Name: quantification of the abundance and charging levels of transfer rnas in escherichia coli
Uploaded: 2017-08-22T14:00:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Quantification of the Abundance and Charging Levels of Transfer RNAs in Escherichia coli at JoVE.com

The authors thank Marit Warrer for excellent technical assistance. This work was supported by the Danish Council for Independent Research | Natural Sciences [1323-00343B] and the Danish National Research Foundation [DNRF120].

1. Preparation of bacterial cultures.
<ol>
	<li>Grow all cultures in Erlenmeyer flasks with a culture/flask volume ratio of at most 1/6. In a typical experimental setup, grow the cultures at 37.0 &#176;C and shaking at 160 rpm in morpholinepropanesulfonic acid (MOPS) minimal medium18 supplemented with the preferred carbon source, for example 0.2% glucose, for at least 10 consecutive generations before RNA harvest.</li>
	<li>The day before RNA harvest, dilute an outgrown culture of the desired st...

<ol>
	<li>Varshney, U., Lee, C. -. P., RajBhandary, U. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Direct+analysis+of+aminoacylation+levels+of+tRNAs+in+vivo.+Application+to+studying+recognition+of+Escherichia+coli+initiator+tRNA+mutants+by+glutaminyl-tRNA+synthetase.">Direct analysis of aminoacylation levels of tRNAs in vivo. Application to studying recognition of Escherichia coli initiator tRNA mutants by glutaminyl-tRNA synthetase.</a> J Biol Chem. 266 (36), 24712-24718 (1991).</li><li>Sorensen, M. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Charging+levels+of+four+tRNA+species+in+Escherichia+coli+Rel(+)+and+Rel(-)+strains+during+amino+acid+starvation:+a+simple+model+for+the+effect+of+ppGpp+on+translational+accuracy.">Charging levels of four tRNA species in Escherichia coli Rel(+) and Rel(-) strains during amino acid starvation: a simple model for the effect of ppGpp on translational accuracy.</a> J Mol Biol. 307 (3), 785-798 (2001).</li><li>Kr&#252;ger, M. K., S&#248;rensen, M. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Aminoacylation+of+hypomodified+tRNAGlu+in+vivo.">Aminoacylation of hypomodified tRNAGlu in vivo.</a> J. Mol. Biol. 284 (3), 609-620 (1998).</li><li>Svenningsen, S. L., Kongstad, M., Stenum, T. S., Mu&#241;oz-G&#243;mez, A. J., S&#248;rensen, M. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Transfer+RNA+is+highly+unstable+during+early+amino+acid+starvation+in+Escherichia+coli.">Transfer RNA is highly unstable during early amino acid starvation in Escherichia coli.</a> Nucleic Acids Res. 45 (2), 793-804 (2017).</li><li>Enriquez, J. A., Attardi, G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Evidence+for+aminoacylation-induced+conformational+changes+in+human+mitochondrial+tRNAs.">Evidence for aminoacylation-induced conformational changes in human mitochondrial tRNAs.</a> Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 93 (16), 8300-8305 (1996).</li><li>Parker, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Errors+and+alternatives+in+reading+the+universal+genetic+code.">Errors and alternatives in reading the universal genetic code.</a> Microbiol Rev. 53 (3), 273-298 (1989).</li><li>Traxler, M. F., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+global,+ppGpp-mediated+stringent+response+to+amino+acid+starvation+in+Escherichia+coli.">The global, ppGpp-mediated stringent response to amino acid starvation in Escherichia coli.</a> Mol Microbiol. 68 (5), 1128-1148 (2008).</li><li>Zhong, J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Transfer+RNAs+Mediate+the+Rapid+Adaptation+of+Escherichia+coli+to+Oxidative+Stress.">Transfer RNAs Mediate the Rapid Adaptation of Escherichia coli to Oxidative Stress.</a> PLoS Genet. 11 (6), e1005302 (2015).</li><li>Kane, J. F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Effects+of+rare+codon+clusters+on+high-level+expression+of+heterologous+proteins+in+Escherichia+coli.">Effects of rare codon clusters on high-level expression of heterologous proteins in Escherichia coli.</a> Curr Opin Biotechnol. 6 (5), 494-500 (1995).</li><li>Baca, A. M., Hol, W. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Overcoming+codon+bias:+a+method+for+high-level+overexpression+of+Plasmodium+and+other+AT-rich+parasite+genes+in+Escherichia+coli.">Overcoming codon bias: a method for high-level overexpression of Plasmodium and other AT-rich parasite genes in Escherichia coli.