This work was supported by NIH-NINDS grant RO1-NS065895 and NIH-NINDS grant 5-F31-NS076250-02. 
We thank JHU SOM Microscope Facility for the use of the cryostat.

NOTE: All animal procedures described in this protocol were carried out in accordance with the recommendations in the Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals of the National Institutes of Health26. The protocol (MO13M391) was approved by the Johns Hopkins University Animal Care and Use Committee.
1. Neonatal Mouse Sacrifice, Dissection, and Fixation
<ol>
	<li>Sacrifice a neonatal mouse by CO2 inhalation.</li>
	<li>Immediately cut off the hindlimb above the knee. Until approximately postnatal day 7, the leg bones are soft enough to cut through with large laboratory scissors or sharp blade and to subsequently section on a cryostat.</li>
	<li>Place the hindlimb in 10&#160;ml of ice cold 4% paraformaldehyde in phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) in a 15&#160;ml tube.</li>
	<li>Immersion fix the hindlimb in paraformaldehyde for 4-24&#160;hr at 4&#160;&#176;C. Embryonic tissue requires only several hours of fixation.
	<ol>
		<li>Avoid fixation longer than 24&#160;hr, as this may reduce TUNEL assay efficiency.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Cryoprotect the hindlimb by immersing it in sucrose solution.
	<ol>
		<li>Change paraformaldehyde to 10% sucrose in PBS in the same 15&#160;ml tube, incubate overnight at 4&#160;&#176;C.</li>
		<li>Change to 30% sucrose in PBS, incubate overnight at 4&#160;&#176;C or until the hindlimb sinks to the bottom of the tube. Tissue may be left in 30% sucrose for a longer period, provided that the sucrose has been sterile-filtered.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
2. Tissue Embedding
<ol>
	<li>Fill a labeled embedding mold half-way with embedding medium.</li>
	<li>Place hindlimb on top of the embedding medium, with the cut side as close as possible to one wall of the mold. Mark the orientation of the hindlimb on the outside of the mold.
	<ol>
		<li>Embed several hindlimbs and cut in the same block. However, it is important to ensure that all hindlimbs in the block are oriented parallel to each other to get sections at matching levels along the axis of the limb.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Cover hindlimbs with embedding medium. If hindlimbs shift while pouring the medium, re-orient them with blunt-tipped forceps or a toothpick.</li>
	<li>Allow embedding medium to infiltrate the tissue at room temperature for at least 15&#160;min.</li>
	<li>Place molds directly on dry ice or in isopentane on dry ice to freeze embedding medium. Make sure to keep the molds level at all times and avoid shifting of the embedded tissue.</li>
	<li>Keep frozen molds at -80&#160;&#176;C until ready to cut, for up to several months.</li>
</ol>
3. Cryosectioning Embedded Limbs
<ol>
	<li>Set cryostat chamber temperature to -20&#160;&#176;C, object temperature to -18&#160;&#176;C; adjust object temperature down as necessary.</li>
	<li>Equilibrate the tissue block inside the cryostat chamber for at least 30&#160;min. Correct block temperature is crucial for section quality.</li>
	<li>Cut transverse sections at a thickness of 10&#160;&#956;m or less. Thicker sections will not be fully penetrated by TUNEL reagents. Use the anti-roll plate, blades, and blade angle (typically 5&#176;) recommended for the cryostat.</li>
	<li>Collect sections onto gelatin- or vectabond-coated glass slides at room temperature. Place immediately into a slide box on dry ice. Keep the slide box in a separate container with dry ice placed near the cryostat within arm&#8217;s reach.
	<ol>
		<li>Cut transverse serial sections through the long axis of the limb, skipping 100-200&#160;&#956;m. Collect at least 3 adjacent sections at each serial level.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
4. TUNEL Assay on Hindlimb Sections Using a Commercially Available Kit (all steps at room temperature unless noted)
<ol>
	<li>Thaw slides with sections to room temperature and dry overnight or over the weekend.</li>
	<li>Rehydrate sections by immersing slides in PBS for 2&#160;x&#160;10&#160;min in a Coplin jar. Dry with a lab wipe, removing as much liquid around the section as possible.</li>
	<li>Permeabilize sections
	<ol>
		<li>Use either a non-proteolytic, saponin-based commercial reagent or 0.5% Tween20 and 0.05% Triton X100 in PBS.</li>
		<li>Place the slide into a humidity chamber. A simple humidity chamber is an empty pipette tip box with a tight lid, with just enough water added to cover the bottom of the box.</li>
		<li>Pipette enough reagent onto the slide to cover the section (50&#160;&#956;l is sufficient for neonatal mouse limbs). Do not pipette directly onto the section, as repeated agitation may cause the section to lift off the slide.</li>
		<li>Using blunt-tipped forceps, place a small rectangle of parafilm on top of the section to spread out the drop of reagent and completely cover the section. If any bubbles form under the parafilm, gently lift it off, dry, and reapply.</li>
		<li>Incubate slides with permeabilization reagent for 1&#160;hr in a covered humidity chamber. If sections begin to lift off from the slide, permeabilization time may be reduced to 30&#160;min.</li>
		<li>Wash slides in PBS in a Coplin jar 2&#160;x&#160;5&#160;min. The parafilm rectangles should float to the top and can then be removed and discarded.</li>
