Name: in vitro transcription assays and their application in drug discovery
Uploaded: 2016-09-20T08:00:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about In Vitro Transcription Assays and Their Application in Drug Discovery at JoVE.com

This work acknowledges a Faculty Early Career Grant from the University of Newcastle (CM).

Caution: Experiments involve the use of the radioactive isotope 32P and no work should be undertaken until all appropriate safety conditions have been met. Generally personnel are required to attend a safety course and undergo supervised practice prior to experiments using radioactive reagents. Please wear personal protection equipment (thermoluminescent dosimeter, safety glasses, gloves, radiation room lab coats, full length pants, closed-toe shoes) when performing the reaction.
1. Preparation of Assay M...

<ol>
	<li>Mooney, R. A., Artsimovitch, I., Landick, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Information+processing+by+RNA+polymerase:+recognition+of+regulatory+signals+during+RNA+chain+elongation.">Information processing by RNA polymerase: recognition of regulatory signals during RNA chain elongation.</a> J. Bacteriol. 180 (13), 3265-3275 (1998).</li><li>Burgess, R. R., Anthony, L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=How+sigma+docks+to+RNA+polymerase+and+what+sigma+does.">How sigma docks to RNA polymerase and what sigma does.</a> Curr. Opin. Microbiol. 4 (2), 126-131 (2001).</li><li>Gusarov, I., Nudler, E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Control+of+intrinsic+transcription+termination+by+N+and+NusA:+the+basic+mechanisms.">Control of intrinsic transcription termination by N and NusA: the basic mechanisms.</a> Cell. 107 (4), 437-449 (2001).</li><li>Ha, K. S., Toulokhonov, I., Vassylyev, D. G., Landick, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+NusA+N-terminal+domain+is+necessary+and+sufficient+for+enhancement+of+transcriptional+pausing+via+interaction+with+the+RNA+exit+channel+of+RNA+polymerase.">The NusA N-terminal domain is necessary and sufficient for enhancement of transcriptional pausing via interaction with the RNA exit channel of RNA polymerase.</a> J. Mol. Biol. 401 (5), 708-725 (2010).</li><li>Yang, X., Lewis, P. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+interaction+between+RNA+polymerase+and+the+elongation+factor+NusA.">The interaction between RNA polymerase and the elongation factor NusA.</a> RNA Biol. 7 (3), 272-275 (2010).</li><li>Artsimovitch, I., Henkin, T. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=In+vitro+approaches+to+analysis+of+transcription+termination.">In vitro approaches to analysis of transcription termination.</a> Methods. 47 (1), 37-43 (2009).</li><li>Decker, K. B., Hinton, D. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Transcription+regulation+at+the+core:+Similarities+among+bacterial,+archaeal,+and+eukaryotic+RNA+polymerases.">Transcription regulation at the core: Similarities among bacterial, archaeal, and eukaryotic RNA polymerases.</a> Annu. Rev. Microbiol. 67, 113-139 (2013).</li><li>Artsimovitch, I., Vassylyev, D. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Is+it+easy+to+stop+RNA+polymerase?.">Is it easy to stop RNA polymerase?.</a> Cell Cycle. 5 (4), 399-404 (2006).</li><li>Murakami, K. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Structural+biology+of+bacterial+RNA+polymerase.">Structural biology of bacterial RNA polymerase.</a> Biomolecules. 5 (2), 848-864 (2015).</li><li>Ma, C., Yang, X., Lewis, P. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Bacterial+transcription+as+a+target+for+antibacterial+drug+development.">Bacterial transcription as a target for antibacterial drug development.</a> Microbiol. Mol. Biol. Rev. 80 (1), 139-160 (2016).