</a> Int J Parasitol. 30 (2), 113-118 (2000).</li><li>Li, S., Pelka, H., Schulman, L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+anticodon+and+discriminator+base+are+important+for+aminoacylation+of+Escherichia+coli+tRNA+(Asn).">The anticodon and discriminator base are important for aminoacylation of Escherichia coli tRNA (Asn).</a> J Biol Chem. 268 (24), 18335-18339 (1993).</li><li>Rizzino, A. A., Freundlich, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Estimation+of+in+vivo+aminoacylation+by+periodate+oxidation:+tRNA+alterations+and+iodate+inhibition.">Estimation of in vivo aminoacylation by periodate oxidation: tRNA alterations and iodate inhibition.</a> Anal Biochem. 66 (2), 446-449 (1975).</li><li>Dittmar, K. A., Sorensen, M. A., Elf, J., Ehrenberg, M., Pan, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Selective+charging+of+tRNA+isoacceptors+induced+by+amino-acid+starvation.">Selective charging of tRNA isoacceptors induced by amino-acid starvation.</a> EMBO Rep. 6 (2), 151-157 (2005).</li><li>Zhou, K., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Novel+reference+genes+for+quantifying+transcriptional+responses+of+Escherichia+coli+to+protein+overexpression+by+quantitative+PCR.">Novel reference genes for quantifying transcriptional responses of Escherichia coli to protein overexpression by quantitative PCR.</a> BMC Mol Biol. 12 (1), 18 (2011).</li><li>Jacobson, A., Gillespie, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Metabolic+events+occurring+during+recovery+from+prolonged+glucose+starvation+in+Escherichia+coli.">Metabolic events occurring during recovery from prolonged glucose starvation in Escherichia coli.</a> J Bacteriol. 95 (3), 1030-1039 (1968).</li><li>McCarthy, B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+effects+of+magnesium+starvation+on+the+ribosome+content+of+Escherichia+coli.">The effects of magnesium starvation on the ribosome content of Escherichia coli.</a> Biochim Biophys Acta (BBA)-Specialized Section on Nucleic Acids and Related Subjects. 55 (6), 880-889 (1962).</li><li>Zundel, M. A., Basturea, G. N., Deutscher, M. P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Initiation+of+ribosome+degradation+during+starvation+in+Escherichia+coli.">Initiation of ribosome degradation during starvation in Escherichia coli.</a> Rna. 15 (5), 977-983 (2009).</li><li>Piir, K., Paier, A., Liiv, A., Tenson, T., Maivali, U. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Ribosome+degradation+in+growing+bacteria.">Ribosome degradation in growing bacteria.</a> EMBO Rep. 12 (5), 458-462 (2011).</li><li>Schaechter, M., Maaloe, O., Kjeldgaard, N. O. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Dependency+on+medium+and+temperature+of+cell+size+and+chemical+composition+during+balanced+grown+of+Salmonella+typhimurium.">Dependency on medium and temperature of cell size and chemical composition during balanced grown of Salmonella typhimurium.</a> J Gen Microbiol. 19 (3), 592-606 (1958).</li><li>Neidhardt, F. C., Bloch, P. L., Smith, D. F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Culture+medium+for+enterobacteria.">Culture medium for enterobacteria.</a> J Bacteriol. 119 (3), 736-747 (1974).</li><li>Sambrook, J., Fritsch, E. F., Maniatis, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Molecular cloning: a laboratory manual. , (1989).</li><li>Sorensen, M. A., Jensen, K. F., Pedersen, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=High+concentrations+of+ppGpp+decrease+the+RNA+chain+growth+rate.+Implications+for+protein+synthesis+and+translational+fidelity+during+amino+acid+starvation+in+Escherichia+coli.">High concentrations of ppGpp decrease the RNA chain growth rate. Implications for protein synthesis and translational fidelity during amino acid starvation in Escherichia coli.</a> J Mol Biol. 236 (2), 441-454 (1994).</li><li>Tian, C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Rapid+Curtailing+of+the+Stringent+Response+by+Toxin-Antitoxin+Module-Encoded+mRNases.">Rapid Curtailing of the Stringent Response by Toxin-Antitoxin Module-Encoded mRNases.</a> J Bacteriol. 198 (14), 1918-1926 (2016).</li></ol>

