The authors thank the members of the Harata lab for helpful discussions throughout the execution of this work. This work was funded by grants from the American Heart Association, the Dystonia Medical Research Foundation, the Edward Mallinckrodt, Jr. Foundation, the National Science Foundation, and the Whitehall Foundation to N.C.H.

The authors declare no competing financial interests.

We have described protocols for staining and destaining synaptic vesicles in response to evoked, spontaneous and miniature synaptic activity, and for imaging during the destaining phase. In addition to the existing protocols, we have included a new protocol of observing the FM destaining based on miniature synaptic activity. Using these protocols, we previously identified abnormalities in cultured neurons from a mouse model of the movement disorder dystonia. In comparison to their counterparts in wild-type mice, those ne...

The functionality of synaptic vesicles is an important determinant of synaptic transmission. These vesicles release neurotransmitters when they fuse with the presynaptic plasma membrane (exocytosis), and they become ready for another cycle of release after being regenerated from the plasma membrane (endocytosis) and reloaded with neurotransmitter. Research into the dynamics of and mechanisms underlying synaptic vesicle recycling has been greatly accelerated by the introduction of styryl FM dyes1. These amphipathic molecules, which have positively charged hydrophilic head groups and hydrophobic tails (multiple dyes in Figure 1A, stereoview of FM1-43 in Figure 1B), can reversibly enter and exit lipid membranes without permeating them. Groups of FM dyes share similar features that influence the range of light that they emit. For example, FM2-10, FM1-43, and FM1-84 have one double bond between two cyclic compounds and show green emission. The difference between them is the length of the hydrophobic tail, which determines its hydrophobicity and therefore the rate of exit from the membrane (departitioning). In the cases of FM5-95 and FM4-64, three double bonds link the cyclic compounds, and they show red emission. These dyes differ with respect to their hydrophilic parts. In all FM dyes, the fluorescence intensity increases when they are inserted into biological membranes, due to an increase in quantum yield in the hydrophobic environment relative to the hydrophilic environment. Thus the changes in FM intensity represent the changes in membrane turnover. The different colors (emission spectra) and hydrophobicities make the FM dyes a versatile research tool in synaptic vesicle recycling.

Based on these features, the FM dyes are mostly used according to the following scheme when analyzing synaptic vesicle recycling (Figure 2). Neurons are bathed in an extracellular solution containing the FM dye, enabling it to be taken up into synaptic vesicles (SVs) as they form via endocytosis (staining). The dye is then washed out by applying a dye-free extracellular solution; this reveals the functional nerve terminals, i.e. only those actively undergoing endocytosis will contain a cluster of synaptic vesicles that are loaded with the dye (Figure 2 bottom). Subsequent exocytosis leads to loss of the FM dye to the extracellular space and a concomitant loss of fluorescence (destaining; due to both the departitioning to a hydrophilic environment and diffusion away from the site of exocytosis). Therefore the changes in FM fluorescence intensity are indicators of synaptic vesicle exo- and endocytosis.

FM dyes have been used to stain and destain the synaptic vesicles in various organisms and preparations2,3. Examples include mammalian neuronal cultures4-9, mammalian brain slices10,11, neuromuscular junctions12,13, retinal bipolar neurons14,15, and hair cells of cochlea16.

Typically in such experiments, both staining and destaining are triggered by extensively stimulating the neurons (evoked activity). Recently, however, synaptic vesicle recycling in response to weak stimulation has also been analyzed, as has recycling in the absence of an external stimulus (spontaneous and miniature synaptic activity)9,17-19. Spontaneous and miniature synaptic activities are defined as those that occur in the absence of external stimuli, with the former involving the spontaneous firing of action potentials (Figure 3). These weak synaptic activities are associated with smaller changes in FM signals than those triggered by extensive stimulation. The measurement requires that the changes in FM fluorescence intensity accurately reflect synaptic vesicle exocytosis or endocytosis but not artifactual changes in intensity. One cause of the artifact is the presence of nonspecific staining of the plasma membrane by FM dyes. Gradual washout of this component will lead to a gradual change in the measured fluorescence intensity, which will be erroneously ascribed to synaptic activities. This factor can be reduced by appropriate methods (see Protocol). The most notable cause of the artifact is the photobleaching of FM dye retained within synaptic vesicles. The photobleaching-related changes in FM intensity must be small in comparison to the biological (synaptic) changes that are measured. The recent development of sensitive cameras, e.g. the electron-multiplying charge-coupled device (EMCCD) camera, makes it possible to minimize photobleaching by shortening exposure time and weakening the intensity of the light used to excite the fluorophore. Another cause of the artifact is a drift in the focusing level of light microscope. The focus drift during an imaging session can be caused by mechanical or thermal effects, and will erroneously lead to a change in the measured fluorescence intensity.