		<li>Using a lab wipe, dry as much liquid around the sections as possible.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>TdT-mediated DNA break labeling
	<ol>
		<li>Follow the kit instructions to make 1x TdT labeling buffer, pipette enough labeling buffer onto the slide to cover tissue section (50&#160;&#956;l is sufficient for neonatal mouse limbs). Incubate in the humidity chamber for 5&#160;min. Alternatively, immerse the slide in TdT labeling buffer in a coplin jar.</li>
		<li>Follow kit instructions to make TdT labeling mix. The kit includes cobalt, magnesium, and manganese cations; the manganese cation works well on a variety of tissues, including skeletal muscle, nervous system tissues, liver, skin, and bone.</li>
		<li>For a positive control, add DNase (labeled &#8220;nuclease&#8221; in the kit) to the TdT labeling mix. Alternatively, pre-treat a positive control section with DNase in nuclease buffer for 1&#160;hr at 37&#160;&#176;C, according to kit instructions. Keep DNase solution and DNase-treated sections away from other experimental sections to prevent cross-contamination.</li>
		<li>For a negative control, omit TdT enzyme from the labeling mix.</li>
		<li>Use a lab wipe to remove as much TdT labeling buffer from the slide as possible. Pipette TdT labeling mix onto the slide (50&#160;&#956;l per section), cover with a new rectangle of parafilm, and incubate in the humidity chamber at 37&#160;&#176;C for 1&#160;hr.</li>
		<li>Follow the kit instructions to make 1x stop buffer. Use a lab wipe to remove TdT labeling mix from the slide, and add 200-300&#160;&#956;l stop buffer to cover the tissue section, and incubate in the humidity chamber for 5&#160;min. Alternatively, immerse the slide in stop buffer in a Coplin jar.</li>
		<li>Wash the slide 2&#160;x&#160;2&#160;min in PBS. Use a lab wipe to remove as much PBS from the slide as possible.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Fluorescent labeling
	<ol>
		<li>Follow kit instructions to prepare fluorescein labeling solution to label dNTPs at DNA breaks. Pipette solution onto the slide (50&#160;&#956;l per section), cover with a new rectangle of parafilm, and incubate in the humidity chamber for 20&#160;min.</li>
		<li>Wash slide for 2&#160;min in PBS in a Coplin jar. Use a lab wipe to remove as much PBS as possible from the slide.</li>
		<li>Dilute Hoechst 33258 nuclear stain to 1&#160;&#956;g/ml in PBS and pipette onto the slide (100-200&#160;&#956;l is sufficient to cover section). Incubate in the humidity chamber for 5&#160;min.</li>
		<li>Wash 3x for 5&#160;min in PBS.</li>
		<li>Coverslip with antifade fluorescence mounting media and seal edges with nail polish.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
5. Digital Image Acquisition
<ol>
	<li>Acquire images using a conventional fluorescent microscope with DAPI, FITC, and Texas Red filters (or equivalent). Use a higher magnification objective (20X or 40X) to verify that the labeling was successful and nuclei (intact or fragmented) were labeled. A 10X objective is sufficient for quantitation of TUNEL-positive puncta.</li>
	<li>Collect images of the Hoechst staining, TUNEL staining, and autofluorescent signal as three separate false-color channels combined in one image. If the TUNEL fluorophore label is green, image autofluorescent signal in the red filter, and vise versa.
	<ol>
		<li>Keep all imaging settings equivalent between slides for subsequent thresholding and quantitation. For each filter, preset and record exposure times, gain, and binning (no binning is best); do not use automatic exposure or gain settings.</li>
		<li>Use trial-and-error to find exposure and gain settings that will best capture the range of intensities across all stained slides. Ensure that there are no saturated pixels in the acquired images, as this will bias quantitation.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Take images of the entire muscle group of interest. This may require multiple images to be &#8220;stitched&#8221; together.</li>
</ol>
6. Image Analysis
<ol>
	<li>Use commercially available image analysis programs to analyze digital images of TUNEL staining. Analysis using commercial software is shown here. Alternatively, the free software ImageJ from NIH can be used to analyze TUNEL staining.</li>
	<li>Stain a section adjacent to the TUNEL-stained section with hematoxylin and eosin (H&#38;E) and take a full-section digital image with a conventional brightfield microscope. Use this H&#38;E image in combination with an anatomy atlas5,18,19 to trace the anatomical structures to be quantified.</li>
	<li>With the TUNEL channel turned off, manually trace the outline of the area to be quantified, using Hoechst and autofluorescence channels for guidance. Convert the traced area into a mask (a set of selected pixel coordinates to be analyzed).</li>
	<li>Turn on the TUNEL channel. Using the intensity thresholding function in the image analysis program, set the lower threshold to exclude all autofluorescence signal.</li>
	<li>Apply the same threshold settings to all images in the study set. Convert thresholded selections into masks.</li>
	<li>For each image, combine the muscle area mask and the TUNEL mask. The new combination mask will represent TUNEL signal within the traced muscle area only.</li>
	<li>Perform mask quantitation on the combination mask to determine number of objects and object area of the TUNEL signal within the traced muscle area. Perform this using the Particle Analyzer function in ImageJ.</li>
</ol>

