Name: afm and microrheology in the zebrafish embryo yolk cell
Uploaded: 2017-11-29T12:30:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about AFM and Microrheology in the Zebrafish Embryo Yolk Cell at JoVE.com

We thank Amayra Hern&#225;ndez-Vega and Philippe-Alexandre Pouille for participating in setting up the basis for these protocols. We also thank the Molecular Imaging Platform from the IBMB-PCB, Xavier Esteban and members of the laboratory for continuous support. The Consolidated Groups Program of the Generalitat de Catalunya and DGI and Consolider Grants from the Ministry of Economy and Competitivity of Spain to EMB and DN supported this work.

All the protocol steps described below follow the animal care guidelines of our institutions.
1. Zebrafish Culture
<ol>
	<li>Breed and maintain adult zebrafish under standard conditions. 
	NOTE: AB and TL wild type embryos were used for this study.</li>
	<li>Collect embryos and grow them at 28.5 &#176;C in E3 embryo medium24. Stage them according to morphology as previously described19.</li>
</ol>
2. Atomic Force Micr...

<ol>
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Here we show that the material properties and some biomechanical parameters of the zebrafish yolk cell during epiboly can be readily estimated by AFM and nanoparticles microrheology.
While AFM has been employed to retrieve rheological features of cells and tissues in physiological conditions4,5,25,28, here we developed a protocol for applying AFM to intact developing...

The physical principles underlying the biomechanical control of morphogenetic processes are largely undefined. While biomechanical studies at the molecular and cellular level are gathering considerable momentum, the exploration of biomechanical parameters at the tissue/organism level is at its infancy. Hydrodynamic Regression1 or Video Force Microscopy2 allow researchers to distinguish active and passive forces, while laser microsurgery3, or the less intrusive atomic force microscopy (AFM) of dissociated cells4 or in vivo5 or nanoparticle microrheology6 allow the anticipation of a tissue&#39;s mechanical properties and responses.
AFM is a three-dimensional topographic technique with high atomic resolution resolving surface roughness and compliance from the deflection of cantilever tips upon contact with a probed surface7. Different methodologies employing AFM have been developed to investigate surface properties, including measuring friction, adhesion forces, and viscoelastic properties of diverse materials. Recently, AFM has emerged as a powerful tool to retrieve information on the mechanical properties of biological samples. In particular, AFM can non-invasively extract the complex shear modulus from single cells by applying oscillatory indentations with a micro tip attached to a cantilever of known bending constant8. This lets us infer resulting forces. Yet, AFM is not unique and different methodologies allow extracting rheological data and mechanical properties from individual cells (e.g., Micropipette aspiration9, magnetic twisting cytometry (MTC)10, or uniaxial tensile testing11).
Yet, the application of these novel methodologies to complex morphogenetic processes is not straightforward. The main challenges faced when determining the mechanical properties of embryonic tissues are the small (&#181;m to mm), soft (in the 102&#160;- 104 Pa range) and visco-elastic (giving rise to time-dependent phenomena) nature of the material12. It is therefore important to adapt the methods employed for the determination of mechanical properties (stiffness, viscosity, adhesion) to the specific case of embryos and developing organisms. Two important issues need to be taken into consideration when analyzing rheological approaches to study development: to avoid intrusive interference and to provide easy accessibility. In this scenario, micropipette aspiration, MTC, and tensile testing exhibit limitations. In the first case, the high deformation that a cell suffers might alter its physiological and mechanical properties9. In the second case, the need to firmly adhere the experimental tissue to a substrate to ensure that the stresses applied deform the cytoskeleton locally could also introduce effects on the cells&#39; activation state and, hence, in their mechanical features10. Last, uniaxial tensile approaches are limited by the geometry of developing organisms and accessibility11.
AFM seems to be better suited for the study of developmental processes as it allows the study of biological samples directly in their natural environment without any cumbersome sample preparation. Moreover, as dissociation of embryonic tissues is generally difficult, the reduced size of AFM probes provides a high degree of versatility with no limitation in the choice of the type of medium (either aqueous or non-aqueous), sample temperature, or chemical composition of the sample. AFM is versatile enough to be applied to large domains and time scales and has been employed to retrieve material properties of tissues in distinct developmental stages or physiological conditions. Whole native tissues such as arteries13 or bones14 have been studied from a topographical point of view and in some cases, like the sclera, mechanical properties have also been retrieved15. Topography has also been explored in live embryos allowing the visualization of, for instance, cell rearrangement during morphogenesis in Xenopus16. Last, comprehensive sample preparation protocols have been developed to determine mechanical parameters during different developmental processes. Nanoindentation maps have been generated on native unfixed tissue sections for the chick embryonic digestive tract11; adhesive and mechanical properties retrieved for individual ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm progenitor cells isolated from gastrulating zebrafish embryos4; stiffness measurements performed for the epiblast and primitive streak on explants from avian embryos17; and a distinct pattern of stiffness gradients directly defined in the embryonic brain of Xenopus5.
A significant qualitative leap for applying AFM for exploring embryonic development may come from approaching simple accessible morphogenetic processes. Zebrafish epiboly is an essential and conserved event, in which different tissues coordinate in a restricted spherical space to direct the expansion of the blastoderm in a few hours. At the onset of zebrafish epiboly (spherical stage), a superficial layer of cells, the enveloping layer (EVL), covers a semi-spherical cap of blastomeres centered on the animal pole of the embryo sitting on a massive yolk syncytial cell. Epiboly consists of the cortical vegetal ward expansion of the EVL, the deep cells (DCs) of the blastoderm, and the external layer of the syncytial yolk cell (E-YSL) around the yolk. Epiboly ends with the closure of the EVL and the DCs at the vegetal pole18,19,20. How and where forces are generated during epiboly and how they are globally coupled is not yet clear1,21.
Here we describe in detail how to apply AFM to infer passive mechanical tissue properties during epiboly progression in the zebrafish yolk cell in vivo. To do so, we employed small microspheres attached to AFM cantilevers as probes. This allows the retrieval of precise local information within the non-uniform yolk cell surface and to study tensional gradients and their dynamics over time. Alternative AFM approaches such as those using wedge cantilevers22, will not render local data that is precise enough. The wedge technique, which requires very careful manipulation skills to glue a wedge larger than the sample size at the end of the cantilever, is not well suited for probing embryo (~2-fold larger than the length of the cantilever) mechanics.
Modeling and characterizing the viscoelastic properties of cells in qualitative and quantitative ways allows for an improved understanding of their biomechanics. From a biomechanical point of view, it is essential to understand epiboly, and not just demand knowledge on cortical tension measurements and dynamics, which can be extracted by AFM; thus there is need for information on the biophysical properties of the tissue. To extract this information, a variety of cell rheology techniques have been developed over the years in order to characterize different cell types under different physiological conditions23. They include AFM, MTC, and Optical Tweezers (OT). These methods, however, have been proven inadequate for mesoscopic analyses at the scale of embryos or organs. As an alternative, we have successfully adapted nanoparticle-tracking microrheology6 for in vivo rheological measurements. This technique analyzes the Brownian displacements of individual particles and infers local micromechanical properties.
Together AFM and nanoparticle microrheology allow the definition of cortical tensional dynamics and internal mechanical properties of the yolk during epiboly. This information fully endorses a model in which anisotropic stress develops as a consequence of the differences in the deformation response of the EVL and the Yolk Cytoplasmic Layer (YCL) to the isotropic actomyosin contraction of the E-YSL cortex is essential for the directional net movement of the EVL and epiboly progression1.