This protocol describes how to simultaneously measure the charging level of specific E. coli tRNAs and compare the relative levels of the tRNAs in different samples. The critical points of the protocol are 1) to handle the samples in such a way that the cellular tRNA charging levels are retained, 2) to normalize tRNA quantities in such a way that relative tRNA levels in different samples can be reliably compared, and 3) to ensure the specificity of the selected probes for the tRNAs of interest. These points are ...

In the following, we present a method for quantifying specific tRNAs and measuring their charging levels by Northern blotting. The method is based on a technique first developed by Varshney et al.1. By harvesting cells into trichloroacetic acid (TCA) and keeping the samples at 0 &#176;C throughout the RNA purification, the ester bond between the tRNA and the amino acid is conserved2,3,4. Aminoacylated tRNAs can be distinguished from their nonacylated counterparts by gel electrophoresis and Northern blotting, due to a decreased mobility of the aminoacylated tRNA in the gel, caused by the covalently bound amino acid5. Additionally, we present a protocol for normalizing tRNA quantities by addition of spike-in cells overexpressing the rarely used tRNAselC 4.
tRNAs are some of the most abundant molecules in the bacterial cell and an absolutely vital part of the translation machinery. tRNAs bind amino acids and transfer them to the translating ribosomes. The binding of amino acids to tRNAs (aminoacylation or charging) is facilitated by aminoacyl tRNA synthetases. The relative abundance of different charged tRNAs is important for ensuring the fidelity of protein synthesis, because underrepresentation of the cognate charged tRNA for a given messenger RNA (mRNA) codon increases the likelihood that a near-cognate tRNA will erroneously deliver its amino acid to the growing polypeptide chain on the ribosome6. The importance of charged tRNA is reflected in the extensive response of the E. coli cell to a severe drop in the charging levels of a tRNA; the stringent response. During the stringent response the synthesis of tRNAs, ribosomal RNAs and most mRNAs is lowered in favor of transcription of specific mRNAs associated with amino acid biosynthesis and stress survival, and the growth rate of the cells is lowered dramatically7. Furthermore, recent work by us and others has shown that E. coli actively degrades the majority of its tRNA in response to stresses that limit translation4,8, suggesting that adjustment of the tRNA levels may be important for coping with such stresses. Thus, reliable measurements of tRNA abundances and charging levels will be an important tool for fully understanding bacterial stress responses.
E.coli is commonly used to express recombinant protein and due to the differences in codon usage between species, suboptimal expression is a problem often faced9. This can be circumvented by expression of additional tRNAs needed to translate the recombinant mRNA10. Measurements of tRNA charging levels in such strains could guide troubleshooting efforts and help optimize protein expression.
This method also enables the detection of &#34;mischarging&#34;; a tRNA molecule aminoacylated with a non-cognate amino acid. Aminoacylation by different amino acids may cause a tRNA to migrate with slightly different velocities through polyacrylamide gels1,11. In some cases, the method can also be used to distinguish different modification patterns on otherwise identical tRNAs3.
Another established biochemical procedure for the investigation of tRNA charging levels is periodate oxidation. The method relies on the observation that aminoacylated tRNA is protected from periodate oxidation and uncharged tRNA is not. After periodate oxidation treatment the recharging of the tRNA is used to estimate the charging levels of the harvested RNA. However, the recharging of several tRNAs has been shown to be affected by the treatment thus providing some inaccuracy12. The method presented here measures charging directly from purified RNA, thus excluding any biases from chemical or enzymatic reactions. One limitation of this method is that only one tRNA species is detected at a time, so although the same Northern blot can be stripped and reprobed for multiple tRNAs, it is time-consuming and somewhat laborious to collect data on many tRNAs.
A reliable way of normalizing samples to each other is vital in studies where the goal is to compare the relative levels of a molecule across different samples. Here we introduce a normalization procedure for RNA where a small aliquot of E. coli cells overexpressing the rare tRNAselC is added as a spike-in to all the experimental samples prior to RNA purification. This method is useful not only when examining tRNAs but for relative quantification of any species of RNA when the experimental setup is such that no endogenous RNA can be trusted to be present at the same cellular concentration in all the samples. For example, the level of a &#34;housekeeping&#34; RNA-like ribosomal RNA is often used as an endogenous reference to compare the relative quantities of another RNA between different samples13. But this is of little use if the cellular concentration of the reference RNA varies between samples, as can be the case for ribosomal RNA if sampling occurs during a stress response15,16,17 or during entry into stationary phase17. The addition of spike-in cells to the experimental samples prior to RNA purification provides a solid and accurate way of normalization independent of the sampling setup. Another way of standardization is the addition of one or more spike-in RNAs to the experimental samples after RNA purification. However, this method does not account for any differences in RNA recovery between samples.
Using E. coli cells that overexpress the reference RNA as spike-in cells (see Figure 1) in an experiment on E. coli has the drawback that it results in addition of a small amount of exogenous E. coli total RNA to the samples. We correct for this addition by analyzing a sample containing only spike-in cells in parallel with the experimental samples (see the Northern blot in Figure 2, lane labeled &#34;selC&#34;). The protocol presented is developed for E. coli K-12 but is likely to be applicable for most bacterial species.