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<li>Singh, N. P., McCoy, M. T., Tice, R. R., Schneider, E. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((A+simple+technique+for+quantitation+of+low+levels+of+DNA+damage+in+individual+cells%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Exp.+Cell+Res%22%5BJournal%5D)">A simple technique for quantitation of low levels of DNA damage in individual cells.</a> Exp. Cell Res. 175 (1), 184-191 (1988).</li>
<li>Sirvent, J. J., Aguilar, M. C., Olona, M., Pelegri, A., Blazquez, S., Gutierrez, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Prognostic+value+of+apoptosis+in+breast+cancer+pT1-pT2%29.+A+TUNEL%2C+p53%2C+bcl-2%2C+bag-1+and+Bax+immunohistochemical+study%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Histol.Histopathol%22%5BJournal%5D)">Prognostic value of apoptosis in breast cancer pT1-pT2). A TUNEL, p53, bcl-2, bag-1 and Bax immunohistochemical study.</a> Histol.Histopathol. 19 (3), 759-770 (2004).</li>
<li>Skyrlas, A., Hantschke, M., Passa, V., Gaitanis, G., Malamou-Mitsi, V., Bassukas, I. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Expression+of+apoptosis-inducing+factor+%28AIF%29+in+keratoacanthomas+and+squamous+cell+carcinomas+of+the+skin%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Exp.+Dermatol%22%5BJournal%5D)">Expression of apoptosis-inducing factor (AIF) in keratoacanthomas and squamous cell carcinomas of the skin.</a> Exp. Dermatol. 20 (8), 674-676 (2011).</li>
<li>Smith, M. D., Weedon, H., Papangelis, V., Walker, J., Roberts-Thomson, P. J., Ahern, M. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Apoptosis+in+the+rheumatoid+arthritis+synovial+membrane%3A+modulation+by+disease-modifying+anti-rheumatic+drug+treatment%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Rheumatology.%28Oxford%29%22%5BJournal%5D)">Apoptosis in the rheumatoid arthritis synovial membrane: modulation by disease-modifying anti-rheumatic drug treatment.</a> Rheumatology.(Oxford). 49 (5), 862-875 (2010).</li>
<li>Stadelmann, C., Lassmann, H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Detection+of+apoptosis+in+tissue+sections%29%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Cell+Tissue+Res%22%5BJournal%5D)">Detection of apoptosis in tissue sections).</a> Cell Tissue Res. 301 (1), 19-31 (2000).</li>
<li>Schans, G. P., van Loon, A. A., Groenendijk, R. H., Baan, R. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Detection+of+DNA+damage+in+cells+exposed+to+ionizing+radiation+by+use+of+anti-single-stranded+DNA+monoclonal+antibody%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Int.+J.+Radiat.+Biol%22%5BJournal%5D)">Detection of DNA damage in cells exposed to ionizing radiation by use of anti-single-stranded DNA monoclonal antibody.</a> Int. J. Radiat. Biol. 55 (5), 747-760 (1989).</li>
<li>Watanabe, I., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Detection+of+apoptotic+cells+in+human+colorectal+cancer+by+two+different+in+situ+methods%3A+antibody+against+single-stranded+DNA+and+terminal+deoxynucleotidyl+transferase-mediated+dUTP-biotin+nick+end-labeling+%28TUNEL%29+methods%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Jpn.+J.+Cancer+Res%22%5BJournal%5D)">Detection of apoptotic cells in human colorectal cancer by two different in situ methods: antibody against single-stranded DNA and terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase-mediated dUTP-biotin nick end-labeling (TUNEL) methods.</a> Jpn. J. Cancer Res. 90 (2), 188-193 (1999).</li>
<li>Watanabe, T., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Apoptosis+signal-regulating+kinase+1+is+involved+not+only+in+apoptosis+but+also+in+non-apoptotic+cardiomyocyte+death%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Biochem.+Biophys.+Res.+Commun%22%5BJournal%5D)">Apoptosis signal-regulating kinase 1 is involved not only in apoptosis but also in non-apoptotic cardiomyocyte death.</a> Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 333 (2), 562-567 (2005).</li>
<li>Yaoita, H., Ogawa, K., Maehara, K., Maruyama, Y. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Attenuation+of+ischemia%2Freperfusion+injury+in+rats+by+a+caspase+inhibitor%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Circulation%22%5BJournal%5D)">Attenuation of ischemia/reperfusion injury in rats by a caspase inhibitor.</a> Circulation. 97 (3), 276-281 (1998).</li>
</ol>