Here we describe protocols and equipment that make it possible to use FM dyes to analyze synaptic vesicle recycling even in the context of weak or no stimulation, in particular, the miniature synaptic activity. We show examples of the staining and destaining of vesicles during evoked and spontaneous synaptic events, using cultured rodent hippocampal neurons, and imaging the destaining phase. We also demonstrate how to evaluate the degree of FM dye photobleaching, in the absence of any FM dye loss due to synaptic activities.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="1767">
	<colgroup>
		<col />
		<col />
		<col />
		<col />
	</colgroup>
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Pulse generator</td>
			<td>AMPI</td>
			<td>Master-8</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Isolated stimulator</td>
			<td>Digitimer</td>
			<td>DS3</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Inverted microscope</td>
			<td>Nikon</td>
			<td>Eclipse TS100</td>
			<td>This is used for assessing the cell morphology at low magnification.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Inverted microscope</td>
			<td>Nikon</td>
			<td>Eclipse TiE</td>
			<td>This is used for high-resolution fluorescence and transmitted light imaging, with minimal focus drift.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Objective lens</td>
			<td>Nikon</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Water-immersion lens is recommended. Oil-immersion lens is usable unless an imaged structure is deep from the coverslip surface (e.g. &#62;10 &#956;m).</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Filter cube</td>
			<td>Nikon</td>
			<td>77032509</td>
			<td>490/20-nm ex, 510-nm dclp, 520-nm-LP em for FM1-43</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Filter cube</td>
			<td>Nikon</td>
			<td>77032809</td>
			<td>490/20-nm ex, 510-nm dclp, 650-nm-LP em for FM4-64.&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>EMCCD camera</td>
			<td>Andor Technology</td>
			<td>iXon EM+ DU-860</td>
			<td>This EMCCD camera is used for high-sensitivity detection of fluorescence.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Liquid recirculating chiller</td>
			<td>Solid State Cooling Systems</td>
			<td>Oasis 160</td>
			<td>This is used for continuously perfusing the camera with chilled water for maintaining a temperature of -80&#176;C, and thereby reducing noise.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>LED</td>
			<td>CoolLED-Custom Interconnect</td>
			<td>490 nm&#160;</td>
			<td>This light source is used for rapid on/off control of fluorescence excitation.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Image acquisition software</td>
			<td>Andor Technology</td>
			<td>Solis</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Imaging chamber</td>
			<td>Warner Instruments</td>
			<td>RC-21BRFS</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fast perfusion system</td>
			<td>Warner Instruments</td>
			<td>SF-77B</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>CNQX</td>
			<td>Tocris Bioscience</td>
			<td>1045</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>D,L-AP5</td>
			<td>Tocris Bioscience</td>
			<td>0106</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tetrodotoxin</td>
			<td>Tocris Bioscience</td>
			<td>1069</td>
			<td>Caution: toxic reagent. Handle with care.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>FM1-43</td>
			<td>Invitrogen</td>
			<td>T35356</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Aldehyde-fixable FM1-43 (FM1-43FX)</td>
			<td>Invitrogen</td>
			<td>F35355</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>FM4-64</td>
			<td>Invitrogen</td>
			<td>T13320</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Aldehyde-fixable FM4-64 (FM4-64FX)</td>
			<td>Invitrogen</td>
			<td>F34653</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ionomycin</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>I0634</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hanks&#8217; balanced salt</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>H2387</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Minimum Essential Medium</td>
			<td>Invitrogen</td>
			<td>51200-038</td>
			<td>This solution does not contain phenol red that will interfere with fluorescence imaging.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Paraformaldehyde</td>
			<td>Electron Microscopy Sciences</td>
			<td>15710</td>
			<td>Caution: toxic reagent. Handle with care.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sucrose</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>S7903</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

examination of synaptic vesicle recycling using fm dyes during evoked, spontaneous, and miniature synaptic activities

