphatase substrate binding and can be applied to various solubilized glucan substrates.

Glucan phosphatases belong to the larger family of dual specificity phosphatases (DSP) that dephosphorylate glucan substrates, such as glycogen in animals ...

Stable Isotope Tracing &amp; LC-MS Analysis to Measure DHODH and SDH Activities

Oxygen-Independent Assays to Measure Mitochondrial Function in Mammals

The flow of electrons in the mitochondrial electron transport chain (ETC) supports multifaceted biosynthetic, bioenergetic, and signaling functions in mammalian cells. As oxygen (O2) is the most ubiquitous terminal electron acceptor for the mammalian ETC, the O2 consumption rate is frequently used as a proxy for mitochondrial function. However, emerging research demonstrates that this parameter is not always indicative of mitochondrial function, as fumarate can be employed as an alternative electron acceptor to sustain mitochondrial functions in hypoxia. This article compiles a series of protocols that allow researchers to measure mitochondrial function independently of the O2 consumption rate. These assays are particularly useful when studying mitochondrial function in hypoxic environments. Specifically, we describe methods to measure mitochondrial ATP production, de novo pyrimidine biosynthesis, NADH oxidation by complex I, and superoxide production. In combination with classical respirometry experiments, these orthogonal and economical assays will provide researchers with a more comprehensive assessment of mitochondrial function in their system of interest.

Author Spotlight: Oxygen-Independent Assays to Measure Mitochondrial Function in Mammals  

Here, we present a compilation of assays to directly measure mitochondrial function in mammalian cells independently of their ability to consume molecular oxygen.

The flow of electrons in the mitochondrial electron transport chain (ETC) supports multifaceted biosynthetic, bioenergetic, and signaling functions in ...