1) Preparation of Drosophila melanogaster neuronal muscular junction (NMJ)
<ol>
<li>Prepare standard Drosophila saline (130 mM NaCl, 36 mM sucrose, 5 mM KCl, 2 mM CaCl2, 2 mM MgCl2, 5 mM Hepes, pH 7.3 4.</li>
<li>Dissect the preparation in saline (1.1). The Drosophila larvae is pined dorsal side-up in a Sylgard dish; the dorsal side is sectioned longitudinal, and the internal organs are removed. The preparation is then stretched and pined. Several ventral muscles can be then used.</li>
</ol>
2) Stimulation and FM staining
<ol>
<li>It is advisable to do all the following steps in low light conditions, in order to protect FM dyes from bleaching.</li>
<li>For chemical stimulation of the nerves, high potassium buffer is used. Prepare Drosophila saline (see 1.1) containing 90 mM of KCl and 10 &mu;M of FM1-43 dye. Keep the solution protected from light.</li>
<li>Bath the preparation with the previously prepared buffer for 1 minute at room temperature. </li>
<li>Wash with standard Drosophila saline (1.1) to remove extracellular FM1-43 dye. Proceed rapidly to fixation.</li>
</ol>
3) Fixing
<ol>
<li>Bath the preparation with 2.5% glutaraldehyde in phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) for 45 minutes at room temperature. For good preservation of morphological features, glutaraldehyde is preferred to paraformaldehyde.</li>
<li>Wash once with PBS and then leave the preparation submerged for 15 minutes in 100 mM of NH4Cl. This step is done in order to quench the free aldehyde groups of the remaining glutaraldehyde fixative. </li>
<li>Wash the NH4Cl solution out with normal PBS.</li>
</ol>
4) Photoconversion
<ol>
<li>Incubate the NMJ preparation for 30 minutes at 4&deg;C in PBS containing 1.5 mg ml-1 of diaminobenzidine (DAB). </li>
<li>Position the sample under the fluorescent microscope. Find and focus the fluorescent signal using a relatively low magnification water immersion objective (20x 0.5 NA).</li>
<li>Illuminate the sample with the maximum lamp intensity until the FM dye is completely bleached (Figure 1C). To control if photoconversion has occurred, is advisable to check at the sample under transmission light before and after the FM dye-bleaching step. If photoconversion takes place, a dark brown precipitate is expected (Figure 1C). The illumination time is variable, depending upon the illumination strength and also upon the DAB penetration into the preparation. For most preparations, we found illumination times of ~30-45 minutes to be optimal when using a 20x objective. Shorter illumination periods are used for higher magnification objectives (60x).</li>
<li>For illumination we prefer to use a mercury lamp, with a lamp housing containing a back mirror, which collects the back-scattered light beams, and therefore increases total intensity.</li>
</ol>
5) Processing the sample for EM
<ol>
<li>Osmication
 <ol class="lalpha">
 <li>Prepare a solution with one volume of osmium tetroxide in tree volumes of water (approx. 300 &mu;l per sample). Work using osmium tetroxide must be done under the hood, using gloves and aye protection equipment.</li>
 <li>Incubate the preparation in the osmium tetroxide solution for 1 hour at room temperature (Under the hood).</li>
 <li>Wash extensively with PBS (4-5 times 5 minutes) and transfer each samples to a clean glass flask.</li>
 </ol>
 </li>
<li>Dehydration
 <ol class="lalpha">
 <li>Prepare separate solutions containing 30, 50, 70 90, 95 and 100% of ethanol.</li>
 <li>Add 1 ml of 30% ethanol to each sample for 5 minutes.</li>
 <li>Add 1 ml of 50% ethanol to each sample for 5 minutes.</li>
 <li>Add 1 ml of 70% ethanol to each sample for 5 minutes.</li>
 <li>Add 1 ml of 90% ethanol to each sample for 5 minutes.</li>
 <li>Add 1 ml of 95% ethanol to each sample for 5 minutes (repeat 3x).</li>
 <li>Add 1 ml of 100% ethanol to each sample for 5 minutes (repeat 3x).</li>
 </ol>
</li>
<li>Embedding and further processing
 <ol class="lalpha">
 <li>Mix 1 volume of Epon resin with one volume of ethanol. Add it to the preparation under continuous rotation (2-4 hours).</li>
 <li>Place the preparation in 100% Epon in open flasks, allow the remaining ethanol to evaporate (4-6 hours).</li>
 <li>Place the preparation in moulds at 60&deg;C for 36 hours.</li>
 <li>Electron microscopy processing. Process the preparation in 50-80 nm thin sections, using standard ultramicrotomy procedures.</li>
 </ol>
</li>
<li>Electron microscopy imaging
 <ol class="lalpha">
 <li>The preparation is imaged using conventional EM procedures.</li>
 </ol>
</li>
</ol>
6) Representative Results
The expected results are outlined in Figures 1C and 2. The illumination procedure results in the formation of brown DAB precipitate, which will be visible in both fluorescence and transmission imaging. The first occurrence during illumination is the disappearance of fluorescence associated with the FM dye staining. The background fluorescence induced by the aldehyde fixative, in contrast, will be visible throughout the experiment. The bleaching takes place typically in ~10-20 minutes after the start of illumination. Typically no photoconversion product can be observed at this time point.
Illumination should be continued, and after ~10 minutes the preparations will turn to a brown shade due to DAB accumulation (Fig 1Civ) It is unclear why DAB precipitation and FM dye bleaching do not take place simultaneously; it is possible that a relatively large amount of oxidized DAB needs to accumulate before aggregation and precipitation, and that therefore this reaction is slower than the bleaching process. At this stage, however, the preparation is not ready for electron microscopy processing, as the DAB precipitation is likely incomplete. We prefer to wait 5-10 minutes longer, during which the preparation (presynaptic nerve terminal) assumes a dark-brown (or black) color, indicative of complete conversion. A slight conversion of the general surface of the preparation (for example, of the muscle fibers in a neuromuscular junction) can be observed at this stage. It is most likely related to a conversion of DAB induced by autofluorescence (and/or fixative fluorescence), and it is not detrimental to the procedure.
The preparation is then processed for electron microscopy, and should be checked for the presence of dark (labeled) vesicles. As we have demonstrated before 5,6, these vesicles are much denser than non-labeled ones, and are therefore easily distinguished (Figure 2B). To increase the chance of distinguishing well the different types of vesicles, no contrast-enhancing post staining of the sections should be performed (no uranyl acetate or lead citrate staining); the osmium staining is sufficient to observe most cellular elements, and is not as dark as DAB precipitate.
<img src="/files/ftp_upload/1790/1790fig1.jpg" alt="Figure 1" /> Figure 1: FM dyes and it use for photoconversion. (A) Represent the steps of a classical experiment for loading and distaining vesicles using FM dye under stimulation. (i) Incubate the sample in FM dye containing buffer. (ii) Stimulate (electrically or chemically) to induce vesicle fusion in presence of FM dye. (iii) The subsequence endocytosis after stimulation will load some vesicles with FM dye still present in the extracellular buffer. (iv) Replace the extracellular FM dye by washing with buffer. (v) A new stimulation will induce loaded vesicles to release their FM dye upon exocytosis. (B) Schematic showing the head, bridge and tail of the FM1-43 dye. (C) Example of a photoconversion experiment in Drosophila NMJ. (i) After loading the NMJ with FM1-43, washing external dye molecules and fixing, the fluorescence of a nerve terminal can be observed with a conventional epifluorescence microscope (63x). (ii-iii) Under continuous illumination the dye is completely bleached. (iv) When illumination continues, a black color appears due to diaminobenzidine precipitation. Scale bar represents 10 &mu;m.
<img src="/files/ftp_upload/1790/1790fig2.jpg" alt="Figure 2" /> Figure 2: EM examples of photoconverted samples. (A) The image shows a nerve terminal containing synaptic vesicles, but not of them are photoconverted; this might be caused by not having enough illumination or poor diaminobenzidine penetration in the tissue. (B) Synaptic bouton with several dark (filled) vesicles that went through FM photoconversion. (C) Excess of illumination results in an overall dark terminal where no vesicles or organelles are distinguishable. Scale bars represent 200 nm.