</li><li>Yang, X., Ma, C., Lewis, P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+vector+system+that+allows+simple+generation+of+mutant+Escherichia+coli+RNA+polymerase.">A vector system that allows simple generation of mutant Escherichia coli RNA polymerase.</a> Plasmid. 75, 37-41 (2014).</li><li>Burgess, R. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+new+method+for+the+large+scale+purification+of+Escherichia+coli+deoxyribonucleic+acid-dependent+ribonucleic+acid+polymerase.">A new method for the large scale purification of Escherichia coli deoxyribonucleic acid-dependent ribonucleic acid polymerase.</a> J. Biol. Chem. 244, 6160-6167 (1969).</li><li>Artsimovitch, I., Svetlov, V., Murakami, K. S., Landick, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Co-overexpression+of+Escherichia+coli+RNA+polymerase+subunits+allows+isolation+and+analysis+of+mutant+enzymes+lacking+lineage-specific+sequence+insertions.">Co-overexpression of Escherichia coli RNA polymerase subunits allows isolation and analysis of mutant enzymes lacking lineage-specific sequence insertions.</a> J. Biol. Chem. 278 (14), 12344-12355 (2003).</li><li>Ma, C., Yang, X., Lewis, P. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Bacterial+transcription+inhibitor+of+RNA+polymerase+holoenzyme+formation+by+structure-based+drug+design:+From+in+silico+screening+to+validation.">Bacterial transcription inhibitor of RNA polymerase holoenzyme formation by structure-based drug design: From in silico screening to validation.</a> ACS Infect. Dis. 2, 39-46 (2016).</li><li>Ma, C., Mobli, M., Yang, X., Keller, A. N., King, G. F., Lewis, P. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=RNA+polymerase-induced+remodelling+of+NusA+produces+a+pause+enhancement+complex.">RNA polymerase-induced remodelling of NusA produces a pause enhancement complex.</a> Nucleic Acids Res. 43 (5), 2829-2840 (2015).</li><li>Lewis, P. J., Marston, A. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=GFP+vectors+for+controlled+expression+and+dual+labelling+of+protein+fusions+in+Bacillus+subtilis.">GFP vectors for controlled expression and dual labelling of protein fusions in Bacillus subtilis.</a> Gene. 227 (1), 101-110 (1999).</li><li>Artsimovitch, I., Landick, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Pausing+by+bacterial+RNA+polymerase+is+mediated+by+mechanistically+distinct+classes+of+signals.">Pausing by bacterial RNA polymerase is mediated by mechanistically distinct classes of signals.</a> Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 97 (13), 7090-7095 (2000).</li><li>Vassylyev, D. G., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Crystal+structure+of+a+bacterial+RNA+polymerase+holoenzyme+at+2.6+&#197;+resolution.">Crystal structure of a bacterial RNA polymerase holoenzyme at 2.6 &#197; resolution.</a> Nature. 417, 712-719 (2002).</li><li>Artsimovitch, I., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Structural+basis+for+transcription+regulation+by+alarmone+ppGpp.">Structural basis for transcription regulation by alarmone ppGpp.</a> Cell. 117 (3), 299-310 (2004).</li><li>Bordier, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Inhibition+of+rifampicin-resistant+RNA+synthesis+by+rifampicin-RNA+polymerase+complexes.">Inhibition of rifampicin-resistant RNA synthesis by rifampicin-RNA polymerase complexes.</a> FEBS lett. 45 (1-2), 259-262 (1974).</li><li>Tang, G. Q., Anand, V. S., Patel, S. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Fluorescence-based+assay+to+measure+the+real-time+kinetics+of+nucleotide+incorporation+during+transcription+elongation.">Fluorescence-based assay to measure the real-time kinetics of nucleotide incorporation during transcription elongation.</a> J. Mol. Biol. 405 (3), 666-678 (2011).</li></ol>

