Name: generation of enterobacter sp. ysu auxotrophs using transposon mutagenesis
Uploaded: 2014-10-31T13:00:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Generation of Enterobacter sp. YSU Auxotrophs Using Transposon Mutagenesis at JoVE.com

The author would like to thank all of my undergraduate Independent Research Students and all of my Microbial Physiology graduate students who tested my transposon mutagenesis ideas during the 2010-2014 spring semesters. This work was funded by the Department of Biological Sciences at Youngstown State University.

1. Electroporation of Competent Cells5,11
<ol>
	<li>Dilute an O/N LB culture of Enterobacter sp. YSU 1/20 into 50 ml of fresh LB medium and grow with shaking at 120 rpm and 30 &#176;C to an O.D. (600 nm) between 0.4 and 0.6. Optionally, grow other bacterial strains at their optimal growth temperature.</li>
	<li>Chill the cells on ice for 5 min and centrifuge at 4 &#176;C and 7,000 x g for 5 min.</li>
	<li>Discard the supernatant, resuspend the cells in 50 ml of sterile ice cold water and centrifuge ...

<ol>
	<li>Kim, B. H., Gadd, G. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Bacterial physiology and metabolism. , (2008).</li><li>Hayes, F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Transposon-based+strategies+for+microbial+functional+genomics+and+proteomics.">Transposon-based strategies for microbial functional genomics and proteomics.</a> Annual review of genetics. 37, 3-29 (2003).</li><li>Hoffman, L. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Random+chromosomal+gene+disruption+in+vivo+using+transposomes.">Random chromosomal gene disruption in vivo using transposomes.</a> Methods in molecular biology. 765, 55-70 (2011).</li><li>Goryshin, I. Y., Jendrisak, J., Hoffman, L. 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L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Use+of+the+rep+technique+for+allele+replacement+to+construct+new+Escherichia+coli+hosts+for+maintenance+of+R6K&#947;+origin+plasmids+at+different+copy+numbers.">Use of the rep technique for allele replacement to construct new Escherichia coli hosts for maintenance of R6K&#947; origin plasmids at different copy numbers.</a> Gene. 138 (1-2), 1-7 (1994).</li><li>Morgulis, A., Coulouris, G., Raytselis, Y., Madden, T. L., Agarwala, R., Sch&#228;ffer, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=a+Database+indexing+for+production+MegaBLAST+searches.">a Database indexing for production MegaBLAST searches.</a> Bioinformatics. 24 (16), 1757-1764 (2008).</li><li>Zhang, Z., Schwartz, S., Wagner, L., Miller, W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+greedy+algorithm+for+aligning+DNA+sequences.">A greedy algorithm for aligning DNA sequences.</a> Journal of computational biology a journal of computational molecular cell biology. 7 (1-2), 203-214 (2000).</li><li>Holmes, A., Vinayak, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Comparison+of+two+multimetal+resistant+bacterial+strains:+Enterobacter+sp.+YSU+and+Stenotrophomonas+maltophilia+OR02.">Comparison of two multimetal resistant bacterial strains: Enterobacter sp. YSU and Stenotrophomonas maltophilia OR02.</a> Current microbiology. 59 (5), 526-531 (2009).</li><li>Hoffman, L. M., Jendrisak, J. J., Meis, R. J., Goryshin, I. Y., Reznikoff, W. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Transposome+insertional+mutagenesis+and+direct+sequencing+of+microbial+genomes.">Transposome insertional mutagenesis and direct sequencing of microbial genomes.</a> Genetica. 108 (1), 19-24 (2000).</li><li>Ausubel, F., Brent, R., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Short Protocols in Molecular Biology. , (1997).</li><li>Miller, J. 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Transposon mutagenesis using a transposome is an efficient tool for generating auxotrophs in Enterobacter sp. YSU and other types of Gram negative and Gram positive bacteria3,4. The process was initiated by introducing the Tn5-derived transposome into the host by electroporation. To identify colonies with inserts, the untransformed target strain had to be sensitive to kanamycin in order to select for the resistance marker carried by the transposon. Some hosts produce restriction endonucleases...