<ol>
	<li>Betz, W. J., Bewick, G. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Optical+analysis+of+synaptic+vesicle+recycling+at+the+frog+neuromuscular+junction.">Optical analysis of synaptic vesicle recycling at the frog neuromuscular junction.</a> Science. 255, 200-203 (1992).</li><li>Henkel, A. W., L&#252;bke, J., Betz, W. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=FM1-43+dye+ultrastructural+localization+in+and+release+from+frog+motor+nerve+terminals.">FM1-43 dye ultrastructural localization in and release from frog motor nerve terminals.</a> Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 93, 1918-1923 (1996).</li><li>Sandell, J. H., Masland, R. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Photoconversion+of+some+fluorescent+markers+to+a+diaminobenzidine+product.">Photoconversion of some fluorescent markers to a diaminobenzidine product.</a> J Histochem Cytochem. 36, 555-559 (1988).</li><li>Kuromi, H., Kidokoro, Y. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+optically+determined+size+of+exo/endo+cycling+vesicle+pool+correlates+with+the+quantal+content+at+the+neuromuscular+junction+of+Drosophila+larvae.">The optically determined size of exo/endo cycling vesicle pool correlates with the quantal content at the neuromuscular junction of Drosophila larvae.</a> J Neurosci. 19, 1557-1565 (1999).</li><li>Denker, A., Kr&#246;hnert, K., Rizzoli, S. O. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Revisiting+synaptic+vesicle+pool+localization+in+the+Drosophila+neuromuscular+junction.">Revisiting synaptic vesicle pool localization in the Drosophila neuromuscular junction.</a> J Physiol (Lond). 587, 2919-2926 (2009).</li><li>Rizzoli, S. O., Betz, W. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+structural+organization+of+the+readily+releasable+pool+of+synaptic+vesicles.">The structural organization of the readily releasable pool of synaptic vesicles.</a> Science. 303, 2037-2039 (2004).</li><li>Darcy, K. J., Staras, K., Collinson, L. M., Goda, Y. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Constitutive+sharing+of+recycling+synaptic+vesicles+between+presynaptic+boutons.">Constitutive sharing of recycling synaptic vesicles between presynaptic boutons.</a> Nat Neurosci. 9, 315-321 (2006).</li><li>Harata, N., Ryan, T. A., Smith, S. J., Buchanan, J., Tsien, R. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Visualizing+recycling+synaptic+vesicles+in+hippocampal+neurons+by+FM1-43+photoconversion.">Visualizing recycling synaptic vesicles in hippocampal neurons by FM1-43 photoconversion.</a> Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 98, 12748-12753 (2001).</li><li>Lange, R. P. J. d. e., de Roos, A. D. G., Borst, J. G. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Two+modes+of+vesicle+recycling+in+the+rat+calyx+of+Held.">Two modes of vesicle recycling in the rat calyx of Held.</a> J Neurosci. 23, 10164-10173 (2003).</li><li>Richards, D. A., Guatimosim, C., Rizzoli, S. O., Betz, W. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Synaptic+vesicle+pools+at+the+frog+neuromuscular+junction.">Synaptic vesicle pools at the frog neuromuscular junction.</a> Neuron. 39, 529-541 (2003).</li></ol>