The authors have nothing to disclose.

A method to detect and quantitatively analyze DNA damage-associated apoptosis in mouse skeletal muscle is described. The procedure includes tissue harvesting, TUNEL staining, digital image acquisition, and image analysis. Common histological supplies and tools are needed, and a special commercial TUNEL kit is necessary. The essential big equipment items needed are a cryostat, epifluorescent microscope with digital image capability, and a computer system for image analysis.
The experimenter sho...

Terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase (TdT) dUTP nick end labeling (TUNEL) is the process of using the TdT enzyme to attach dUTP to 3&#8217; ends of double and single-stranded DNA breaks12,23. The TUNEL method for detection of apoptosis and DNA damage was first reported over 20 years ago by Gavrieli et al.1,12,24. It has since been evaluated and optimized in different tissue preparations7,23,27,40. TUNEL has been used to study ischemia-induced cell death of neurons6,14,29 and cardiomyocytes43,44, excitotoxic neuronal cell death30,31, and as a biomarker in arthritis treatment39. It has also been used as a prognostic factor and tumor cell marker in various human cancers2,3,15,32,37,38,42.
Alternative methods exist for DNA damage and cell death detection, but they have technical challenges and caveats. Southern blotting may be used to quantify DNA damage in whole tissue lysates7,9-11, but this method does not provide cellular-level resolution and is difficult to quantify. The comet assay is an alternative cell-based method that requires extracting preserved nuclei from cells4,20,28,36. Although the comet assay works well on cultured isolated cells, it is much more difficult to prepare intact nuclei from skeletal muscle tissue8,21. As with Southern blot, the comet assay does not provide cell-type-specific information from a whole muscle tissue homogenate. Another alternative to the TUNEL method is immunohistochemistry using antibodies against single-stranded DNA25,33,41 or against proteins that participate in DNA damage response and cell death pathways (e.g. p53, H2AX, and caspases)13,17,22,40. Such antibody-based methods require thorough characterization of antibodies and excellent antibody specificity to yield a high signal-to-background ratio. Even when specific antibodies exist, they may require denaturation of the target protein through antigen retrieval procedures34,35. As we discuss here, antigen retrieval in muscle tissue results in unacceptably high autofluorescence. Unlike the alternative methods, TUNEL achieves DNA damage detection with a high signal and low background, excellent specificity that can be tested with simple positive and negative controls, good tissue penetration that does not require antigen retrieval, and cellular-level resolution. In addition, the TUNEL method takes about 4 hours to complete, whereas alternative methods typically require overnight incubations.
We study skeletal muscle cell death in a mouse model of spinal muscular atrophy (SMA)10 that was generated by Hsieh-Li and colleagues16. To quantify apoptotic cells in the muscle, we have developed a method of tissue preparation, staining, and quantitation that works robustly across different skeletal muscle groups at different developmental time points in mice. We use a commercially available TUNEL-labeling kit and commercially available image analysis software. We have also successfully used the TUNEL assay in combination with immunofluorescent staining in the spinal cord10.
The methods described here are useful for investigators who want to assess tissue pathology,&#160;mechanisms&#160;of disease, mechanisms&#160;of aging, and developmental (pre- and post-natal) cell death in skeletal muscle. The TUNEL technique is especially useful for studies of DNA damage and repair and cell death in model systems where only a subset of cells is affected and cellular level resolution is necessary.
This video describes dissection, tissue processing, sectioning, and fluorescence-based TUNEL labeling of mouse skeletal muscle. It also describes a method of semi-automated TUNEL signal quantitation.

<table><tbody><tr><td>4% Paraformaldehyde in phosphate buffered saline</td><td>Electron Microscopy Sciences</td><td>19202</td><td>For procedures described here, 4% solution was prepared fresh from powder. Paraformaldehyde from any supplier may be used. Prepared formaldehyde solution should be stored at 4 &amp;deg;C and should not be used after its expiration date (up to several months). Paraformaldehyde is a carcinogen and a toxin by inhalation and skin contact. Please follow precautions specified in the MSDS when handling paraformaldehyde.</td></tr><tr><td>Sucrose</td><td>Sigma</td><td>S0389</td><td>Used for cryoprotecting tissue before freezing. Sucrose from any supplier may be used.</td></tr><tr><td>O.C.T. compound</td><td>Tissue-Tek</td><td>4583</td><td>Embedding medium for cryosectioning.</td></tr><tr><td>Cryostat</td><td>Leica</td><td>CM 3050S</td><td>A Leica CM3050S cryostat was used for the preparations described here. Any cryostat capable of cutting 10 &amp;mu;m sections may be used.</td></tr><tr><td>Glass slides, 25 x 75 x 1 mm</td><td>Fisher</td><td>12-552-3</td><td>Slides from any supplier may be used.</td></tr><tr><td>Gelatin</td><td>Sigma</td><td>G-9391</td><td>Gelatin is used to promote tissue section adhesion to glass slides. To coat glass slides with gelatin, dissolve 2.75 g gelatin and 0.275 g chrome alum in 500 ml distilled water, warm to 60 &amp;deg;C, dip slides for several seconds, and let dry. Gelatin from any supplier may be used. Alternatively, gelatin-precoated slides may be purchased.</td></tr><tr><td>Chromium(III) potassium sulfate dodecahydrate (chrome alum)</td><td>Sigma</td><td>243361</td><td>Chrome alum is added to gelatin solution to promote tissue adhesion on glass slides. It is a possible carcinogen and a toxin by inhalation and skin contact. Please follow precautions specified in the MSDS when handling chrome alum.</td></tr><tr><td>Vectabond tissue adhesion reagent</td><td>Vector Labs</td><td>SP-1800</td><td>Optional substrate for better tissue adhesion to glass slides; gelatin-coated slides may be used instead.</td></tr><tr><td>Tween20</td><td>Sigma</td><td>P9416</td><td>A detergent used to permeabilize tissue. Tween20 from any supplier may be used.</td></tr><tr><td>Triton X100</td><td>Sigma</td><td>T8787</td><td>A detergent used to permeabilize tissue. Triton X100 from any supplier may be used.</td></tr><tr><td>TACS 2 TdT fluorescein &lt;em&gt;in situ&lt;/em&gt; apoptosis detection kit</td><td>Trevigen</td><td>4812-30-K</td><td>Commercial kit for fluorescence-based TUNEL labeling.</td></tr><tr><td>DNase/nuclease</td><td>Trevigen</td><td>4812-30-K</td><td>(included with kit)</td></tr><tr><td>DNase/nuclease buffer</td><td>Trevigen</td><td>4812-30-K</td><td>(included with kit)</td></tr><tr><td>10x phosphate buffered saline (PBS), pH 7.4</td><td>Amresco</td><td>780</td><td>Make 1x PBS for washes and dilutions. PBS from any supplier may be used.</td></tr><tr><td>DNase-free water</td><td>Quality Biologicals</td><td>351-029-131</td><td>Water from any supplier may be used.</td></tr><tr><td>Hoechst 33258</td><td>Sigma</td><td>94403</td><td>Nuclear dye. Any blue fluorescent nuclear dye may be used. As a DNA-binding dye, Hoechst is a suspected carcinogen and should be handled with protective equipment to minimize skin contact.</td></tr><tr><td>Parafilm M</td><td>multiple</td><td>807</td><td>Any other hydrophobic film or cover slip may be used. Available from multiple suppliers.</td></tr><tr><td>Fluorescent microscope with digital camera</td><td>&amp;nbsp;--</td><td>&amp;nbsp;--</td><td>Any fluorescent microscope capable of digitally capturing red, green, and blue fluorescence in separate channels may be used.</td></tr><tr><td>Vectashield antifade media</td><td>Vector Labs</td><td>H-1000</td><td>Antifade media from any supplier may be used.</td></tr><tr><td>glass coverslips, No.1 thickness</td><td>Brain Research Labs</td><td>2222-1</td><td>Cover slips from any supplier may be used. The smallest size of 22 x 22 mm is sufficient for neonatal mouse leg sections.</td></tr><tr><td>Nail polish</td><td>Ted Pella</td><td>114-8</td><td>Used to seal coverslips. Nail polish from any supplier (including regular retailers) may be used. Avoid using nail polish with color or additives that may reflect light during fluorescent imaging.</td></tr></tbody></table>