In all organisms, transcription is a tightly regulated process. In vitro transcription assays have been developed to provide a platform for testing the effects of transcription factors, small molecules and transcription inhibitors. In this method paper, an assay for general bacterial transcription was described. Transcription assays combined with sequencing gel electrophoresis of transcripts are very important for mechanistic studies as they allow visualization of all the transcription products along a timeline....

Transcription is the process in which RNA is synthesized from a specific DNA template. In eukaryotic cells there are three distinct RNAPs: RNAP I transcribes rRNA precursors, RNAP II is responsible for the synthesis of mRNA and certain small nuclear RNAs, and the synthesis of 5S rRNA and tRNA is performed by RNAP III. In bacteria, there is only one RNAP responsible for the transcription of all classes of RNA. There are three stages of transcription: initiation, elongation and termination. Transcription is one of the most highly regulated processes in the cell. Each stage in the transcription cycle represents a checkpoint for the regulation of gene expression1. For initiation, RNAP has to associate with a sigma factor to form holoenzyme, which is required to direct the enzyme to specific sites called promoters2 to form an open promoter complex. Subsequently, a large suite of transcription factors are responsible for the regulation of RNAP activities during the elongation and termination phases. The transcription factor examined here is the highly conserved and essential protein, NusA. It is involved in regulating transcription pausing and termination, as well as anti-termination during rRNA synthesis3-5.
In vitro transcription assays have been developed as powerful tools to study the complex regulatory steps during transcription6. In general, a linear fragment of DNA including a promoter region is required as the template for transcription. The DNA template is usually generated by PCR or by linearizing a plasmid. Purified proteins and NTPs (including one radiolabeled NTP for detection purposes) are then added and product analyzed following the required period of incubation. Using appropriate templates and reaction conditions, all stages of transcription have been examined using this approach which has enabled detailed molecular characterization of transcription over the last half century7. In combination with information on the 3-dimensional structure of RNAP it has also been possible to probe the molecular mechanism of transcription inhibition by antibiotics and antibiotic leads, and use this information in the development of new, improved drugs8-10.
In this work we provide examples of how transcription assays can be used to determine the mechanism of regulation by transcription elongation/termination factor NusA, and how the mechanism of action of a novel transcription initiation inhibitor lead can be determined.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Obtain the proteins required for transcription assay</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>E. coli RNAP</td>
			<td>Epicentre</td>
			<td>S90250</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Preparation of DEPC-treated water</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>diethyl pyrocarbonate (DEPC)&#160;</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich&#160;</td>
			<td>D5758</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>RNase-free water&#160;</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ambion Nuclease-Free Water</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher</td>
			<td>AM9937</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DNA template preparation</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Wizard&#160;Plus&#160;SV Minipreps DNA Purification System</td>
			<td>Promega</td>
			<td>A1330</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ACCUZYME Mix</td>
			<td>Bioline</td>
			<td>BIO-25028</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>PCR primers</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Wizard SV Gel and PCR Clean-Up System&#160;</td>
			<td>Promega</td>
			<td>A9281</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NanoDrop 3300 fluorospectrometer</td>
			<td>Thermo Scientific</td>
			<td>ND-3300</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NTP Preparation</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ATP</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich&#160;</td>
			<td>A6559</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>UTP</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich&#160;</td>
			<td>U1006</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>GTP</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich&#160;</td>
			<td>G3776</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>CTP</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich&#160;</td>
			<td>C9274</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>High Purity rNTPs</td>
			<td>GE Healthcare</td>
			<td>27-2025-01</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>&#945;-32P UTP&#160;</td>
			<td>PerkinElmer&#160;&#160;</td>
			<td>BLU007C001MC</td>
			<td>Radioactive compound</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>RNA ladder preparation&#160;</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Novagen Perfect RNA Marker Template Mix 0.1&#8211;1 kb</td>
			<td>Millipore</td>
			<td>69003</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>HEPES</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich&#160;</td>
			<td>H7006</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium chloride</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich&#160;</td>
			<td>S7653</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Magnesium chloride</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich&#160;</td>
			<td>M8266</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DTT&#160;&#160;</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich&#160;</td>
			<td>DTT-RO</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>T7 RNAP</td>
			<td>Promega</td>
			<td>P2075</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Gel preparation</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sequi-Gen GT nucleic acid sequencing cell&#160;</td>
			<td>Bio-Rad&#160;&#160;</td>
			<td>165-3804</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sigmacote&#160;&#160;</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich&#160;</td>
			<td>SL2</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>urea&#160;&#160;</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich&#160;</td>
			<td>U6504</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>tris(hydroxymethyl)aminomethane&#160;&#160;</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich&#160;</td>
			<td>154563</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>boric acid&#160;</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich&#160;</td>
			<td>B7901</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid&#160;</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich&#160;</td>
			<td>ED</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>40% Acrylamide/bis-acrylamide&#160;</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich&#160;</td>
			<td>A9926</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ammonium persulfate&#160;</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich&#160;</td>
			<td>A3678</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>N,N,N&#697;&#8242;,N&#697;&#8242;-Tetramethylethylenediamine (TEMED)&#160;</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich&#160;</td>
			<td>T9281</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>N,N,N",N"-Tetramethylethylenediamine (TEMED) </td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich </td>
			<td>T9281</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Transcription Assay</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Potassium chloride</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich&#160;</td>
			<td>P9541</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>glycerol&#160;&#160;</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich&#160;</td>
			<td>G5516</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>rifampicin&#160;&#160;</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich&#160;</td>
			<td>R3501</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>formamide&#160;&#160;</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich&#160;</td>
			<td>F9037</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>bromophenol blue&#160;</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich&#160;</td>
			<td>B0126</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>xylene cyanol&#160;</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich&#160;</td>
			<td>X4126</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>heparin&#160;</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich&#160;</td>
			<td>84020</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>RNasin Ribonuclease Inhibitor</td>
			<td>Promega</td>
			<td>N2511</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Transcription buffer&#160;</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tris base</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich&#160;</td>
			<td>T1503</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Potassium chloride</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich&#160;</td>
			<td>P9541</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Magnesium chloride</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich&#160;</td>
			<td>M2393</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DTT&#160;&#160;</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich&#160;</td>
			<td>DTT-RO</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>glycerol&#160;&#160;</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich&#160;</td>
			<td>G5516</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Filter paper</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Whatman&#160;3MM Chr Chromatography Paper</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>05-714-5</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Radioactive decontaminant</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Decon 90</td>
			<td>decon</td>
			<td>decon90</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Gel Treatment</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Typhoon Trio+ imager</td>
			<td>GE Healthcare Life Sciences</td>
			<td>63-0055-89</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