Synaptic vesicles in functional nerve terminals undergo exocytosis and endocytosis. This synaptic vesicle recycling can be effectively analyzed using styryl FM dyes, which reveal membrane turnover. Conventional protocols for the use of FM dyes were designed for analyzing neurons following stimulated (evoked) synaptic activity. Recently, protocols have become available for analyzing the FM signals that accompany weaker synaptic activities, such as spontaneous or miniature synaptic events. Analysis of these small changes in FM signals requires that the imaging system is sufficiently sensitive to detect small changes in intensity, yet that artifactual changes of large amplitude are suppressed. Here we describe a protocol that can be applied to evoked, spontaneous, and miniature synaptic activities, and use cultured hippocampal neurons as an example. This protocol also incorporates a means of assessing the rate of photobleaching of FM dyes, as this is a significant source of artifacts when imaging small changes in intensity.

As an example, we show representative results for the destaining time course of synaptic vesicles (Figure 4). Cultured hippocampal neurons were stained with FM4-64 using the spontaneous synaptic activity (step 2.3) and washed with dye-free solution (rinsing solution 2). The imaging shows the initial destaining time course using spontaneous activity (step 5.3) (initial part of continuous line, Figure 4A). This is followed by the destaining time course using three rounds of evoked activity...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Examination of Synaptic Vesicle Recycling Using FM Dyes During Evoked, Spontaneous, and Miniature Synaptic Activities at JoVE.com

Examination of Synaptic Vesicle Recycling Using FM Dyes During Evoked, Spontaneous and Miniature Synaptic Activities | Neuroscience | Video

Examination of Synaptic Vesicle Recycling Using FM Dyes During Evoked, Spontaneous, and Miniature Synaptic Activities

We describe the use of styryl FM dyes to image synaptic vesicle recycling in functional nerve terminals. This protocol can be applied not only to evoked, but also spontaneous and miniature synaptic activities. The protocol expands the variety of synaptic events that can be effectively evaluated.

Synaptic vesicles in functional nerve terminals undergo exocytosis and endocytosis. This synaptic vesicle recycling can be effectively analyzed using ...

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21.0K Views.  University of Iowa Carver College of Medicine. We describe the use of styryl FM dyes to image synaptic vesicle recycling in functional nerve terminals. This protocol can be applied not only to evoked, but also spontaneous and miniature synaptic activities. The protocol expands the variety of synaptic events that can be effectively evaluated. 

Video: Examination of Synaptic Vesicle Recycling Using FM Dyes During Evoked, Spontaneous, and Miniature Synaptic Activities

Studying Synaptic Vesicle Pools using Photoconversion of Styryl Dyes

The fusion of synaptic vesicles with the plasma membrane (exocytosis) is a required step in neurotransmitter release and neuronal communication. The vesicles are then retrieved from the plasma membrane (endocytosis) and grouped together with the general pool of vesicles within the nerve terminal, until they undergo a new exo- and endocytosis cycle (vesicle recycling). These processes have been studied using a variety of techniques such as electron microscopy, electrophysiology recordings, amperometry and capacitance measurements. Importantly, during the last two decades a number of fluorescently labeled markers emerged, allowing optical techniques to track vesicles in their recycling dynamics. One of the most commonly used markers is the styryl or FM dye 1; structurally, all FM dyes contain a hydrophilic head and a lipophilic tail connected through an aromatic ring and one or more double bonds (Fig. 1B). A classical FM dye experiment to label a pool of vesicles consists in bathing the preparation (Fig. 1Ai) with the dye during the stimulation of the nerve (electrically or with high K+). This induces vesicle recycling and the subsequent loading of the dye into recently endocytosed vesicles (Fig. 1Ai-iii). After loading the vesicles with dye, a second round of stimulation in a dye-free bath would trigger the FM release through exocytosis (Fig. 1Aiv-v), process that can be followed by monitoring the fluorescence intensity decrease (destaining).

Although FM dyes have contributed greatly to the field of vesicle recycling, it is not possible to determine the exact localization or morphology of individual vesicles by using conventional fluorescence microscopy. For that reason, we explain here how FM dyes can also be used as endocytic markers using electron microscopy, through photoconversion. The photoconversion technique exploits the property of fluorescent dyes to generate reactive oxygen species under intense illumination. Fluorescently labeled preparations are submerged in a solution containing diaminobenzidine (DAB) and illuminated. Reactive species generated by the dye molecules oxidize the DAB, which forms a stable, insoluble precipitate that has a dark appearance and can be easily distinguished in electron microscopy 2,3. As DAB is only oxidized in the immediate vicinity of fluorescent molecules (as the reactive oxygen species are short-lived), the technique ensures that only fluorescently labeled structures are going to contain the electron-dense precipitate. The technique thus allows the study of the exact location and morphology of actively recycling organelles.