A few critical steps should be taken into account:
<ul>
<li>The DAB incubation should be performed only after thorough washing and quenching of the preparations. Otherwise the non-reacted glutaraldehyde will interact with DAB and cause its precipitation (typically in the form of flat crystals, which are not electron dense). Preparations where this precipitation takes place abundantly are rarely usable for electron microscopy.</li>
<li>Illumination times should be optimized, by testing several identical preparation...

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		<div>
		<table border="1">
		<thead>
		<tr>
		<th>Material Name</th>
		<th>Type</th>
		<th>Company</th>
		<th>Catalogue Number</th>
		<th>Comment</th>
		</tr>
		</thead>
		<tbody>
		
<tr>
<td>FM 1-43</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Invitrogen</td>
<td>F10317</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>Epon resin</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Plano</td>
<td>R1030</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>di-aminobenzidine hydrochloride</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Sigma</td>
<td>D5905</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>50% Glutaraldehyde</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>AppliChem</td>
<td>A3166</td>
<td>EM grade</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Sylgard</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Dow Corning</td>
<td>104186298</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>Axioskop 2 FS plus</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Zeiss</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>Objective 20x 0.5 NA</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Olympus</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Dry objective</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>100W Hg Lamp</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Zeiss</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>Lamp housing with back mirror</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Zeiss</td>
<td>1007-980</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>MRm camera</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Zeiss</td>
<td>0445-554</td>
<td>Image acquisition</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Ex. Filter (HQ 470/40)</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>AHF</td>
<td>F49-671</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>Dichroic (495 DCLP)</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>AHF</td>
<td>F33-100</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>Em. Filter (HQ 500 LP)</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>AHF</td>
<td>F42-018</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>EM</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Zeiss</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>Proscan CCD HSS</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Proscan Electronic Sys.</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>1024 x 1024</td>
</tr>		</tbody>
		</table>
		</div>

