We would like to thank Profs. Huibert Mansvelder and Bert Sakmann for extensive support, Dr. Marcel Oberlaender for fruitful discussions and providing neuronal tracing, and Brendan Lodder for technical assistance. Data was acquired using the ntrode VI for LabView, generously provided by R. Bruno (Columbia Univ., NY, USA). This research was supported by the Max Planck Society and the Bernstein Center for Computational Neuroscience, Tuebingen (funded by the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF; FKZ: 01GQ1002))( R.T.N.), Center for Neurogenomics and Cognitive Research (CNCR), Neuroscience Campus Amsterdam (NCA), funding to C.P.J.d.K. (NWO-ALW #822.02.013 and ENC-Network #p3-c3) and the VU University Amsterdam.

1. Preparation of the Animal
All experimental procedures are carried out in accordance with the Dutch law and after evaluation by a local ethical committee at the VU University Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
<ol>
	<li>Anesthetize a Wistar rat (P25-P45, &#9794;/&#9792;) with isoflurane (2-3% in oxygen) and subsequently with urethane (20% in 0.9% NaCl, 1.6-1.7 g/kg) by intraperitoneal injection. Assess the depth of the anesthesia by monitoring pinch withdrawal, eyelid reflexes, and vibrissae movements.</li>
	<li>Administer an additional dose of urethane (10% of initial dose) in case the animal does not reach sufficient anesthetic depth or whenever vibrissae twitches are observed during the course of the experiment.</li>
	<li>Place the anesthetized animal on the stereotaxic frame equipped with a heating pad, insert rectal temperature probe and maintain the animal&#8217;s body temperature at 37.5&#177;0.5 &#176;C by a heating pad.</li>
	<li>Position the animal&#8217;s head in the stereotaxic frame; trim the hair on top of the head using scissors to render the skin visible.</li>
	<li>Inject 100 &#181;l 1% lidocaine (in 0.9% NaCl) subcutaneously for local anesthesia at the operation site and wait 3-5 min. Remove the skin covering the surface of the skull by cutting in the caudal-to-rostral direction and clean the remaining tissue.</li>
	<li>Clean the skull extensively with 0.9% NaCl and absorbent swabs.</li>
	<li>Determine the coordinates of the target area on the left hemisphere (for primary somatosensory cortex (S1): 2.5 mm posterior and 5.5 mm lateral to bregma). Mark the location on the skull with a surgical skin marker pen.</li>
	<li>Scrape off the bone gently by a dental drill from the region of interest until the bone becomes transparent and blood vessels are clearly visible.</li>
	<li>Make a 0.5 mm x 0.5 mm craniotomy by cutting a window in the thinned skull with a scalpel (#11), avoiding damage to the dura mater and blood vessels. Optional: mark the edges of the craniotomy using a surgical skin marker pen to improve visibility.</li>
	<li>Apply a thin layer of superglue on the dry skull and then dental cement to construct a bath (i.e. recording chamber) enclosing the craniotomy.</li>
	<li>Trim the whiskers at the contralateral side to exactly 5 mm from the whisker follicle. Optional: highlight the trimmed whiskers with black mascara.</li>
</ol>
2. Juxtasomal Recordings and Biocytin Labeling
<ol>
	<li>Make patch pipettes of borosilicate glass with inside tip diameter of ~1 &#956;m to obtain electrodes with 3-5 M&#937; resistance. Note: The ideal pipette morphology for the juxtasomal recording is a gradual slender taper, a low cone angle, and a ~1 &#956;m tip (Figure 1).</li>
	<li>Depending on the recording depth (with respect to the pial surface), the taper dimensions of the recording electrode should be adjusted. Critically important is that the taper diameter should be less than 75 &#956;m at point of entry in the brain to avoid mechanical damage or stress to the recording area. This indicates that for superficial cortical recordings, a taper of 300-500 &#956;m with an outer diameter of maximally 75 &#956;m is required (Figure 1A) whereas recordings from relatively deep cortical layers require a longer taper of 1,500-1,800 &#956;m, again with maximal outer diameter of 75 &#956;m (at 1,800 &#956;m from the electrode tip).</li>