Prototrophic bacteria grow in M-9 minimal salts medium containing glucose (M-9 medium), converting glucose through central carbon metabolism pathways to generate precursors, such as amino acids, nucleic acids and vitamins, for biosynthesis1. M-9 medium contains ammonium chloride as a nitrogen source, sodium and potassium phosphate as a buffer and phosphorous source, magnesium sulfate as a sulfur source and glucose as a carbon and energy source. Luria-Bertani (LB) medium is rich in amino acids from tryptone and in vitamins and growth factors from yeast extract. It supports the growth of auxotrophs that cannot synthesize amino acids, vitamins and other growth factors required for growth on M-9 medium. Thus, prototrophs will grow in LB and M-9 medium, whereas auxotrophs will grow in LB medium but not in M-9 medium. By introducing mutations into a prototrophic population of bacteria and identifying mutated genes that cause auxotrophic phenotypes, it is possible to obtain a better understanding of the metabolism in a bacterial strain.
Transposon mutagenesis can be used to identify many of the genes required for growth on glucose in M-9 medium. Transposons insert themselves randomly into the host genome2. By spotting transposon transformants on LB agar plates and replica plating them onto M-9 medium agar plates, it is possible to screen for auxotrophs. Interrupted genes are identified through gene rescue. This study uses a commercially available Tn5-derived transposome which is shipped as a solution of a linear transposon DNA segment mixed with transposase protein. The DNA segment lacks a transposase gene but contains a gene for kanamycin resistance, an R6K&#947; replication origin and two mosaic motifs which are DNA sequences for transposase binding at each end of the segment3,4. Since the transposase protein is added directly to the DNA, the DNA segment alone is defined as the transposon, and the DNA/transposase protein complex is defined as the transposome. The transposome is transformed by electroporation5 into a kanamycin sensitive host (Figure 1A). Colonies that grow on LB agar plates containing kanamycin (LB-kan) have transposon inserts (Figure 1B), and replica plated transformants that fail to grow on M-9 medium agar plates containing kanamycin (M-9-kan) are auxotrophs (Figire 1C). Genomic DNA from a mutant is purified and partially digested with the 4-base cutting restriction endonuclease, BfuC I (Figure 1D). The ligated DNA is transformed into a strain of Escherichia coli (E. coli) that contains the pir gene (Figure 1E). This gene allows the new plasmid containing the transposon and flanking host chromosomal region to replicate in E. coli6. The kanamycin resistance gene serves as a selectable marker for the new plasmid. Finally, sequencing using primers complementary to each end of the transposon and Basic Local Alignment Search Tool (BLAST) analysis7,8 of the resulting sequence are used to determine the identity of the interrupted genes.
This transposome mutagenesis strategy provides three advantages3. First, since the transposase protein is bound directly to the transposon, insertion does not depend on expression of the transposase gene within the host. Once the transposon incorporates itself into the host genome, the transposase is degraded, preventing additional movement of the transposon. However, additional movement cannot be prevented if the host possesses an endogenous Tn5 transpositional element. Second, introduction of the transposome by electroporation makes it possible to use it in a wide variety of hosts. It also eliminates the need to introduce the transposon by bacterial conjugation or by viral infection. Both processes require host susceptibility. Third, inclusion of the kanamycin resistance gene and the R6K&#947; replication origin in the transposome makes it easier to identify the interrupted gene. Transposon-interrupted regions can be stored and sequenced as plasmids, eliminating the need to use the inverse polymerase chain reaction (PCR) technique for gene identification.
The protocol presented in this video describes each step for transposon mutagenesis of Enterobacter sp. YSU9 using a transposome from its introduction into the bacterial cells to the identification of the putative gene it interrupted. In addition to previously published protocols3,4,10, detailed methods for using replica plating to screen for auxotrophs are presented. This mutagenesis technique may be used for investigating other phenotypes, such as antibiotic and metal resistances, in different types of bacteria, for identifying the minimal number of genes required for growth under defined culture conditions in synthetic biology studies, or for teaching a laboratory component of a genetics or microbial physiology course.&#160;&#160;