detection and analysis of dna damage in mouse skeletal muscle in situ using the tunel method

Terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase (TdT) deoxyuridine triphosphate (dUTP) nick end labeling (TUNEL) is the method of using the TdT enzyme to covalently attach a tagged form of dUTP to 3&#8217; ends of double- and single-stranded DNA breaks in cells. It is a reliable and useful method to detect DNA damage and cell death in situ. This video describes dissection, tissue processing, sectioning, and fluorescence-based TUNEL labeling of mouse skeletal muscle. It also describes a method of semi-automated TUNEL signal quantitation. Inherent normal tissue features and tissue processing conditions affect the ability of the TdT enzyme to efficiently label DNA. Tissue processing may also add undesirable autofluorescence that will interfere with TUNEL signal detection. Therefore, it is important to empirically determine tissue processing and TUNEL labeling methods that will yield the optimal signal-to-noise ratio for subsequent quantitation. The fluorescence-based assay described here provides a way to exclude autofluorescent signal by digital channel subtraction. The TUNEL assay, used with appropriate tissue processing techniques and controls, is a relatively fast, reproducible, quantitative method for detecting apoptosis in tissue. It can be used to confirm DNA damage and apoptosis as pathological mechanisms, to identify affected cell types, and to assess the efficacy of therapeutic treatments in vivo.

With successful staining, TUNEL-positive signal should be bright enough to isolate from autofluorescence by setting intensity thresholds. TUNEL-positive objects at low magnification may appear as bright irregular fragments in skeletal muscle (Figure 1A). However, at higher magnification, some TUNEL-positive objects with the classic apoptotic morphology should be observed, if the cell death type involved is apoptosis (Figure 1B). The positive control (DNase added) should exhibit abundant ...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Detection and Analysis of DNA Damage in Mouse Skeletal Muscle In Situ Using the TUNEL Method at JoVE.com

Detection and Analysis of DNA Damage in Mouse Skeletal Muscle In Situ Using the TUNEL Method

This video describes dissection, tissue processing, sectioning, and fluorescence-based TUNEL labeling of mouse skeletal muscle. It also describes a method for semi-automated analysis of TUNEL labeling.

Detection and Analysis of DNA Damage in Mouse Skeletal Muscle In Situ Using the TUNEL Method

Terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase (TdT) deoxyuridine triphosphate (dUTP) nick end labeling (TUNEL) is the method of using the TdT enzyme to covalently ...

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Research

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Biology

16.3K Views.  Johns Hopkins School of Medicine. This video describes dissection, tissue processing, sectioning, and fluorescence-based TUNEL labeling of mouse skeletal muscle. It also describes a method for semi-automated analysis of TUNEL labeling. 

Video: Detection and Analysis of DNA Damage in Mouse Skeletal Muscle In Situ Using the TUNEL Method

In vitro Assembly of Semi-artificial Molecular Machine and its Use for Detection of DNA Damage

Naturally occurring bio-molecular machines work in every living cell and display a variety of designs 1-6. Yet the development of artificial molecular machines centers on devices capable of directional motion, i.e. molecular motors, and on their scaled-down mechanical parts (wheels, axels, pendants etc) 7-9. This imitates the macro-machines, even though the physical properties essential for these devices, such as inertia and momentum conservation, are not usable in the nanoworld environments 10. Alternative designs, which do not follow the mechanical macromachines schemes and use mechanisms developed in the evolution of biological molecules, can take advantage of the specific conditions of the nanoworld. Besides, adapting actual biological molecules for the purposes of nano-design reduces potential dangers the nanotechnology products may pose. Here we demonstrate the assembly and application of one such bio-enabled construct, a semi-artificial molecular device which combines a naturally-occurring molecular machine with artificial components. From the enzymology point of view, our construct is a designer fluorescent enzyme-substrate complex put together to perform a specific useful function. This assembly is by definition a molecular machine, as it contains one 12. Yet, its integration with the engineered part - fluorescent dual hairpin - re-directs it to a new task of labeling DNA damage12.
Our construct assembles out of a 32-mer DNA and an enzyme vaccinia topoisomerase I (VACC TOPO). The machine then uses its own material to fabricate two fluorescently labeled detector units (Figure 1). One of the units (green fluorescence) carries VACC TOPO covalently attached to its 3'end and another unit (red fluorescence) is a free hairpin with a terminal 3'OH. The units are short-lived and quickly reassemble back into the original construct, which subsequently recleaves. In the absence of DNA breaks these two units continuously separate and religate in a cyclic manner. In tissue sections with DNA damage, the topoisomerase-carrying detector unit selectively attaches to blunt-ended DNA breaks with 5'OH (DNase II-type breaks)11,12, fluorescently labeling them. The second, enzyme-free hairpin formed after oligonucleotide cleavage, will ligate to a 5'PO4 blunt-ended break (DNase I-type breaks)11,12, if T4 DNA ligase is present in the solution 13,14 . When T4 DNA ligase is added to a tissue section or a solution containing DNA with 5'PO4 blunt-ended breaks, the ligase reacts with 5'PO4 DNA ends, forming semi-stable enzyme-DNA complexes. The blunt ended hairpins will interact with these complexes releasing ligase and covalently linking hairpins to DNA, thus labeling 5'PO4 blunt-ended DNA breaks.
This development exemplifies a new practical approach to the design of molecular machines and provides a useful sensor for detection of apoptosis and DNA damage in fixed cells and tissues.