	<li>Load the patch pipette with normal rat ringer (NRR) supplemented with 2% biocytin (see Table 1 for solutions and&#160;reagents) and mount the patch pipette on a head stage fixed to a micromanipulator.</li>
	<li>Set the angle of the electrode holder to 34&#176; with respect to the sagittal plane to specifically target the D2 column of rat S1.</li>
	<li>Connect the head stage to an amplifier in bridge-mode (i.e. current clamp).</li>
	<li>Position the patch pipette in close proximity to the craniotomy. Fill the bath with 0.9% NaCl and determine the electrode resistance which should be between 3-5 M&#937;, assessed by applying a square pulse with positive current injection (1 nA, 200 msec on/off).</li>
	<li>Establish overpressure of 100-150 mbar and advance the patch pipette in 1 &#181;m steps while applying positive current as square pulses (1 nA, 200 msec on/off). Monitor the robust resistance change upon establishing contact with the dura mater. At this point, set the coordinates of the micromanipulator to &#8216;zero&#8217; to allow accurate depth measurements.</li>
	<li>Advance in 1 &#181;m step-mode until the patch pipette penetrates the dura mater indicated by a sudden drop in electrode resistance. Remove the holding pressure of the pipette.</li>
	<li>Search for single units while advancing in 1 &#181;m steps. Monitor the electrode resistance continuously by applying 200 msec on/off pulses. An increase in electrode resistance typically indicates the proximity of a single neuron. Advance the electrode until positive action potential (AP) waveforms of ~2 mV are recorded (Figures 2A and 2B).</li>
	<li>Optional: Record the spontaneous spiking pattern of the neuron and determine whisker-evoked spiking by, for instance, caudally deflecting individual whiskers for 200 msec at an angle of 3.3&#176; using a piezoelectric device18.</li>
	<li>Advance the electrode until the resistance is 25-35 M&#937; and spikes have amplitudes of 3-8 mV to obtain optimal conditions of juxtasomal filling. Start the juxtasomal filling by applying square pulses of positive current (1 nA, 200 msec on/off). Slowly and gradually increase the current by steps of 0.1 nA while monitoring the AP waveform and frequency (Figures 2A and 2B).</li>
	<li>Monitor the membrane opening as a clear increase in AP frequency during the on-phase of the block pulse (Figure 2C). The spike waveform during filling shows an increased width and reduced after-hyperpolarization (Figures 2C and 2D). Additional parameters include increased noise or a small (1-5 mV) negative DC shift.</li>
	<li>Increase or decrease the current (1 nA) while filling to maintain stable biocytin infusion. Reduce or stop the current pulses upon sudden increase of the AP frequency to avoid toxicity by excess influx of extracellular ions, such as sodium ions. Note: every neuron will respond differently to the current injection and juxtasomal labeling parameters need to be adjusted depending on individual recording conditions.</li>
	<li>Closely monitor the signal after stopping the current injection. The spike waveform after a filling session is usually broadened and shows a strongly reduced after hyperpolarization. Wait for recovery of the neuron, which is apparent when the spike waveform returns to its original properties (i.e. presence of normal after-hyperpolarization, Figure 2).</li>
	<li>Repeat biocytin filling sessions after complete recovery of the neuron to increase biocytin load for improved staining quality.</li>
	<li>Retract the patch pipette in steps of 1 &#181;m until the spike amplitude decreases to reduce any mechanical stress to the cell. Wait at least 1 hr for the biocytin to diffuse intracellularly while closely monitoring the animal&#8217;s body temperature and breathing.</li>
</ol>
3. Perfusing the Animal and Removing the Brain
<ol>