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="707">
	<tbody>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Name of Reagent</td>
			<td style="width:145px;">Company</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">Catalog Number</td>
			<td style="width:227px;">Comments/Description</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">EZ-Tn5 R6K&#947;ori/KAN-2 Tnp Transposome Kit</td>
			<td style="width:145px;">Epicentre (Illumina)</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">TSM08KR</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="63">
			<td height="63" style="height:63px;width:216px;">EC100D pir+ Electrocompetent E. coli</td>
			<td style="width:145px;">Epicentre (Illumina)</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">ECP09500</td>
			<td style="width:227px;">Capable of replicating plasmids with an R6K&#947; replication origin at a low copy number</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="63">
			<td height="63" style="height:63px;width:216px;">EC100D pir-116 Electrocompetent E. coli</td>
			<td style="width:145px;">Epicentre (Illumina)</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">EC6P095H</td>
			<td style="width:227px;">Capable of replicating plasmids with an R6K&#947; replication origin at a high copy number</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">5X M-9 Salts</td>
			<td style="width:145px;">Thermo Fisher</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">DF048517</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Lennox LB Broth</td>
			<td style="width:145px;">Thermo Fisher</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">BP1427-2</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">Agar</td>
			<td style="width:145px;">Amresco, Inc.</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">J637-1KG</td>
			<td style="width:227px;">Solid media contained 1.6% (w/v) agar</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">Kanamycin Sulfate&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:145px;">Amresco, Inc.</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">0408-25G</td>
			<td style="width:227px;">When required, media contained 50 &#956;g/ml kanamycin sulfate</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">D-Glucose Monohydrate</td>
			<td style="width:145px;">Amresco, Inc.</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">0643-1KG</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Yeast Extract</td>
			<td style="width:145px;">Amresco, Inc.</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">J850-500G</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Tryptone</td>
			<td style="width:145px;">Amresco, Inc.</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">J859-500G</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">KCl</td>
			<td style="width:145px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">P4504-500G</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">NaCl</td>
			<td style="width:145px;">Amresco, Inc.</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">X190-1KG</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="25">
			<td height="25" style="height:25px;width:216px;">MgCl2</td>
			<td style="width:145px;">Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">BP214-500</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="25">
			<td height="25" style="height:25px;width:216px;">MgSO2</td>
			<td style="width:145px;">Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">BP213-1</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="92">
			<td height="92" style="height:92px;width:216px;">Super Optimal Broth with Catabolite Repression (SOC) medium</td>
			<td style="width:145px;"></td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td style="width:227px;">0.5% (w/v) yeast extract, 2% (w/v) tryptone, 10 mM NaCl, 2.5 mM KCl, 10 mM MgCl2, 20 mM MgSO4 and 20 mM Glucose</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">BfuC I</td>
			<td style="width:145px;">NEB</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">R0636S</td>
			<td>Partial digestion of genomic DNA</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Xho I</td>
			<td style="width:145px;">NEB</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">R0146S</td>
			<td>Plasmid digestion</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">T4 DNA Ligase</td>
			<td style="width:145px;">NEB</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">M0202S</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="63">
			<td height="63" style="height:63px;width:216px;">Nuclease Free Water</td>
			<td style="width:145px;">Amresco, Inc.</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">E476-1L</td>
			<td style="width:227px;">For dissolving precipitated DNA and restriction endonuclease reactions</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">GenomeLab DTCS - Quick Start Kit</td>
			<td style="width:145px;">Beckman Coulter</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">608120</td>
			<td>DNA sequencing</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">Wizard Genomic DNA Purification Kit</td>
			<td style="width:145px;">Promega</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">A1120A</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">Wizard Plus SV Minipreps DNA Purification System</td>
			<td style="width:145px;">Promega</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">A1460</td>
			<td>Plasmid purification</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Replica Plating Block</td>
			<td style="width:145px;">Thermo Fisher</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">09-718-1</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Velveteen Squares</td>
			<td style="width:145px;">Thermo Fisher</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">09-718-2</td>
			<td>Replica plating</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">PetriStickers</td>
			<td style="width:145px;">Diversified Biotech</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">PSTK-1100</td>
			<td>Grid for replica plating</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Petri Dishes</td>
			<td style="width:145px;">Thermo Fisher</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">FB0875712</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Gene Pulser II</td>
			<td style="width:145px;">BioRad</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td>Electroporation</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">Electroporation Cuvettes &#8211; 2 mm</td>
			<td style="width:145px;">BioExpress</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">E-5010-2</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">CentriVap DNA Vacuum Concentrator</td>
			<td style="width:145px;">Labconco</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">7970010</td>
			<td>Drying DNA</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">CEQ 2000XL DNA Analysis System</td>
			<td style="width:145px;">Beckman Coulter</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td>DNA sequencing</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Vector NTI Advance 11.5.0</td>
			<td style="width:145px;">Life Technologies</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">12605099</td>
			<td>DNA sequence analysis</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