In vitro Assembly of Semi-artificial Molecular Machine and its Use for Detection of DNA Damage

We demonstrate the assembly and application of a molecular-scale device powered by a topoisomerase protein. The construct is a bio-molecular sensor which labels two major types of DNA breaks in tissue sections by attaching two different fluorophores to their ends.

Naturally occurring bio-molecular machines work in every living cell and display a variety of designs 1-6. Yet the development of artificial molecular ...

Bioengineering

Evaluation of Injury-induced Senescence and In Vivo Reprogramming in the Skeletal Muscle

Cellular senescence is a stress response that is characterized by a stable cellular growth arrest, which is important for many physiological and pathological processes, such as cancer and ageing. Recently, senescence has also been implicated in tissue repair and regeneration. Therefore, it has become increasingly critical to identify senescent cells in vivo. Senescence-associated &#946;-galactosidase (SA-&#946;-Gal) assay is the most widely used assay to detect senescent cells both in culture and in vivo. This assay is based on the increased lysosomal contents in the senescent cells, which allows the histochemical detection of lysosomal &#946;-galactosidase activity at suboptimum pH (6 or 5.5). In comparison with other assays, such as flow cytometry, this allows the identification of senescent cells in their resident environment, which offers valuable information such as the location relating to the tissue architecture, the morphology, and the possibility of coupling with other markers via immunohistochemistry&#160;(IHC). The major limitation of the SA-&#946;-Gal assay is the requirement of fresh or frozen samples.
Here, we present a detailed protocol to understand how cellular senescence promotes cellular plasticity and tissue regeneration in vivo. We use SA-&#946;-Gal to detect senescent cells in the skeletal muscle upon injury, which is a well-established system to study tissue regeneration. Moreover, we use&#160;IHC to detect Nanog, a marker of pluripotent stem cells, in a transgenic mouse model. This protocol enables us to examine and quantify cellular senescence in the context of induced cellular plasticity and in vivo reprogramming.

Evaluation of Injury-induced Senescence and In Vivo Reprogramming in the Skeletal Muscle

Here we present a detailed protocol to detect both senescent and pluripotent stem cells in the skeletal muscle upon injury while inducing in vivo reprogramming. This method is suitable for evaluating the role of cellular senescence during tissue regeneration and reprogramming in vivo.

Cellular senescence is a stress response that is characterized by a stable cellular growth arrest, which is important for many physiological and ...

Developmental Biology

Identifying DNA Damage in Prophase-Arrested Oocytes of Mice

Detection of DNA Double-Stranded Breaks in Mouse Oocytes

Oocytes are amongst the biggest and most long-lived cells in the female body. They are formed in the ovaries during embryonic development and remain arrested at the prophase of meiosis I. The quiescent state may last for years until the oocytes receive a stimulus to grow and obtain the competency to resume meiosis. This protracted state of arrest makes them extremely susceptible to accumulating DNA-damaging insults, which affect the genetic integrity of the female gametes and, therefore, the genetic integrity of the future embryo. 
Consequently, the development of an accurate method to detect DNA damage, which is the first step for the establishment of DNA damage response mechanisms, is of vital importance. This paper describes a common protocol to test the presence and progress of DNA damage in prophase-arrested oocytes during a period of 20 h. Specifically, we dissect mouse ovaries, retrieve the cumulus-oocyte complexes (COCs), remove the cumulus cells from the COCs, and culture the oocytes in &#924;2 medium containing 3-isobutyl-1-methylxanthine to maintain the state of arrest. Thereafter, the oocytes are treated with the cytotoxic, antineoplasmic drug, etoposide, to engender double-strand breaks (DSBs). 
By using immunofluorescence and confocal microscopy, we detect and quantify the levels of the core protein &#947;H2AX, which is the phosphorylated form of the histone H2AX. H2AX becomes phosphorylated at the sites of DSBs after DNA damage. The inability to restore DNA integrity following DNA damage in oocytes can lead to infertility, birth defects, and increased rates of spontaneous abortions. Therefore, the understanding of DNA damage response mechanisms and, at the same time, the establishment of an intact method for studying these mechanisms are essential for reproductive biology research.

Author Spotlight: Understanding DNA Damage Response in Mammalian Oocytes and Preimplantation Embryos 

Maintaining oocyte genome integrity is necessary to ensure the genetic fidelity in the resulting embryo. Here, we present an accurate protocol for detecting DNA double-strand breaks in mammalian female germ cells.

Oocytes are amongst the biggest and most long-lived cells in the female body. They are formed in the ovaries during embryonic development and remain ...