	<li>Prepare the perfusion setup, rinse, and preload the tubing with 0.9% NaCl.</li>
	<li>Position the animal on a surgical tray and secure with standard labeling tape. Ensure sufficient depth of the anesthesia; foot pinch and eyelid reflexes should be absent.</li>
	<li>Make a medial to lateral incision (5-6 cm) through the abdominal wall just beneath the rib cage and proceed in posterior-anterior direction to expose the sternum. Pull the sternum anteriorly and carefully separate the liver from the diaphragm.</li>
	<li>Make a small incision in the diaphragm, cut through the lower ribs and continue the incision along the entire length of the abdominal cavity to expose the heart.</li>
	<li>Remove the pericardium.</li>
	<li>Insert the needle into the left ventricle and make an incision in the right atrium. Perfuse with 0.9% NaCl (~8 ml/min) until decoloration of the liver is complete.</li>
	<li>Switch the infusion to 4% paraformaldehyde (PFA) until stiffness of front paw and lower jaw is apparent.</li>
	<li>Decapitate the rat using a pair of scissors</li>
	<li>Remove the remaining neck muscles and expose the skull completely.</li>
	<li>Position the scissors in the brain stem on the dorsal side and cut the bone carefully along the sagittal suture, maintaining the dorsal position.</li>
	<li>Remove the bones from both sides of the sagittal suture to expose the brain using forceps. Carefully remove the dura to avoid damage.</li>
	<li>Carefully insert a blunt spatula to the ventral side of the brain and remove the brain gently.</li>
	<li>Post-fix the entire brain overnight in PFA at 4 &#176;C. Switch the brain to 0.05 M phosphate buffer (PB) and store at 4 &#176;C.</li>
</ol>
4. Slicing the Brain in Tangential Sections
<ol>
	<li>Take the brain out of the 0.05 M PB and put it on a filter paper facing anterior. Use a sharp razor blade to cut off the cerebellum along the coronal plane and separate the hemispheres by cutting along the mid sagittal plane.</li>
	<li>Apply superglue on the mounting platform and mount the left hemisphere on its sagittal plane with anterior facing right. Secure the mounting platform at an angle of 45&#176; on a vibratome and submerge the brain in 0.05 M PB.</li>
	<li>Secure a razor blade on the vibratome and make sure that the first contact with the brain surface is in the middle of the anterior-posterior plane of the hemisphere. Cut 24 100 &#181;m sections and collect them in a 24-well plate containing 0.05 M PB.</li>
</ol>
5. Histological Procedures
<ol>
	<li>Perform histological protocols for the cytochrome oxidase staining24 and the avidin-biotin-peroxidase method according to previously described methods25. Optional: visualize biocytin using fluorescent avidin/streptavidin-Alexa conjugates. This additionally allows double-staining with retrograde or anterograde tracing techniques.</li>
	<li>Wash sections 5 x 5 min with 0.05 M PB and prepare the 3,-3&#8217;-diaminobenzidine tetrahydrochloride (DAB)-containing solution for the cytochrome oxidase staining to visualize barrels in layer 4 (L4) of S1 (see Table 2 for solutions and reagents). Incubate sections 6-12 from the pia in the preheated solution for 30-45 min at 37 &#176;C.</li>
	<li>Rinse sections with 0.05 M PB for 6 x 5 min and quench endogenous peroxidase activity by incubating all sections in 3% H2O2 in 0.05 M PB for 20 min at room temperature (RT).</li>
	<li>Rinse sections with 0.05 M PB for 5 x 10 min. Incubate sections in ABC-solution (see Table 3 for solutions and reagents) overnight at 4 &#176;C.</li>
	<li>Rinse sections with 0.05 M PB for 5 x 10 min and prepare the DAB-solution to visualize the biocytin-filled neuron (see Table 4 for solutions and reagents). Incubate sections in filtered solution for 45-60 min at RT.</li>
	<li>Rinse sections with 0.05 M PB for 5 x 10 min. Mount sections on microscope slides and cover slip with Mowiol (see Table 5 for solutions and reagents).</li>
	<li>Determine labeling quality using light microscopy.</li>
</ol>