in vitro transcription assays and their application in drug discovery

In vitro transcription assays have been developed and widely used for many years to study the molecular mechanisms involved in transcription. This process requires multi-subunit DNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RNAP) and a series of transcription factors that act to modulate the activity of RNAP during gene expression. Sequencing gel electrophoresis of radiolabeled transcripts is used to provide detailed mechanistic information on how transcription proceeds and what parameters can affect it. In this paper we describe the protocol to study how the essential elongation factor NusA regulates transcriptional pausing, as well as a method to identify an antibacterial agent targeting transcription initiation through inhibition of RNAP holoenzyme formation. These methods can be used a as platform for the development of additional approaches to explore the mechanism of action of the transcription factors which still remain unclear, as well as new antibacterial agents targeting transcription which is an underutilized drug target in antibiotic research and development.

Transcription efficiency can be determined by measuring the level of radiation in the bands at different time points. The pausing assay to test the function of NusA factor enabled visualization of the pause, termination, and run-off products (Figure 1A). In the presence of the N-terminal domain of NusA (NusA NTD; amino acid residues 1-137), appearance of the RNA products was significantly delayed compared to the control experiment lacking NusA. Deletion of amino acid resi...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about In Vitro Transcription Assays and Their Application in Drug Discovery at JoVE.com

In Vitro Transcription Assays and Their Application in Drug Discovery

In this manuscript, we describe a protocol to functionally examine transcription and the inhibitory activity of antibacterial agents targeting bacterial transcription.

In Vitro Transcription Assays and Their Application in Drug Discovery

In vitro transcription assays have been developed and widely used for many years to study the molecular mechanisms involved in transcription. This process ...

Research

JoVE Journal

Genetics

siRNA Transfection and EMSA Analyses on Freshly Isolated Human Villous Cytotrophoblasts

Human primary villous cytotrophoblasts are a very useful source of primary cells to study placental functions and regulatory mechanisms, and to comprehend ...

Optogenetic Random Mutagenesis Using Histone-miniSOG in C. elegans

Optogenetic Random Mutagenesis Using Histone-miniSOG in C. elegans

Forward genetic screening in model organisms is the workhorse to discover functionally important genes and pathways in many biological processes. In most ...

Rearing and Double-stranded RNA-mediated Gene Knockdown in the Hide Beetle, Dermestes maculatus

Rearing and Double-stranded RNA-mediated Gene Knockdown in the Hide Beetle, Dermestes maculatus

Advances in genomics have raised the possibility of probing biodiversity at an unprecedented scale. However, sequence alone will not be informative ...

In Vitro Bioluminescence Assay to Characterize Circadian Rhythm in Mammary Epithelial Cells

In Vitro Bioluminescence Assay to Characterize Circadian Rhythm in Mammary Epithelial Cells

The circadian rhythm is a fundamental physiological process present in all organisms that regulates biological processes ranging from gene expression to ...

High Fat Diet Feeding and High Throughput Triacylglyceride Assay in Drosophila Melanogaster

High Fat Diet Feeding and High Throughput Triacylglyceride Assay in Drosophila Melanogaster

Heart disease is the number one cause of human death worldwide. Numerous studies have shown strong connections between obesity and cardiac malfunction in ...

Real-time Analysis of Transcription Factor Binding, Transcription, Translation, and Turnover to Display Global Events During Cellular Activation

Upon activation, cells rapidly change their functional programs and, thereby, their gene expression profile. Massive changes in gene expression occur, for ...

Genome-wide Surveillance of Transcription Errors in Eukaryotic Organisms

Accurate transcription is required for the faithful expression of genetic information. Surprisingly though, little is known about the mechanisms that ...

Novel Sequence Discovery by Subtractive Genomics

Subtractive genomics can be used in any research where the goal is to identify the sequence of a gene, protein, or general region that is embedded in a ...

Characterizing Histone Post-translational Modification Alterations in Yeast Neurodegenerative Proteinopathy Models

Neurodegenerative diseases, such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and Parkinson&#39;s disease (PD), cause the loss of hundreds of thousands of lives ...

Determining the Egg Fertilization Rate of Bemisia tabaci Using a Cytogenetic Technique

Determining the Egg Fertilization Rate of Bemisia tabaci Using a Cytogenetic Technique

A few species of sap-sucking whiteflies are some of the most damaging terrestrial pests worldwide because of the crop damage they inflict and plant ...