FM dyes have been of invaluable help in the understanding of synaptic dynamics. FMs are normally followed under the fluorescent microscope during different stimulation conditions. However, photoconversion of FM dyes combined with electron microscopy allows the visualization of distinct synaptic vesicle pools, among other ultrastructure components, in synaptic boutons.

The fusion of synaptic vesicles with the plasma membrane (exocytosis) is a required step in neurotransmitter release and neuronal communication. The ...

Measuring Exocytosis in Neurons Using FM Labeling

The ability to measure the kinetics of vesicle release can help provide insight into some of the basics of neurotransmission.  Here we used real-time imaging of vesicles labeled with FM dye to monitor the rate of presynaptic vesicle release.  FM4-64 is a red fluorescent amphiphilic styryl dye that embeds into the membranes of synaptic vesicles as endocytosis is stimulated.  Lipophilic interactions cause the dye to greatly increase in fluorescence, thus emitting a bright signal when associated with vesicles and a nominal one when in the extracellular fluid. After a wash step is used to help remove external dye within the plasma membrane, the remaining FM is concentrated within the vesicles and is then expelled when exocytosis is induced by another round of electrical stimulation. The rate of vesicles release is measured from the resulting decrease in fluorescence.  Since FM dye can be applied external and transiently, it is a useful tool for determining rates of exocytosis in neuronal cultures, especially when comparing the rates between transfected synapses and neighboring control boutons.



The ability to measure the kinetics of vesicle release can help provide insight into some of the basics of neurotransmission. Here we used real-time imaging of vesicles labeled with the red fluorescent dye FM 4-64 to measure the rate of presynaptic vesicle release in hippocampal neuronal cultures.

The ability to measure the kinetics of vesicle release can help provide insight into some of the basics of neurotransmission.  Here we used real-time ...

Quantitative Analysis of Synaptic Vesicle Pool Replenishment in Cultured Cerebellar Granule Neurons using FM Dyes

After neurotransmitter release in central nerve terminals, SVs are rapidly retrieved by endocytosis. Retrieved SVs are then refilled with neurotransmitter and rejoin the recycling pool, defined as SVs that are available for exocytosis1,2. The recycling pool can generally be subdivided into two distinct pools - the readily releasable pool (RRP) and the reserve pool (RP). As their names imply, the RRP consists of SVs that are immediately available for fusion while RP SVs are released only during intense stimulation1,2. It is important to have a reliable assay that reports the differential replenishment of these SV pools in order to understand 1) how SVs traffic after different modes of endocytosis (such as clathrin-dependent endocytosis and activity-dependent bulk endocytosis) and 2) the mechanisms controlling the mobilisation of both the RRP and RP in response to different stimuli.
FM dyes are routinely employed to quantitatively report SV turnover in central nerve terminals3-8. They have a hydrophobic hydrocarbon tail that allows reversible partitioning in the lipid bilayer, and a hydrophilic head group that blocks passage across membranes. The dyes have little fluorescence in aqueous solution, but their quantum yield increases dramatically when partitioned in membrane9. Thus FM dyes are ideal fluorescent probes for tracking actively recycling SVs. The standard protocol for use of FM dye is as follows. First they are applied to neurons and are taken up during endocytosis (Figure 1). After non-internalised dye is washed away from the plasma membrane, recycled SVs redistribute within the recycling pool. These SVs are then depleted using unloading stimuli (Figure 1). Since FM dye labelling of SVs is quantal10, the resulting fluorescence drop is proportional to the amount of vesicles released. Thus, the recycling and fusion of SVs generated from the previous round of endocytosis can be reliably quantified.
Here, we present a protocol that has been modified to obtain two additional elements of information. Firstly, sequential unloading stimuli are used to differentially unload the RRP and the RP, to allow quantification of the replenishment of specific SV pools. Secondly, each nerve terminal undergoes the protocol twice. Thus, the response of the same nerve terminal at S1 can be compared against the presence of a test substance at phase S2 (Figure 2), providing an internal control. This is important, since the extent of SV recycling across different nerve terminals is highly variable11.
Any adherent primary neuronal cultures may be used for this protocol, however the plating density, solutions and stimulation conditions are optimised for cerebellar granule neurons (CGNs)12,13.