studying synaptic vesicle pools using photoconversion of styryl dyes

The fusion of synaptic vesicles with the plasma membrane (exocytosis) is a required step in neurotransmitter release and neuronal communication. The vesicles are then retrieved from the plasma membrane (endocytosis) and grouped together with the general pool of vesicles within the nerve terminal, until they undergo a new exo- and endocytosis cycle (vesicle recycling). These processes have been studied using a variety of techniques such as electron microscopy, electrophysiology recordings, amperometry and capacitance measurements. Importantly, during the last two decades a number of fluorescently labeled markers emerged, allowing optical techniques to track vesicles in their recycling dynamics. One of the most commonly used markers is the styryl or FM dye 1; structurally, all FM dyes contain a hydrophilic head and a lipophilic tail connected through an aromatic ring and one or more double bonds (Fig. 1B). A classical FM dye experiment to label a pool of vesicles consists in bathing the preparation (Fig. 1Ai) with the dye during the stimulation of the nerve (electrically or with high K+). This induces vesicle recycling and the subsequent loading of the dye into recently endocytosed vesicles (Fig. 1Ai-iii). After loading the vesicles with dye, a second round of stimulation in a dye-free bath would trigger the FM release through exocytosis (Fig. 1Aiv-v), process that can be followed by monitoring the fluorescence intensity decrease (destaining).

Although FM dyes have contributed greatly to the field of vesicle recycling, it is not possible to determine the exact localization or morphology of individual vesicles by using conventional fluorescence microscopy. For that reason, we explain here how FM dyes can also be used as endocytic markers using electron microscopy, through photoconversion. The photoconversion technique exploits the property of fluorescent dyes to generate reactive oxygen species under intense illumination. Fluorescently labeled preparations are submerged in a solution containing diaminobenzidine (DAB) and illuminated. Reactive species generated by the dye molecules oxidize the DAB, which forms a stable, insoluble precipitate that has a dark appearance and can be easily distinguished in electron microscopy 2,3. As DAB is only oxidized in the immediate vicinity of fluorescent molecules (as the reactive oxygen species are short-lived), the technique ensures that only fluorescently labeled structures are going to contain the electron-dense precipitate. The technique thus allows the study of the exact location and morphology of actively recycling organelles.

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Studying Synaptic Vesicle Pools using Photoconversion of Styryl Dyes at JoVE.com

Studying Synaptic Vesicle Pools using Photoconversion of Styryl Dyes

FM dyes have been of invaluable help in the understanding of synaptic dynamics. FMs are normally followed under the fluorescent microscope during different stimulation conditions. However, photoconversion of FM dyes combined with electron microscopy allows the visualization of distinct synaptic vesicle pools, among other ultrastructure components, in synaptic boutons.

The fusion of synaptic vesicles with the plasma membrane (exocytosis) is a required step in neurotransmitter release and neuronal communication. The ...

studying-synaptic-vesicle-pools-using-photoconversion-of-styryl-dyes

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JoVE Journal

Neuroscience

11.6K Views.  European Neuroscience Institute Göttingen. FM dyes have been of invaluable help in the understanding of synaptic dynamics. FMs are normally followed under the fluorescent microscope during different stimulation conditions. However, photoconversion of FM dyes combined with electron microscopy allows the visualization of distinct synaptic vesicle pools, among other ultrastructure components, in synaptic boutons.

Video: Studying Synaptic Vesicle Pools using Photoconversion of Styryl Dyes

Quantitative Analysis of Synaptic Vesicle Pool Replenishment in Cultured Cerebellar Granule Neurons using FM Dyes