generation of enterobacter sp. ysu auxotrophs using transposon mutagenesis

Prototrophic bacteria grow on M-9 minimal salts medium supplemented with glucose (M-9 medium), which is used as a carbon and energy source. Auxotrophs can be generated using a transposome. The commercially available, Tn5-derived transposome used in this protocol consists of a linear segment of DNA containing an R6K&#947; replication origin, a gene for kanamycin resistance and two mosaic sequence ends, which serve as transposase binding sites. The transposome, provided as a DNA/transposase protein complex, is introduced by electroporation into the prototrophic strain, Enterobacter sp. YSU, and randomly incorporates itself into this host&#8217;s genome. Transformants are replica plated onto Luria-Bertani agar plates containing kanamycin, (LB-kan) and onto M-9 medium agar plates containing kanamycin (M-9-kan). The transformants that grow on LB-kan plates but not on M-9-kan plates are considered to be auxotrophs. Purified genomic DNA from an auxotroph is partially digested, ligated and transformed into a pir+ Escherichia coli (E. coli) strain. The R6K&#947; replication origin allows the plasmid to replicate in pir+ E. coli strains, and the kanamycin resistance marker allows for plasmid selection. Each transformant possesses a new plasmid containing the transposon flanked by the interrupted chromosomal region. Sanger sequencing and the Basic Local Alignment Search Tool (BLAST) suggest a putative identity of the interrupted gene. There are three advantages to using this transposome mutagenesis strategy. First, it does not rely on the expression of a transposase gene by the host. Second, the transposome is introduced into the target host by electroporation, rather than by conjugation or by transduction and therefore is more efficient. Third, the R6K&#947; replication origin makes it easy to identify the mutated gene which is partially recovered in a recombinant plasmid. This technique can be used to investigate the genes involved in other characteristics of Enterobacter sp. YSU or of a wider variety of bacterial strains.

Transformation of Enterobacter sp. YSU by electroporation with the transposome initiated random genome insertion into the host genome (Figure 1A,B). A successful electroporation yielded several thousand transformants which grew on LB-kan plates. To obtain 300-400, well-spaced colonies per plate, the amount of transformation mixture spread on each LB-kan agar plate was optimized. Each transformant contained at least one transposon insert, but it was not clear if an important gene for growth on M-...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Generation of Enterobacter sp. YSU Auxotrophs Using Transposon Mutagenesis at JoVE.com

Generation of Enterobacter sp. YSU Auxotrophs Using Transposon Mutagenesis

Enterobacter sp. YSU grows in glucose minimal salts medium. Auxotrophs are generated by transforming it with a transposome which randomly inserts itself into the host genome. Mutants are found by replica plating from complex medium to minimal medium. Interrupted genes are identified by gene rescue and sequencing.