A live fluorescence imaging technique to quantify the replenishment and mobilisation of specific synaptic vesicle (SV) pools in central nerve terminals is described. Two rounds of SV recycling are monitored in the same nerve terminals providing an internal control.

After neurotransmitter release in central nerve terminals, SVs are rapidly retrieved by endocytosis.  Retrieved SVs are then refilled with ...

TIRFM and pH-sensitive GFP-probes to Evaluate Neurotransmitter Vesicle Dynamics in SH-SY5Y Neuroblastoma Cells: Cell Imaging and Data Analysis

Synaptic vesicles release neurotransmitters at chemical synapses through a dynamic cycle of fusion and retrieval. Monitoring synaptic activity in real time and dissecting the different steps of exo-endocytosis at the single-vesicle level are crucial for understanding synaptic functions in health and disease.
Genetically-encoded pH-sensitive probes directly targeted to synaptic vesicles and Total Internal Reflection Fluorescence Microscopy (TIRFM) provide the spatio-temporal resolution necessary to follow vesicle dynamics. The evanescent field generated by total internal reflection can only excite fluorophores placed in a thin layer (&#60;150 nm) above the glass cover on which cells adhere, exactly where the processes of exo-endocytosis take place. The resulting high-contrast images are ideally suited for vesicles tracking and quantitative analysis of fusion events.
In this protocol, SH-SY5Y human neuroblastoma cells are proposed as a valuable model for studying neurotransmitter release at the single-vesicle level by TIRFM, because of their flat surface and the presence of dispersed vesicles. The methods for growing SH-SY5Y as adherent cells and for transfecting them with synapto-pHluorin are provided, as well as the technique&#160;to perform TIRFM and imaging. Finally, a strategy aiming to select, count, and analyze fusion events at whole-cell and single-vesicle levels is presented.
To validate the imaging procedure and data analysis approach, the dynamics of pHluorin-tagged vesicles are&#160;analyzed under resting and stimulated (depolarizing potassium concentrations) conditions. Membrane depolarization increases the frequency of fusion events and causes a parallel raise of the net fluorescence signal recorded in whole cell. Single-vesicle analysis reveals modifications of fusion-event behavior (increased peak height and width). These data suggest that potassium depolarization not only induces a massive neurotransmitter release but also modifies the mechanism of vesicle fusion and recycling.
With the appropriate fluorescent probe, this technique can be employed in different cellular systems to dissect the mechanisms of constitutive and stimulated secretion.

This paper provides a method for investigating neurotransmitter vesicle dynamics in neuroblastoma cells, using a synaptobrevin2-pHluorin construct and Total Internal Reflection Fluorescence Microscopy. The strategy developed for image processing and data analysis is also reported.

Synaptic vesicles release neurotransmitters at chemical synapses through a dynamic cycle of fusion and retrieval. Monitoring synaptic activity in real ...

Measuring Synaptic Vesicle Endocytosis in Cultured Hippocampal Neurons

During endocytosis, fused synaptic vesicles are retrieved at nerve terminals, allowing for vesicle recycling and thus the maintenance of synaptic transmission during repetitive nerve firing. Impaired endocytosis in pathological conditions leads to decreases in synaptic strength and brain functions. Here, we describe methods used to measure synaptic vesicle endocytosis at the mammalian hippocampal synapse in neuronal culture. We monitored synaptic vesicle protein endocytosis by fusing a synaptic vesicular membrane protein, including synaptophysin and VAMP2/synaptobrevin, at the vesicular lumenal side, with pHluorin, a pH-sensitive green fluorescent protein that increases its fluorescence intensity as the pH increases. During exocytosis, vesicular lumen pH increases, whereas during endocytosis vesicular lumen pH is re-acidified. Thus, an increase of pHluorin fluorescence intensity indicates fusion, whereas a decrease indicates endocytosis of the labelled synaptic vesicle protein. In addition to using the pHluorin imaging method to record endocytosis, we monitored vesicular membrane endocytosis by electron microscopy (EM) measurements of Horseradish peroxidase (HRP) uptake by vesicles. Finally, we monitored the formation of nerve terminal membrane pits at various times after high potassium-induced depolarization. The time course of HRP uptake and membrane pit formation indicates the time course of endocytosis.