After neurotransmitter release in central nerve terminals, SVs are rapidly retrieved by endocytosis. Retrieved SVs are then refilled with neurotransmitter and rejoin the recycling pool, defined as SVs that are available for exocytosis1,2. The recycling pool can generally be subdivided into two distinct pools - the readily releasable pool (RRP) and the reserve pool (RP). As their names imply, the RRP consists of SVs that are immediately available for fusion while RP SVs are released only during intense stimulation1,2. It is important to have a reliable assay that reports the differential replenishment of these SV pools in order to understand 1) how SVs traffic after different modes of endocytosis (such as clathrin-dependent endocytosis and activity-dependent bulk endocytosis) and 2) the mechanisms controlling the mobilisation of both the RRP and RP in response to different stimuli.
FM dyes are routinely employed to quantitatively report SV turnover in central nerve terminals3-8. They have a hydrophobic hydrocarbon tail that allows reversible partitioning in the lipid bilayer, and a hydrophilic head group that blocks passage across membranes. The dyes have little fluorescence in aqueous solution, but their quantum yield increases dramatically when partitioned in membrane9. Thus FM dyes are ideal fluorescent probes for tracking actively recycling SVs. The standard protocol for use of FM dye is as follows. First they are applied to neurons and are taken up during endocytosis (Figure 1). After non-internalised dye is washed away from the plasma membrane, recycled SVs redistribute within the recycling pool. These SVs are then depleted using unloading stimuli (Figure 1). Since FM dye labelling of SVs is quantal10, the resulting fluorescence drop is proportional to the amount of vesicles released. Thus, the recycling and fusion of SVs generated from the previous round of endocytosis can be reliably quantified.
Here, we present a protocol that has been modified to obtain two additional elements of information. Firstly, sequential unloading stimuli are used to differentially unload the RRP and the RP, to allow quantification of the replenishment of specific SV pools. Secondly, each nerve terminal undergoes the protocol twice. Thus, the response of the same nerve terminal at S1 can be compared against the presence of a test substance at phase S2 (Figure 2), providing an internal control. This is important, since the extent of SV recycling across different nerve terminals is highly variable11.
Any adherent primary neuronal cultures may be used for this protocol, however the plating density, solutions and stimulation conditions are optimised for cerebellar granule neurons (CGNs)12,13.

A live fluorescence imaging technique to quantify the replenishment and mobilisation of specific synaptic vesicle (SV) pools in central nerve terminals is described. Two rounds of SV recycling are monitored in the same nerve terminals providing an internal control.

After neurotransmitter release in central nerve terminals, SVs are rapidly retrieved by endocytosis.  Retrieved SVs are then refilled with ...

Lateral Diffusion and Exocytosis of Membrane Proteins in Cultured Neurons Assessed using Fluorescence Recovery and Fluorescence-loss Photobleaching

Membrane proteins such as receptors and ion channels undergo active trafficking in neurons, which are highly polarised and morphologically complex. This directed trafficking is of fundamental importance to deliver, maintain or remove synaptic proteins.
Super-ecliptic pHluorin (SEP) is a pH-sensitive derivative of eGFP that has been extensively used for live cell imaging of plasma membrane proteins1-2. At low pH, protonation of SEP decreases photon absorption and eliminates fluorescence emission. As most intracellular trafficking events occur in compartments with low pH, where SEP fluorescence is eclipsed, the fluorescence signal from SEP-tagged proteins is predominantly from the plasma membrane where the SEP is exposed to a neutral pH extracellular environment. When illuminated at high intensity SEP, like every fluorescent dye, is irreversibly photodamaged (photobleached)3-5. Importantly, because low pH quenches photon absorption, only surface expressed SEP can be photobleached whereas intracellular SEP is unaffected by the high intensity illumination6-10. 
FRAP (fluorescence recovery after photobleaching) of SEP-tagged proteins is a convenient and powerful technique for assessing protein dynamics at the plasma membrane. When fluorescently tagged proteins are photobleached in a region of interest (ROI) the recovery in fluorescence occurs due to the movement of unbleached SEP-tagged proteins into the bleached region. This can occur via lateral diffusion and/or from exocytosis of non-photobleached receptors supplied either by de novo synthesis or recycling (see Fig. 1). The fraction of immobile and mobile protein can be determined and the mobility and kinetics of the diffusible fraction can be interrogated under basal and stimulated conditions such as agonist application or neuronal activation stimuli such as NMDA or KCl application8,10. 
We describe photobleaching techniques designed to selectively visualize the recovery of fluorescence attributable to exocytosis. Briefly, an ROI is photobleached once as with standard FRAP protocols, followed, after a brief recovery, by repetitive bleaching of the flanking regions. This 'FRAP-FLIP' protocol, developed in our lab, has been used to characterize AMPA receptor trafficking at dendritic spines10, and is applicable to a wide range of trafficking studies to evaluate the intracellular trafficking and exocytosis.

This report describes the use of live cell imaging and photobleach techniques to determine the surface expression, transport pathways and trafficking kinetics of exogenously expressed, pH-sensitive GFP-tagged proteins at the plasma membrane of neurons.

Membrane proteins such as receptors and ion channels undergo active trafficking in neurons, which are highly polarised and morphologically complex. This ...