Generation of Enterobacter sp. YSU Auxotrophs Using Transposon Mutagenesis

Prototrophic bacteria grow on M-9 minimal salts medium supplemented with glucose (M-9 medium), which is used as a carbon and energy source. Auxotrophs can ...

generation-enterobacter-sp-ysu-auxotrophs-using-transposon

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Biology

Generation of Stable Transgenic C. elegans Using Microinjection

Transgenic Caenorhabditis elegans can be readily created via microinjection of a DNA plasmid solution into the gonad 1. The plasmid DNA rearranges to form extrachromosomal concatamers that are stably inherited, though not with the same efficiency as actual chromosomes 2. A gene of interest is co-injected with an obvious phenotypic marker, such as rol-6 or GFP, to allow selection of transgenic animals under a dissecting microscope. The exogenous gene may be expressed from its native promoter for cellular localization studies. Alternatively, the transgene can be driven by a different tissue-specific promoter to assess the role of the gene product in that particular cell or tissue. This technique efficiently drives gene expression in all tissues of C. elegans except for the germline or early embryo 3. Creation of transgenic animals is widely utilized for a range of experimental paradigms. This video demonstrates the microinjection procedure to generate transgenic worms. Furthermore, selection and maintenance of stable transgenic C. elegans lines is described.

This video demonstrates the technique of microinjection into the gonad of C. elegans to create transgenic animals.

Transgenic Caenorhabditis elegans can be readily created via microinjection of a DNA plasmid solution into the gonad 1.  The plasmid DNA rearranges to ...

Homemade Site Directed Mutagenesis of Whole Plasmids

Site directed mutagenesis of whole plasmids is a simple way to create slightly different variations of an original plasmid. With this method the cloned target gene can be altered by substitution, deletion or insertion of a few bases directly into a plasmid. It works by simply amplifying the whole plasmid, in a non PCR-based thermocycling reaction. During the reaction mutagenic primers, carrying the desired mutation, are integrated into the newly synthesized plasmid. In this video tutorial we demonstrate an easy and cost effective way to introduce base substitutions into a plasmid. The protocol works with standard reagents and is independent from commercial kits, which often are very expensive. Applying this protocol can reduce the total cost of a reaction to an eighth of what it costs using some of the commercial kits. In this video we also comment on critical steps during the process and give detailed instructions on how to design the mutagenic primers.

Site directed mutagenesis of whole plasmids is a simple way to create slightly different variations of an original plasmid. Here we demonstrate an easy and cost effective way to introduce base substitutions into a plasmid using standard reagents.

Site directed mutagenesis of whole plasmids is a simple way to create slightly different variations of an original plasmid. With this method the cloned ...

Generation of RNA/DNA Hybrids in Genomic DNA by Transformation using RNA-containing Oligonucleotides

Synthetic short nucleic acid polymers, oligonucleotides (oligos), are the most functional and widespread tools of molecular biology. Oligos can be produced to contain any desired DNA or RNA sequence and can be prepared to include a wide variety of base and sugar modifications. Moreover, oligos can be designed to mimic specific nucleic acid alterations and thus, can serve as important tools to investigate effects of DNA damage and mechanisms of repair. We found that Thermo Scientific Dharmacon RNA-containing oligos with a length between 50 and 80 nucleotides can be particularly suitable to study, in vivo, functions and consequences of chromosomal RNA/DNA hybrids and of ribonucleotides embedded into DNA. RNA/DNA hybrids can readily form during DNA replication, repair and transcription, however, very little is known about the stability of RNA/DNA hybrids in cells and to which extent these hybrids can affect the genetic integrity of cells. RNA-containing oligos, therefore, represent a perfect vector to introduce ribonucleotides into chromosomal DNA and generate RNA/DNA hybrids of chosen length and base composition. Here we present the protocol for the incorporation of ribonucleotides into the genome of the eukaryotic model system yeast /Saccharomyces cerevisiae/. Yet, our lab has utilized Thermo Scientific Dharmacon RNA-containing oligos to generate RNA/DNA hybrids at the chromosomal level in different cell systems, from bacteria to human cells.

This work shows how to form an RNA/DNA hybrid at the chromosomal level and reveal transfer of genetic information from RNA to genomic DNA in yeast cells.