Synaptic vesicle endocytosis is detected by light microscopy of pHluorin fused with synaptic vesicle protein and by electron microscopy of vesicle uptake.

During endocytosis, fused synaptic vesicles are retrieved at nerve terminals, allowing for vesicle recycling and thus the maintenance of synaptic ...

FM Dye Cycling at the Synapse: Comparing High Potassium Depolarization, Electrical and Channelrhodopsin Stimulation

FM dyes are used to study the synaptic vesicle (SV) cycle. These amphipathic probes have a hydrophilic head and hydrophobic tail, making them water-soluble with the ability to reversibly enter and exit membrane lipid bilayers. These styryl dyes are relatively non-fluorescent in aqueous medium, but insertion into the outer leaflet of the plasma membrane causes a &#62;40X increase in fluorescence. In neuronal synapses, FM dyes are internalized during SV endocytosis, trafficked both within and between SV pools, and released with SV exocytosis, providing a powerful tool to visualize presynaptic stages of neurotransmission. A primary genetic model of glutamatergic synapse development and function is the Drosophila neuromuscular junction (NMJ), where FM dye imaging has been used extensively to quantify SV dynamics in a wide range of mutant conditions. The NMJ synaptic terminal is easily accessible, with a beautiful array of large synaptic boutons ideal for imaging applications. Here, we compare and contrast the three ways to stimulate the Drosophila NMJ to drive activity-dependent FM1-43 dye uptake/release: 1) bath application of high [K+] to depolarize neuromuscular tissues, 2) suction electrode motor nerve stimulation to depolarize the presynaptic nerve terminal, and 3) targeted transgenic expression of channelrhodopsin variants for light-stimulated, spatial control of depolarization. Each of these methods has benefits and disadvantages for the study of genetic mutation effects on the SV cycle at the Drosophila NMJ. We will discuss these advantages and disadvantages to assist the selection of the stimulation approach, together with the methodologies specific to each strategy. In addition to fluorescent imaging, FM dyes can be photoconverted to electron-dense signals visualized using transmission electron microscopy (TEM) to study SV cycle mechanisms at an ultrastructural level. We provide the comparisons of confocal and electron microscopy imaging from the different methods of Drosophila NMJ stimulation, to help guide the selection of future experimental paradigms.

Synaptic vesicle (SV) cycling is the core mechanism of intercellular communication at neuronal synapses. FM dye uptake and release are the primary means of quantitatively assaying SV endo- and exocytosis. Here, we compare all the stimulation methods to drive FM1-43 cycling at the Drosophila neuromuscular junction (NMJ) model synapse.

FM dyes are used to study the synaptic vesicle (SV) cycle. These amphipathic probes have a hydrophilic head and hydrophobic tail, making them ...

An Optical Assay for Synaptic Vesicle Recycling in Cultured Neurons Overexpressing Presynaptic Proteins

At active presynaptic nerve terminals, synaptic vesicles undergo cycles of exo- and endocytosis. During recycling, the luminal domains of SV transmembrane proteins become exposed at the cell surface. One of these proteins is Synaptotagmin-1 (Syt1). An antibody directed against the luminal domain of Syt1, once added to the culture medium, is taken up during the exo-endocytotic cycle. This uptake is proportional to the amount of SV recycling and can be quantified through immunofluorescence. Here, we combine Syt1 antibody uptake with double transfection of cultured hippocampal neurons. This allows us to (1) localize presynaptic sites based on expression of recombinant presynaptic marker Synaptophysin, (2) determine their functionality using Syt1 uptake, and (3) characterize the targeting and effects of a protein of interest, GFP-Rogdi.

We describe an optical assay for synaptic vesicle (SV) recycling in cultured neurons. Combining this protocol with double transfection to express a presynaptic marker and protein of interest allows us to locate presynaptic sites, their synaptic vesicle recycling capacity, and determine the role of the protein of interest.

At active presynaptic nerve terminals, synaptic vesicles undergo cycles of exo- and endocytosis. During recycling, the luminal domains of SV transmembrane ...