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The authros have&#160;nothing to disclose.

The juxtasomal method allows recording in vivo action potential spiking from single units across behavioral conditions (anesthetized, awake head-fixed or freely moving) with the option of biocytin-labeling the recorded neuron for post&#160;hoc cell type classification and/or 3D reconstruction. The major advantage is to obtain physiological parameters in the extracellular (thus noninvasive) configuration, yet being able to label the neuron intracellularly with biocytin16,17,32. In addition to ...

Neuronal networks consist of multiple cell types, characterized by highly specific morphological and physiological properties1-7. As a consequence, individual cell types perform specialized tasks within the network (see for instance&#160;Gentet&#160;et al.8 and&#160;Burgalossi&#160;et al.9). We are only beginning to understand cell type-specific functions across neuronal networks and much is still to be discovered. To this end, many labs are implementing experimental approaches that allow the analysis of morphological properties of the same neuronal population from which physiological parameters have been obtained1,10-15. Here, we demonstrate the juxtasomal labeling technique16,17 which involves electrophysiological recordings using conventional patch pipettes in the extracellular (thus noninvasive) configuration in combination with electroporation of the recorded neuron with biocytin. The major advantage of this approach is that the noninvasive nature ensures that action potential spiking of individual neurons is recorded without altering (e.g. dialyzing) the intracellular content of the cell. Followed by electroporation, the juxtasomal approach provides the option of post&#160;hoc cell identification and reconstruction to link function (physiology) to structure (morphology). Typically, morphological reconstruction involves reconstruction of dendritic and axonal morphology which can be extended to quantification of spine and/or bouton densities or even reconstruction of neuronal morphology at nanometer resolution using electron microscopy. The juxtasomal recording technique can be used for in vivo recordings of various cell-types across cortical layers or in sub-cortical areas in a range of species, although most studies have applied the technique in small rodents such as mice or rats. Our research is focused on recording and labeling neurons from rat primary somatosensory cortex (S1) and involves visual identification of recorded neurons18, dendritic reconstructions in combination with precise registration in a standardized reference frame to reverse engineer cortical networks4,19 and detailed reconstruction of axonal architecture to characterize cell type-specific local and long-range projection targets20.
Compared to alternative in vivo recording techniques (intracellular or whole-cell), juxtasomal recordings are relatively stable and can therefore be applied across behavioral states including anesthetized21,22, sedated14, awake head-fixed23, or even freely-moving animals9. Here, we show juxtasomal labeling in S1 of a urethane-anesthetized rat, although we emphasize the general applicability of this technique to many preparations of choice.

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juxtasomal biocytin labeling to study the structure-function relationship of individual cortical neurons

The cerebral cortex is characterized by multiple layers and many distinct cell-types that together as a network are responsible for many higher cognitive functions including decision making, sensory-guided behavior or memory. To understand how such intricate neuronal networks perform such tasks, a crucial step is to determine the function (or electrical activity) of individual cell types within the network, preferentially when the animal is performing a relevant cognitive task. Additionally, it is equally important to determine the anatomical structure of the network and the morphological architecture of the individual neurons to allow reverse engineering the cortical network. Technical breakthroughs available today allow recording cellular activity in awake, behaving animals with the valuable option of post&#160;hoc identifying the recorded neurons. Here, we demonstrate the juxtasomal biocytin labeling technique, which involves recording action potential spiking in the extracellular (or loose-patch) configuration using conventional patch pipettes. The juxtasomal recording configuration is relatively stable and applicable across behavioral conditions, including anesthetized, sedated, awake head-fixed, and even in the freely moving animal. Thus, this method allows linking cell-type specific action potential spiking during animal behavior to reconstruction of the individual neurons and ultimately, the entire cortical microcircuit. In this video manuscript, we show how individual neurons in the juxtasomal configuration can be labeled with biocytin in the urethane-anaesthetized rat for post&#160;hoc identification and morphological reconstruction.

Detailed knowledge on 3D structure of individual neurons is crucial for elucidating organizational principles of neuronal networks. Our method involves a pipeline to achieve high quality biocytin labeling from an in vivo preparation, thereby allowing post&#160;hoc neuronal classification and detailed reconstruction of dendritic and axonal architecture of single neurons at high resolution. Depending on the quality of juxtasomal labeling, neurons are recovered with different DAB-intensities ranging from f...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Juxtasomal Biocytin Labeling to Study the Structure-function Relationship of Individual Cortical Neurons at JoVE.com

Juxtasomal Biocytin Labeling to Study the Structure-function Relationship of Individual Cortical Neurons

To understand the structure of neuronal networks, functional and morphological characterization of individual neurons is a necessity. Here, we demonstrate juxtasomal biocytin labeling, which allows electrophysiological recordings in the extracellular configuration, yet maintaining the ability to intracellularly label the neuron for post&#160;hoc reconstruction of dendritic and axonal architecture.

The cerebral cortex is characterized by multiple layers and many distinct cell-types that together as a network are responsible for many higher cognitive ...

juxtasomal-biocytin-labeling-to-study-structure-function-relationship

Research

JoVE Journal

Neuroscience

13.5K Views.  VU University Amsterdam. To understand the structure of neuronal networks, functional and morphological characterization of individual neurons is a necessity. Here, we demonstrate juxtasomal biocytin labeling, which allows electrophysiological recordings in the extracellular configuration, yet maintaining the ability to intracellularly label the neuron for post hoc reconstruction of dendritic and axonal architecture.