Synthetic short nucleic acid polymers, oligonucleotides (oligos), are the most functional and widespread tools of molecular biology. Oligos can be ...

Mutagenesis and Functional Analysis of Ion Channels Heterologously Expressed in Mammalian Cells

We will demonstrate how to study the functional effects of introducing a point mutation in an ion channel. We study G protein-gated inwardly rectifying potassium (referred to as GIRK) channels, which are important for regulating the excitability of neurons. There are four different mammalian GIRK channel subunits (GIRK1-GIRK4) - we focus on GIRK2 because it forms a homotetramer. Stimulation of different types of G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), such as the muscarinic receptor (M2R), leads to activation of GIRK channels. Alcohol also directly activates GIRK channels. We will show how to mutate one amino acid by specifically changing one or more nucleotides in the cDNA for the GIRK channel. This mutated cDNA sequence will be amplified in bacteria, purified, and the presence of the point mutation will be confirmed by DNA sequencing. The cDNAs for the mutated and wild-type GIRK channels will be transfected into human embryonic kidney HEK293T cells cultured in vitro. Lastly, whole-cell patch-clamp electrophysiology will be used to study the macroscopic potassium currents through the ectopically expressed wild-type or mutated GIRK channels. In this experiment, we will examine the effect of a L257W mutation in GIRK2 channels on M2R-dependent and alcohol-dependent activation.

We will demonstrate how to study the effect of a single point mutation on the function of an ion channel.

We will demonstrate how to study the functional effects of introducing a point mutation in an ion channel. We study G protein-gated inwardly rectifying ...

An Introduction to Worm Lab: from Culturing Worms to Mutagenesis

This protocol describes procedures to maintain nematodes in the laboratory and how to mutagenize them using two alternative methods: ethyl methane sulfonate (EMS) and 4, 5', 8-trimethylpsoralen combined with ultraviolet light (TMP/UV). Nematodes are powerful biological systems for genetics studies because of their simple body plan and mating system, which is composed of self-fertilizing hermaphrodites and males that can generate hundreds of progeny per animal. Nematodes are maintained in agar plates containing a lawn of bacteria and can be easily transferred from one plate to another using a pick. EMS is an alkylating agent commonly used to induce point mutations and small deletions, while TMP/UV mainly induces deletions. Depending on the species of nematode being used, concentrations of EMS and TMP will have to be optimized. To isolate recessive mutations of the nematode Pristionchus pacificus, animals of the F2 generation were visually screened for phenotypes. To illustrate these methods, we mutagenized worms and looked for Uncoordinated (Unc), Dumpy (Dpy) and Transformer (Tra) mutants.

Screening for mutants with phenotypic defects is a straightforward method for identifying genes that function in a given biological process. In this article we describe how to culture free living worms (e.g., Pristionchus pacificus) in the laboratory and show two different mutagenesis methods, EMS and TMP/UV.

This protocol describes procedures to maintain nematodes in the laboratory and how to mutagenize them using two alternative methods: ethyl methane ...

Mutagenesis and Functional Selection Protocols for Directed Evolution of Proteins in E. coli

The efficient generation of genetic diversity represents an invaluable molecular tool that can be used to label DNA synthesis, to create unique molecular signatures, or to evolve proteins in the laboratory. Here, we present a protocol that allows the generation of large (>1011) mutant libraries for a given target sequence. This method is based on replication of a ColE1 plasmid encoding the desired sequence by a low-fidelity variant of DNA polymerase I (LF-Pol I). The target plasmid is transformed into a mutator strain of E. coli and plated on solid media, yielding between 0.2 and 1 mutations/kb, depending on the location of the target gene. Higher mutation frequencies are achieved by iterating this process of mutagenesis. Compared to alternative methods of mutagenesis, our protocol stands out for its simplicity, as no cloning or PCR are involved. Thus, our method is ideal for mutational labeling of plasmids or other Pol I templates or to explore large sections of sequence space for the evolution of activities not present in the original target. The tight spatial control that PCR or randomized oligonucleotide-based methods offer can also be achieved through subsequent cloning of specific sections of the library. Here we provide protocols showing how to create a random mutant library and how to establish drug-based selections in E. coli to identify mutants exhibiting new biochemical activities.