Real-Time Fluorescent Measurement of Synaptic Functions in Models of Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis

Before neuronal degeneration, the cause of motor and cognitive deficits in patients with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and/or frontotemporal lobe dementia (FTLD) is dysfunction of communication between neurons and motor neurons and muscle. The underlying process of synaptic transmission involves membrane depolarization-dependent synaptic vesicle fusion and the release of neurotransmitters into the synapse. This process occurs through localized calcium influx into the presynaptic terminals where synaptic vesicles reside. Here, the protocol describes fluorescence-based live-imaging methodologies that reliably report depolarization-mediated synaptic vesicle exocytosis and presynaptic terminal calcium influx dynamics in cultured neurons.
Using a styryl dye that is incorporated into synaptic vesicle membranes, the synaptic vesicle release is elucidated. On the other hand, to study calcium entry, Gcamp6m is used, a genetically encoded fluorescent reporter. We employ high potassium chloride-mediated depolarization to mimic neuronal activity. To quantify synaptic vesicle exocytosis unambiguously, we measure the loss of normalized styryl dye fluorescence as a function of time. Under similar stimulation conditions, in the case of calcium influx, Gcamp6m fluorescence increases. Normalization and quantification of this fluorescence change are performed in a similar manner to the styryl dye protocol. These methods can be multiplexed with transfection-based overexpression of fluorescently tagged mutant proteins. These protocols have been extensively used to study synaptic dysfunction in models of FUS-ALS and C9ORF72-ALS, utilizing primary rodent cortical and motor neurons. These protocols easily allow for rapid screening of compounds that may improve neuronal communication. As such, these methods are valuable not only for the study of ALS but for all areas of neurodegenerative and developmental neuroscience research.

Two related methods are described to visualize subcellular events required for synaptic transmission. These protocols enable the real-time monitoring of the dynamics of presynaptic calcium influx and synaptic vesicle membrane fusion using live-cell imaging of in vitro cultured neurons.

Before neuronal degeneration, the cause of motor and cognitive deficits in patients with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and/or frontotemporal lobe ...

Live Imaging of Synaptic Vesicle Recycling in the Neuromuscular Junction of Dissected Larval Zebrafish

Neuronal communication is mediated by synaptic transmission, which depends primarily on the release of neurotransmitters stored in synaptic vesicles (SVs) in response to an action potential (AP). Since SVs are recycled locally at the presynaptic terminal, coordination of SV exocytosis and endocytosis is important for sustained synaptic transmission. A pH-sensitive green fluorescent protein, called pHluorin, provides a powerful tool to monitor SV exo/endocytosis by targeting it to the SV lumen. However, tracking AP-driven SV recycling with the pHluorin-based probes is still largely limited to in vitro culture preparations because the introduction of genetically encoded probes and subsequent optical imaging is technically challenging in general for in vivo animal models or tissue preparations. Zebrafish is a model system offering valuable features, including ease of genetic manipulation, optical clarity, and rapid external development. We recently generated a transgenic zebrafish that highly expresses a pHluorin-labeled probe at motor neuron terminals and developed a protocol to monitor AP-driven SV exo/endocytosis at the neuromuscular junction (NMJ), a well-established synapse model that forms in vivo. In this article, we show how to prepare larval zebrafish NMJ preparation suitable for pHluorin imaging. We also show that the preparation allows time-lapse imaging under conventional upright epifluorescence microscope, providing a cost-effective platform for analyzing NMJ function.

The zebrafish larval neuromuscular junction is an attractive model for studying synaptic physiology. It is amenable to many experimental techniques, including electrophysiology and optical imaging. Here, we describe a protocol for imaging synaptic transmission using a pHluorin-based probe under an upright epifluorescence microscope.

Neuronal communication is mediated by synaptic transmission, which depends primarily on the release of neurotransmitters stored in synaptic vesicles (SVs) ...

FM Dyes in Vesicle Recycling

FM dyes are a class of fluorescent molecules that has found important use in studying the vesicle recycling process. By virtue of a chemical structure, these molecules can insert themselves into the outer leaflet of phospholipid bilayer membranes. After membrane insertion, they are internalized into the cell via endocytosed vesicles, and released when these vesicles recycle back to the membrane. Since, these dyes fluoresce strongly in the hydrophobic environment within membranes and weakly in the extracellular compartment, FM fluorescence levels can be used to track vesicular activity throughout the recycling process.This video provides an introduction to the use of FM dyes in experiments aimed to examine vesicle recycling. We first review the biochemistry of FM dyes and how their properties permit their use in these experiments. We then go through a general protocol for using FM dyes in such studies, and finally, discuss some recent research that makes use of these unique molecules.

FM dyes are a class of fluorescent molecules that has found important use in studying the vesicle recycling process. By virtue of a chemical structure, ...