Examination of Synaptic Vesicle Recycling Using FM Dyes During Evoked, Spontaneous, and Miniature Synaptic Activities

Synaptic vesicles in functional nerve terminals undergo exocytosis and endocytosis. This synaptic vesicle recycling can be effectively analyzed using styryl FM dyes, which reveal membrane turnover. Conventional protocols for the use of FM dyes were designed for analyzing neurons following stimulated (evoked) synaptic activity. Recently, protocols have become available for analyzing the FM signals that accompany weaker synaptic activities, such as spontaneous or miniature synaptic events. Analysis of these small changes in FM signals requires that the imaging system is sufficiently sensitive to detect small changes in intensity, yet that artifactual changes of large amplitude are suppressed. Here we describe a protocol that can be applied to evoked, spontaneous, and miniature synaptic activities, and use cultured hippocampal neurons as an example. This protocol also incorporates a means of assessing the rate of photobleaching of FM dyes, as this is a significant source of artifacts when imaging small changes in intensity.

We describe the use of styryl FM dyes to image synaptic vesicle recycling in functional nerve terminals. This protocol can be applied not only to evoked, but also spontaneous and miniature synaptic activities. The protocol expands the variety of synaptic events that can be effectively evaluated.

Synaptic vesicles in functional nerve terminals undergo exocytosis and endocytosis. This synaptic vesicle recycling can be effectively analyzed using ...

Deriving the Time Course of Glutamate Clearance with a Deconvolution Analysis of Astrocytic Transporter Currents

The highest density of glutamate transporters in the brain is found in astrocytes. Glutamate transporters couple the movement of glutamate across the membrane with the co-transport of 3 Na+ and 1 H+ and the counter-transport of 1 K+. The stoichiometric current generated by the transport process can be monitored with whole-cell patch-clamp recordings from astrocytes. The time course of the recorded current is shaped by the time course of the glutamate concentration profile to which astrocytes are exposed, the kinetics of glutamate transporters, and the passive electrotonic properties of astrocytic membranes. Here we describe the experimental and analytical methods that can be used to record glutamate transporter currents in astrocytes and isolate the time course of glutamate clearance from all other factors that shape the waveform of astrocytic transporter currents. The methods described here can be used to estimate the lifetime of flash-uncaged and synaptically-released glutamate at astrocytic membranes in any region of the central nervous system during health and disease.

We describe an analytical method to estimate the lifetime of glutamate at astrocytic membranes from electrophysiological recordings of glutamate transporter currents in astrocytes.

The highest density of glutamate transporters in the brain is found in astrocytes. Glutamate transporters couple the movement of glutamate across the ...

Measuring Synaptic Vesicle Endocytosis in Cultured Hippocampal Neurons

During endocytosis, fused synaptic vesicles are retrieved at nerve terminals, allowing for vesicle recycling and thus the maintenance of synaptic transmission during repetitive nerve firing. Impaired endocytosis in pathological conditions leads to decreases in synaptic strength and brain functions. Here, we describe methods used to measure synaptic vesicle endocytosis at the mammalian hippocampal synapse in neuronal culture. We monitored synaptic vesicle protein endocytosis by fusing a synaptic vesicular membrane protein, including synaptophysin and VAMP2/synaptobrevin, at the vesicular lumenal side, with pHluorin, a pH-sensitive green fluorescent protein that increases its fluorescence intensity as the pH increases. During exocytosis, vesicular lumen pH increases, whereas during endocytosis vesicular lumen pH is re-acidified. Thus, an increase of pHluorin fluorescence intensity indicates fusion, whereas a decrease indicates endocytosis of the labelled synaptic vesicle protein. In addition to using the pHluorin imaging method to record endocytosis, we monitored vesicular membrane endocytosis by electron microscopy (EM) measurements of Horseradish peroxidase (HRP) uptake by vesicles. Finally, we monitored the formation of nerve terminal membrane pits at various times after high potassium-induced depolarization. The time course of HRP uptake and membrane pit formation indicates the time course of endocytosis.

Synaptic vesicle endocytosis is detected by light microscopy of pHluorin fused with synaptic vesicle protein and by electron microscopy of vesicle uptake.

During endocytosis, fused synaptic vesicles are retrieved at nerve terminals, allowing for vesicle recycling and thus the maintenance of synaptic ...