Mutagenesis and Functional Selection Protocols for Directed Evolution of Proteins in E. coli

Here we demonstrate a simple protocol to create a random mutant library for a given target sequence. We show how this method, which is performed in vivo in Escherichia coli, can be coupled with functional selections to evolve new enzymatic activities.

The efficient generation of genetic diversity represents an invaluable molecular tool that can be used to label DNA synthesis, to create unique molecular ...

Single Oocyte Bisulfite Mutagenesis

Epigenetics encompasses all heritable and reversible modifications to chromatin that alter gene accessibility, and thus are the primary mechanisms for regulating gene transcription1. DNA methylation is an epigenetic modification that acts predominantly as a repressive mark. Through the covalent addition of a methyl group onto cytosines in CpG dinucleotides, it can recruit additional repressive proteins and histone modifications to initiate processes involved in condensing chromatin and silencing genes2. DNA methylation is essential for normal development as it plays a critical role in developmental programming, cell differentiation, repression of retroviral elements, X-chromosome inactivation and genomic imprinting.
One of the most powerful methods for DNA methylation analysis is bisulfite mutagenesis. Sodium bisulfite is a DNA mutagen that deaminates cytosines into uracils. Following PCR amplification and sequencing, these conversion events are detected as thymines. Methylated cytosines are protected from deamination and thus remain as cytosines, enabling identification of DNA methylation at the individual nucleotide level3. Development of the bisulfite mutagenesis assay has advanced from those originally reported4-6 towards ones that are more sensitive and reproducible7. One key advancement was embedding smaller amounts of DNA in an agarose bead, thereby protecting DNA from the harsh bisulfite treatment8. This enabled methylation analysis to be performed on pools of oocytes and blastocyst-stage embryos9. The most sophisticated bisulfite mutagenesis protocol to date is for individual blastocyst-stage embryos10. However, since blastocysts have on average 64 cells (containing 120-720 pg of genomic DNA), this method is not efficacious for methylation studies on individual oocytes or cleavage-stage embryos.
Taking clues from agarose embedding of minute DNA amounts including oocytes11, here we present a method whereby oocytes are directly embedded in an agarose and lysis solution bead immediately following retrieval and removal of the zona pellucida from the oocyte. This enables us to bypass the two main challenges of single oocyte bisulfite mutagenesis: protecting a minute amount of DNA from degradation, and subsequent loss during the numerous protocol steps. Importantly, as data are obtained from single oocytes, the issue of PCR bias within pools is eliminated. Furthermore, inadvertent cumulus cell contamination is detectable by this method since any sample with more than one methylation pattern may be excluded from analysis12. This protocol provides an improved method for successful and reproducible analyses of DNA methylation at the single-cell level and is ideally suited for individual oocytes as well as cleavage-stage embryos.

Bisulfite mutagenesis is the gold standard for analyzing DNA methylation. Our modified protocol allows for DNA methylation analysis at the single-cell level and was specifically designed for individual oocytes. It can also be used for cleavage-stage embryos.

Epigenetics encompasses all heritable and reversible modifications to chromatin that alter gene accessibility, and thus are the primary mechanisms for ...

Rapid and Efficient Zebrafish Genotyping Using PCR with High-resolution Melt Analysis

Zebrafish is a powerful vertebrate model system for studying development, modeling disease, and performing drug screening. Recently a variety of genetic tools have been introduced, including multiple strategies for inducing mutations and generating transgenic lines. However, large-scale screening is limited by traditional genotyping methods, which are time-consuming and labor-intensive. Here we describe a technique to analyze zebrafish genotypes by PCR combined with high-resolution melting analysis (HRMA).&#160;This approach is rapid, sensitive, and inexpensive, with lower risk of contamination artifacts.&#160;Genotyping by PCR with HRMA can be used for embryos or adult fish, including in high-throughput screening protocols.