Visualization of MG53-mediated Cell Membrane Repair Using in vivo and in vitro Systems

Repair of acute injury to the cell membrane is an elemental process of normal cellular physiology, and defective membrane repair has been linked to many degenerative human diseases. The recent discovery of MG53 as a key component of the membrane resealing machinery allows for a better molecular understanding of the basic biology of tissue repair, as well as for potential translational applications in regenerative medicine. Here we detail the experimental protocols for exploring the in vivo function of MG53 in repair of muscle injury using treadmill exercise protocols on mouse models, for testing the ex vivo membrane repair capacity by measuring dye entry into isolated muscle fibers, and for monitoring the dynamic process of MG53-mediated vesicle trafficking and cell membrane repair in cultured cells using live cell confocal microscopy.

Visualization of MG53-mediated Cell Membrane Repair Using in vivo and in vitro Systems

Described here are protocols used to visualize the dynamic process of MG53-mediated cell membrane repair in whole animals and at the cellular level. These methods can be applied to investigate the cell biology of plasma membrane resealing and regenerative medicine.

Repair of acute injury to the cell membrane is an elemental process of normal cellular physiology, and defective membrane repair has been linked to many ...

Profiling Genomic Histone Marks in Mouse Myoblasts Using CUT&#38;Tag

Using Cleavage Under Targets and Tagmentation (CUT&#38;Tag) Assay in Mouse Myoblast Research

This protocol paper aims to provide the new researchers with the full details of using Cleavage Under Targets and Tagmentation (CUT&amp;Tag) to profile the genomic locations of chromatin binding factors, histone marks, and histone variants. CUT&amp;Tag protocols function very well with mouse myoblasts and freshly isolated muscle stem cells (MuSCs). They can easily be applied to many other cell types as long as the cells can be immobilized by Concanavalin-A beads. Compared to CUT&amp;Tag, chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) assays are time-consuming experiments. ChIP assays require the pre-treatment of chromatin before the chromatic material can be used for immunoprecipitation. In cross-linking ChIP (X-ChIP), pre-treatment of chromatin involves cross-linking and sonication to fragment the chromatin. In the case of native ChIP (N-ChIP), the fragmented chromatins are normally achieved by Micrococcal nuclease (MNase) digestion. Both sonication and MNase digestion introduce some bias to the ChIP experiments. CUT&amp;Tag assays can be finished within fewer steps and require much fewer cells compared to ChIPs but provide more unbiased information on transcription factors or histone marks at various genomic locations. CUT&amp;Tag can function with as few as 5,000 cells. Due to its higher sensitivity and lower background signal than ChIPs, researchers can expect to obtain reliable peak data from merely several millions of reads after sequencing.

Author Spotlight: Navigating Challenges and Innovations in Muscle Stem Cell Studies

Researchers new to the epigenetic field will find CUT&amp;Tag a significantly easier alternative to ChIP assays. CUT&amp;Tag has tremendously benefited the epigenetic studies on rare and primary cell populations, generating high-quality data from very few cells. This protocol describes performing H3K4me1 CUT&amp;Tag assays on mouse myoblasts isolated from mouse hindlimb muscles.

This protocol paper aims to provide the new researchers with the full details of using Cleavage Under Targets and Tagmentation (CUT&amp;Tag) to profile ...

Cryosectioning of Contiguous Regions of a Single Mouse Skeletal Muscle for Gene Expression and Histological Analyses

With this method, consecutive cryosections are collected to enable both microscopy applications for tissue histology and enrichment of RNA for gene expression using adjacent regions from a single mouse skeletal muscle. Typically, it is challenging to achieve adequate homogenization of small skeletal muscle samples because buffer volumes may be too low for efficient grinding applications, yet without sufficient mechanical disruption, the dense tissue architecture of muscle limits penetration of buffer reagents, ultimately causing low RNA yield. By following the protocol reported here, 30 &#956;m sections are collected and pooled allowing cryosectioning and subsequent needle homogenization to mechanically disrupt the muscle, increasing the surface area exposed for buffer penetration. The primary limitations of the technique are that it requires a cryostat, and it is relatively low throughput. However, high-quality RNA can be obtained from small samples of pooled muscle cryosections, making this method accessible for many different skeletal muscles and other tissues. Furthermore, this technique enables matched analyses (e.g., tissue histopathology and gene expression) from adjacent regions of a single skeletal muscle so that measurements can be directly compared across applications to reduce experimental uncertainty and to reduce replicative animal experiments necessary to source a small tissue for multiple applications.

Consecutive cryo-sections are collected to enable histological applications and enrichment of RNA for gene expression measurements using adjacent regions from a single mouse skeletal muscle. High-quality RNA is obtained from 20 - 30 mg of pooled cryosections and measurements are directly compared across applications.

With this method, consecutive cryosections are collected to enable both microscopy applications for tissue histology and enrichment of RNA for gene ...

In Situ Immunofluorescent Staining of Autophagy in Muscle Stem Cells

Increasing evidence points to autophagy as a crucial regulatory process to preserve tissue homeostasis. It is known that autophagy is involved in skeletal muscle development and regeneration, and the autophagic process has been described in several muscular pathologies and age-related muscle disorders. A recently described block of the autophagic process that correlates with the functional exhaustion of satellite cells during muscle repair supports the notion that active autophagy is coupled with productive muscle regeneration. These data uncover the crucial role of autophagy in satellite cell activation during muscle regeneration in both normal and pathological conditions, such as muscular dystrophies. Here, we provide a protocol to monitor the autophagic process in the adult Muscle Stem Cell (MuSC) compartment during muscle regenerative conditions. This protocol describes the setup methodology to perform in situ immunofluorescence imaging of LC3, an autophagy marker, and MyoD, a myogenic lineage marker, in muscle tissue sections from control and injured mice. The methodology reported allows for monitoring the autophagic process in one specific cell compartment, the MuSC compartment, which plays a central role in orchestrating muscle regeneration.