Culturing In Vivo-like Murine Astrocytes Using the Fast, Simple, and Inexpensive AWESAM Protocol

The AWESAM (a low-cost easy stellate astrocyte method) protocol entails a fast, simple, and inexpensive way to generate large quantities of in vivo-like mouse and rat astrocyte monocultures: Brain cells can be isolated from different brain regions, and after a week of cell culture, non-astrocytic cells are shaken off by placing the culture dishes on a shaker for 6 h in the incubator. The remaining astrocytes are then passaged into new plates with an astrocyte-specific medium (termed NB+H). NB+H contains low concentrations of heparin-binding EGF-like growth factor (HBEGF), which is used in place of serum in medium. After growing in NB+H, AWESAM astrocytes have a stellate morphology and feature fine processes. Moreover, these astrocytes have more in vivo-like gene expression than astrocytes generated by previously published methods. Ca2+ imaging, vesicle dynamics, and other events close to the membrane can thus be studied in the fine astrocytic processes in vitro, e.g., using live cell confocal or TIRF microscopy. Notably, AWESAM astrocytes also exhibit spontaneous Ca2+ signaling similar to astrocytes in vivo.

Culturing In Vivo-like Murine Astrocytes Using the Fast, Simple, and Inexpensive AWESAM Protocol

The AWESAM protocol described here is optimal for culturing murine astrocytes in isolation from other brain cells in a fast, simple, and inexpensive manner. AWESAM astrocytes exhibit spontaneous Ca2+ signaling, morphology, and gene expression profiles similar to astrocytes in vivo.

The AWESAM (a low-cost easy stellate astrocyte method) protocol entails a fast, simple, and inexpensive way to generate large quantities of in vivo-like ...

Pentylenetetrazole-Induced Kindling Mouse Model

Pentylenetetrazole (PTZ) is a GABA-A receptor antagonist. An intraperitoneal injection of PTZ into an animal induces an acute, severe seizure at a high dose, whereas sequential injections of a subconvulsive dose have been used for the development of chemical kindling, an epilepsy model. A single low-dose injection of PTZ induces a mild seizure without convulsion. However, repetitive low-dose injections of PTZ decrease the threshold to evoke a convulsive seizure. Finally, continuous low-dose administration of PTZ induces a severe tonic-clonic seizure. This method is simple and widely applicable to investigate the pathophysiology of epilepsy, which is defined as a chronic disease that involves repetitive seizures. This chemical kindling protocol causes repetitive seizures in animals. With this method, vulnerability to PTZ-mediated seizures or the degree of aggravation of epileptic seizures was estimated. These advantages have led to the use of this method for screening anti-epileptic drugs and epilepsy-related genes. In addition, this method has been used to investigate neuronal damage after epileptic seizures because the histological changes observed in the brains of epileptic patients also appear in the brains of chemical-kindled animals. Thus, this protocol is useful for conveniently producing animal models of epilepsy.

This protocol describes a method of chemical kindling with pentylenetetrazole and provides a mouse model of epilepsy. This protocol can also be used to investigate vulnerability to seizure induction and pathogenesis after epileptic seizures in mice.

Pentylenetetrazole (PTZ) is a GABA-A receptor antagonist. An intraperitoneal injection of PTZ into an animal induces an acute, severe seizure at a high ...

Combining Optogenetics with Artificial microRNAs to Characterize the Effects of Gene Knockdown on Presynaptic Function within Intact Neuronal Circuits

The purpose of this protocol is to characterize the effect of gene knockdown on presynaptic function within intact neuronal circuits. We describe a workflow on how to combine artificial microRNA (miR)-mediated RNA interference with optogenetics to achieve selective stimulation of manipulated presynaptic boutons in acute brain slices. The experimental approach involves the use of a single viral construct and a single neuron-specific promoter to drive the expression of both an optogenetic probe and artificial miR(s) against presynaptic gene(s). When stereotactically injected in the brain region of interest, the expressed construct makes it possible to stimulate with light exclusively the neurons with reduced expression of the gene(s) under investigation. This strategy does not require the development and maintenance of genetically modified mouse lines and can in principle be applied to other organisms and to any neuronal gene of choice. We have recently applied it to investigate how the knockdown of alternative splice isoforms of presynaptic P/Q-type voltage-gated calcium channels (VGCCs) regulates short-term synaptic plasticity at CA3 to CA1 excitatory synapses in acute hippocampal slices. A similar approach could also be used to manipulate and probe the neuronal circuitry in vivo.

This protocol provides a workflow on how to combine artificial microRNA-mediated RNA interference with optogenetics to stimulate specifically presynaptic boutons with reduced expression of selective gene(s) within intact neuronal circuits.