PCR combined with high-resolution melt analysis (HRMA) is demonstrated as a rapid and efficient method to genotype zebrafish.

Zebrafish is a powerful vertebrate model system for studying development, modeling disease, and performing drug screening. Recently a variety of genetic ...

Efficient iPS Cell Generation from Blood Using Episomes and HDAC Inhibitors

This manuscript illustrates a protocol for efficiently creating integration-free human induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) from peripheral blood using episomal plasmids and histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibitors. The advantages of this approach include: (1) the use of a minimal amount of peripheral blood as a source material; (2) nonintegrating reprogramming vectors; (3) a cost effective method for generating vector free iPSCs; (4) a single transfection; and (5) the use of small molecules to facilitate epigenetic reprogramming. Briefly, peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) are isolated from routine phlebotomy samples and then cultured in defined growth factors to yield a highly proliferative erythrocyte progenitor cell population that is remarkably amenable to reprogramming. Nonintegrating, nontransmissible episomal plasmids expressing OCT4, SOX2, KLF4, MYCL, LIN28A, and a p53 short hairpin (sh)RNA are introduced into the derived erythroblasts via a single nucleofection. Cotransfection of an episome that expresses enhanced green fluorescent protein (eGFP) allows for easy identification of transfected cells. A separate replication-deficient plasmid expressing Epstein-Barr nuclear antigen 1 (EBNA1) is also added to the reaction mixture for increased expression of episomal proteins. Transfected cells are then plated onto a layer of irradiated mouse embryonic fibroblasts (iMEFs) for continued reprogramming. As soon as iPSC-like colonies appear at about twelve days after nucleofection, HDAC inhibitors are added to the medium to facilitate epigenetic remodeling. We have found that the inclusion of HDAC inhibitors routinely increases the generation of fully reprogrammed iPSC colonies by 2 fold. Once iPSC colonies exhibit typical human embryonic stem cell (hESC) morphology, they are gently transferred to individual iMEF-coated tissue culture plates for continued growth and expansion.

Here we describe a protocol for generating human induced pluripotent stem cells from peripheral blood using an episome based reprogramming strategy and histone deacetylase inhibitors.

This manuscript illustrates a protocol for efficiently creating integration-free human induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) from peripheral blood using ...

A Protocol for Functional Assessment of Whole-Protein Saturation Mutagenesis Libraries Utilizing High-Throughput Sequencing

Site-directed mutagenesis has long been used as a method to interrogate protein structure, function and evolution. Recent advances in massively-parallel sequencing technology have opened up the possibility of assessing the functional or fitness effects of large numbers of mutations simultaneously. Here, we present a protocol for experimentally determining the effects of all possible single amino acid mutations in a protein of interest utilizing high-throughput sequencing technology, using the 263 amino acid antibiotic resistance enzyme TEM-1 &#946;-lactamase as an example. In this approach, a whole-protein saturation mutagenesis library is constructed by site-directed mutagenic PCR, randomizing each position individually to all possible amino acids. The library is then transformed into bacteria, and selected for the ability to confer resistance to &#946;-lactam antibiotics. The fitness effect of each mutation is then determined by deep sequencing of the library before and after selection. Importantly, this protocol introduces methods which maximize sequencing read depth and permit the simultaneous selection of the entire mutation library, by mixing adjacent positions into groups of length accommodated by high-throughput sequencing read length and utilizing orthogonal primers to barcode each group. Representative results using this protocol are provided by assessing the fitness effects of all single amino acid mutations in TEM-1 at a clinically relevant dosage of ampicillin. The method should be easily extendable to other proteins for which a high-throughput selection assay is in place.

We present a protocol for the functional assessment of comprehensive single-site saturation mutagenesis libraries of proteins utilizing high-throughput sequencing. Importantly, this approach uses orthogonal primer pairs to multiplex library construction and sequencing. Representative results using TEM-1 &#946;-lactamase selected at a clinically relevant dosage of ampicillin are provided.

Site-directed mutagenesis has long been used as a method to interrogate protein structure, function and evolution. Recent advances in massively-parallel ...