<table>
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Urea</td>
			<td>Merck</td>
			<td>57-13-6</td>
			<td>Purity &#62;99%</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Polyacrylamide</td>
			<td>Serva</td>
			<td>79-06-7</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Bis (N,N&#39;-Methylene-bis-acrylamide)</td>
			<td>BIO-RAD</td>
			<td>161-0201</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Trichloroacetic acid (TCA)</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>76-03-9</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Phenol</td>
			<td>Merck</td>
			<td>108-95-2</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>IPTG</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glucose</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium Acetate</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>EDTA</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ethanol</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tris</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hydrochloric acid</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium Chloride</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NaH2PO4</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium Citrate</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>SDS</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Herring Sperm DNA</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>100403-24-5</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>BSA</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Polivinylpyrrolidone</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ficoll</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>P32 &#947;ATP</td>
			<td>Perkin Elmer</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DNA oligos (probes)</td>
			<td>TAG Copenhagen</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hybond N+ membrane</td>
			<td>GE Healthcare</td>
			<td>RPN203B</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Crosslinker</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Electroblotter</td>
			<td>BIO-RAD</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Typhoon FLA 7000 Scanner</td>
			<td>GE Healthcare</td>
			<td>28955809</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Spectrophotometer</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hydridization oven</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Geiger-M&#252;ller tube</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Phosphor imager screen</td>
			<td>GE Healthcare</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hybridization tube</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Culture Flasks</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>1.5 ml microcentrifuge tubes</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>20 ml centrifuge tubes</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Name</td>
			<td>Company</td>
			<td>Catalog Number</td>
			<td>Comments</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Software</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ImageQuant</td>
			<td>GE Healthcare</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Excel</td>
			<td>Microsoft</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

quantification of the abundance and charging levels of transfer rnas in escherichia coli

Transfer RNA (tRNA) is an essential part of the translational machinery in any organism. tRNAs bind and transfer amino acids to the translating ribosome. The relative levels of different tRNAs, and the ratio of aminoacylated tRNA to total tRNA, known as the charging level, are important factors in determining the accuracy and speed of translation. Therefore, the abundance and charging levels of tRNAs are important variables to measure when studying protein synthesis, for example under various stress conditions. Here, we describe a method for harvesting tRNA and directly measuring both the relative abundance and the absolute charging level of specific tRNA species in Escherichia coli. The tRNA is harvested in such a way that the labile bond between the tRNA and its amino acid is preserved. The RNA is then subjected to gel electrophoresis and Northern blotting, which results in separation of the charged and uncharged tRNAs. The levels of specific tRNAs in different samples can be compared due to the addition of spike-in cells for normalization. Prior to RNA purification, we add 5% of E. coli cells that overproduce the rare tRNAselC to each sample. The amount of the tRNA species of interest in a sample is then normalized to the amount of tRNAselC in the same sample. Addition of spike-in cells prior to RNA purification has the advantage over addition of purified spike-in RNAs that it also accounts for any differences in cell lysis efficiency between samples.