The purpose of this protocol is to characterize the effect of gene knockdown on presynaptic function within intact neuronal circuits. We describe a ...

An Optical Assay for Synaptic Vesicle Recycling in Cultured Neurons Overexpressing Presynaptic Proteins

At active presynaptic nerve terminals, synaptic vesicles undergo cycles of exo- and endocytosis. During recycling, the luminal domains of SV transmembrane proteins become exposed at the cell surface. One of these proteins is Synaptotagmin-1 (Syt1). An antibody directed against the luminal domain of Syt1, once added to the culture medium, is taken up during the exo-endocytotic cycle. This uptake is proportional to the amount of SV recycling and can be quantified through immunofluorescence. Here, we combine Syt1 antibody uptake with double transfection of cultured hippocampal neurons. This allows us to (1) localize presynaptic sites based on expression of recombinant presynaptic marker Synaptophysin, (2) determine their functionality using Syt1 uptake, and (3) characterize the targeting and effects of a protein of interest, GFP-Rogdi.

We describe an optical assay for synaptic vesicle (SV) recycling in cultured neurons. Combining this protocol with double transfection to express a presynaptic marker and protein of interest allows us to locate presynaptic sites, their synaptic vesicle recycling capacity, and determine the role of the protein of interest.

At active presynaptic nerve terminals, synaptic vesicles undergo cycles of exo- and endocytosis. During recycling, the luminal domains of SV transmembrane ...

Studying Brain Function in Children Using Magnetoencephalography

Magnetoencephalography (MEG) is a non-invasive neuroimaging technique which directly measures magnetic fields produced by the electrical activity of the human brain. MEG is quiet and less likely to induce claustrophobia compared with magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). It is therefore a promising tool for investigating brain function in young children. However, analysis of MEG data from pediatric populations is often complicated by head movement artefacts which arise as a consequence of the requirement for a spatially-fixed sensor array that is not affixed to the child's head. Minimizing head movements during MEG sessions can be particularly challenging as young children are often unable to remain still during experimental tasks. The protocol presented here aims to reduce head movement artefacts during pediatric MEG scanning. Prior to visiting the MEG laboratory, families are provided with resources that explain the MEG system and the experimental procedures in simple, accessible language. An MEG familiarization session is conducted during which children are acquainted with both the researchers and the MEG procedures. They are then trained to keep their head still whilst lying inside an MEG simulator. To help children feel at ease in the novel MEG environment, all of the procedures are explained through the narrative of a space mission. To minimize head movement due to restlessness, children are trained and assessed using fun and engaging experimental paradigms. In addition, children's residual head movement artefacts are compensated for during the data acquisition session using a real-time head movement tracking system. Implementing these child-friendly procedures is important for improving data quality, minimizing participant attrition rates in longitudinal studies, and ensuring that families have a positive research experience.

This article introduces a child-friendly research protocol designed to improve data quality by reducing head movement during pediatric magnetoencephalography (MEG). We familiarize families with the MEG environment, train children to remain still using an MEG simulator, and correct for residual head movement artefacts using a real-time head movement detection system.

Magnetoencephalography (MEG) is a non-invasive neuroimaging technique which directly measures magnetic fields produced by the electrical activity of the ...

Studying Synaptic Vesicle Pools using Photoconversion of Styryl Dyes

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Chapters in this video

Quantitative Analysis of Synaptic Vesicle Pool Replenishment in Cultured Cerebellar Granule Neurons using FM Dyes

Lateral Diffusion and Exocytosis of Membrane Proteins in Cultured Neurons Assessed using Fluorescence Recovery and Fluorescence-loss Photobleaching

Examination of Synaptic Vesicle Recycling Using FM Dyes During Evoked, Spontaneous, and Miniature Synaptic Activities

Deriving the Time Course of Glutamate Clearance with a Deconvolution Analysis of Astrocytic Transporter Currents

Measuring Synaptic Vesicle Endocytosis in Cultured Hippocampal Neurons

Culturing In Vivo-like Murine Astrocytes Using the Fast, Simple, and Inexpensive AWESAM Protocol

Pentylenetetrazole-Induced Kindling Mouse Model

Combining Optogenetics with Artificial microRNAs to Characterize the Effects of Gene Knockdown on Presynaptic Function within Intact Neuronal Circuits

An Optical Assay for Synaptic Vesicle Recycling in Cultured Neurons Overexpressing Presynaptic Proteins

Studying Brain Function in Children Using Magnetoencephalography