In Situ Immunofluorescent Staining of Autophagy in Muscle Stem Cells

Active autophagy is associated with productive muscle regeneration, which is essential for Muscle Stem Cell (MuSC) activation. Here, we provide a protocol for the in situ detection of LC3, an autophagy marker in MyoD-positive MuSCs of muscle tissue sections from control and injured mice.

Increasing evidence points to autophagy as a crucial regulatory process to preserve tissue homeostasis. It is known that autophagy is involved in skeletal ...

Immunolabelling Myofiber Degeneration in Muscle Biopsies

The necrosis of muscle fibres (myonecrosis) plays a central role in the pathogenesis of several muscle conditions, including muscular dystrophies. Therapeutic options addressing the causes of muscular dystrophy pathogenesis are expected to alleviate muscle degeneration. Therefore, a method to assay and quantify the extent of cell death in muscle biopsies is needed. Conventional methods to observe myofiber degeneration in situ are either poorly quantitative or rely on the injection of vital dyes. In this article, an immunofluorescence protocol is described that stains necrotic myofibers by targeting immunoglobulin G (IgG) uptake by myofibers. The IgG uptake method is based on cell features characterizing the necrotic demise, including 1) the loss of plasma membrane integrity with the release of damage-associated molecular patterns and 2) the uptake of plasmatic proteins. In murine cross-sections, the co-immunolabelling of myofibers, extracellular matrix proteins, and mouse IgG allows clean and straightforward identification of myofibers with necrotic fate. This simple method is suitable for quantitative analysis and applicable to all species, including human samples, and does not require the injection of vital dye. The staining of necrotic myofibers by IgG uptake can also be paired with other co-immunolabelling.

Described here is a protocol for direct immunolabelling of necrotic myofibers in muscle cryosections. Necrotic cells are permeable to serum proteins, including immunoglobulin G (IgG). Revealing the uptake of IgG by myofibers allows the identification and quantification of myofibers that undergo necrosis regardless of muscle condition.

The necrosis of muscle fibres (myonecrosis) plays a central role in the pathogenesis of several muscle conditions, including muscular dystrophies. ...

Single-Cell CyTOF Analysis of Myogenic Progenitors in Muscle Regeneration

Identification and Analysis of Myogenic Progenitors In Vivo During Acute Skeletal Muscle Injury by High-Dimensional Single-Cell Mass Cytometry

Skeletal muscle regeneration is a dynamic process driven by adult muscle stem cells and their progeny. Mostly quiescent at a steady state, adult muscle stem cells become activated upon muscle injury. Following activation, they proliferate, and most of their progeny differentiate to generate fusion-competent muscle cells while the remaining self-renews to replenish the stem cell pool. While the identity of muscle stem cells was defined more than a decade ago, based on the co-expression of cell surface markers, myogenic progenitors were identified only recently using high-dimensional single-cell approaches. Here, we present a single-cell mass cytometry (cytometry by time of flight [CyTOF]) method to analyze stem cells and progenitor cells in acute muscle injury to resolve the cellular and molecular dynamics that unfold during muscle regeneration. This approach is based on the simultaneous detection of novel cell surface markers and key myogenic transcription factors whose dynamic expression enables the identification of activated stem cells and progenitor cell populations that represent landmarks of myogenesis. Importantly, a sorting strategy based on detecting cell surface markers CD9 and CD104 is described, enabling prospective isolation of muscle stem and progenitor cells using fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS) for in-depth studies of their function. Muscle progenitor cells provide a critical missing link to study the control of muscle stem cell fate, identify novel therapeutic targets for muscle diseases, and develop cell therapy applications for regenerative medicine. The approach presented here can be applied to study muscle stem and progenitor cells in vivo in response to perturbations, such as pharmacological interventions targeting specific signaling pathways. It can also be used to investigate the dynamics of muscle stem and progenitor cells in animal models of muscle diseases, advancing our understanding of stem cell diseases and accelerating the development of therapies.

Author Spotlight: Investigating Cellular and Molecular Dynamics During Muscle Regeneration Using Cutting-Edge Single-Cell Technologies

The protocol presented here enables the identification and high-dimensional analysis of muscle stem and progenitor cells by single-cell mass cytometry and their purification by FACS for in-depth studies of their function. This approach can be applied to study regeneration dynamics in disease models and test the efficacy of pharmacological interventions.

Skeletal muscle regeneration is a dynamic process driven by adult muscle stem cells and their progeny. Mostly quiescent at a steady state, adult muscle ...

The TUNEL Assay

One of the hallmarks of apoptosis is the nuclear DNA fragmentation by nucleases. These enzymes are activated by caspases, the family of proteins that execute the cell death program. TUNEL assay is a method that takes advantage of this feature to detect apoptotic cells. In this assay, an enzyme called terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase catalyzes the addition of dUTP nucleotides to the free 3&#8217; ends of fragmented DNA. By using dUTPs that are labeled with chemical tags that can produce fluorescence or color, apoptotic cells can be specifically identified. JoVE&#8217;s video on the TUNEL assay begins by discussing how this technique can be used to detect apoptotic cells. We then go through a general protocol for performing TUNEL assays on tissue sections and visualizing the results using fluorescence microscopy. Finally, several applications of the assay to current research will be covered.

One of the hallmarks of apoptosis is the nuclear DNA fragmentation by nucleases. These enzymes are activated by caspases, the family of proteins that ...

Detection and Analysis of DNA Damage in Mouse Skeletal Muscle In Situ Using the TUNEL Method

Summary

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