Using the procedure described here, the abundance and charging levels of three tRNAs were measured in E. coli K-12 before and during amino acid starvation.
The arginine auxotroph strain NF9154 (thr leu his argH thi mtl supE44) was grown for at least ten generations in MOPS minimal medium supplemented with 0.4% glycerol, 50 &#181;g/mL threonine, leucine, arginine, and 5 &#181;g/mL histidi...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Quantification of the Abundance and Charging Levels of Transfer RNAs in Escherichia coli at JoVE.com

Quantification of the Abundance and Charging Levels of Transfer RNAs in Escherichia coli

Here we present a method for directly measuring transfer RNA charging levels from purified Escherichia coli RNA as well as a way to compare relative levels of transfer RNA, or any other short RNA, across different samples based on the addition of spike-in cells expressing a reference gene.

Quantification of the Abundance and Charging Levels of Transfer RNAs in Escherichia coli

Transfer RNA (tRNA) is an essential part of the translational machinery in any organism. tRNAs bind and transfer amino acids to the translating ribosome. ...

Research

JoVE Journal

Biochemistry

Directed Protein Packaging within Outer Membrane Vesicles from Escherichia coli: Design, Production and Purification

Directed Protein Packaging within Outer Membrane Vesicles from Escherichia coli: Design, Production and Purification

An increasing interest in applying synthetic biology techniques to program outer membrane vesicles (OMV) are leading to some very interesting and unique ...

Detection of the pH-dependent Activity of Escherichia coli Chaperone HdeB In Vitro and In Vivo

Detection of the pH-dependent Activity of Escherichia coli Chaperone HdeB In Vitro and In Vivo

Bacteria are frequently exposed to environmental changes, such as alterations in pH, temperature, redox status, light exposure or mechanical force. Many ...

Quantification of Hypopigmentation Activity In Vitro

This study presents laboratory methods for the quantification of hypopigmentation activity in vitro. Melanin, the major pigment in melanocytes, is ...

Large-scale Production of Recombinant RNAs on a Circular Scaffold Using a Viroid-derived System in Escherichia coli

Large-scale Production of Recombinant RNAs on a Circular Scaffold Using a Viroid-derived System in Escherichia coli

With increasing interest in RNA biology and the use of RNA molecules in sophisticated biotechnological applications, the methods to produce large amounts ...

Site-Directed Mutagenesis for In Vitro and In Vivo Experiments Exemplified with RNA Interactions in Escherichia Coli

Site-Directed Mutagenesis for In Vitro and In Vivo Experiments Exemplified with RNA Interactions in Escherichia Coli

Site-directed mutagenesis is a technique used to introduce specific mutations in DNA to investigate the interaction between small non-coding ribonucleic ...

Use of Alu Element Containing Minigenes to Analyze Circular RNAs

Use of Alu Element Containing Minigenes to Analyze Circular RNAs

In addition to linear mRNAs, many eukaryotic genes generate circular RNAs. Most circular RNAs are generated by joining a 5&#39; splice site with an ...

Characterization of Membrane Transporters by Heterologous Expression in E. coli and Production of Membrane Vesicles

Characterization of Membrane Transporters by Heterologous Expression in E. coli and Production of Membrane Vesicles

Several methods have been developed to functionally characterize novel membrane transporters. Polyamines are ubiquitous in all organisms, but polyamine ...

Quantification of Coenzyme A in Cells and Tissues

Emerging research has revealed that the cellular coenzyme A (CoA) supply can become limiting with a detrimental impact on growth, metabolism and survival. ...

RNA Blot Analysis for the Detection and Quantification of Plant MicroRNAs

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are a class of endogenously expressed non-coding, ~21 nt small RNAs involved in the regulation of gene expression in both plants and ...

Site Specific Lysine Acetylation of Histones for Nucleosome Reconstitution using Genetic Code Expansion in Escherichia coli

Site Specific Lysine Acetylation of Histones for Nucleosome Reconstitution using Genetic Code Expansion in Escherichia coli

Acetylated histone proteins can be easily expressed in Escherichia coli encoding a mutant, N&#949;-acetyl-lysine (AcK)-specific Methanosarcina mazi ...