<table>
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Inverted optical microscope</td>
			<td>Nikon</td>
			<td>TE2000</td>
			<td>Visualization of the sample and AFM cantilever</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Atomic force microscope (AFM)</td>
			<td>Custom made</td>
			<td>-</td>
			<td>Any commercialized AFM could be employed</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Inverted Confocal microscope</td>
			<td>Zeiss</td>
			<td>LSM780</td>
			<td>Nanorheology data collection</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Agarose D1 Low EEO</td>
			<td>Conda</td>
			<td>8016.00</td>
			<td>Casting embryos</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ultrapure LMP Agarose (low melting)</td>
			<td>Invitrogen</td>
			<td>16520-100</td>
			<td>Securing embryos</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Zebrafish Microinjection and Transplantation Molds</td>
			<td>World Precision Instruments</td>
			<td>Z-MOLDS</td>
			<td>Casting embryos. Custom made with the original dimensions can also be employed</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dumont 5 Forceps</td>
			<td>FST</td>
			<td>11251-20</td>
			<td>1.5 mm diameter</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Si3N4 cantilever</td>
			<td>Novascan</td>
			<td>PT.GS</td>
			<td>Measuring the embryo by AFM. Spherical tip: 4.5 &#181;m diameter and k=0.01 N/m</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fluorescent nanoparticles</td>
			<td>Life Technologies</td>
			<td>FluoSpheres F8811,</td>
			<td>For tracking nanorheology</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Micropipette puller</td>
			<td>Sutter Instruments</td>
			<td>P-2000</td>
			<td>Fabricating tailored microneedles</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Borosilicate capillary glass</td>
			<td>Warner Instruments</td>
			<td>G100TF-4</td>
			<td>Fabricating tailored microneedles</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Micromanipulator</td>
			<td>Narishige</td>
			<td>MN-153</td>
			<td>Manipulating the micropipette</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microinjector</td>
			<td>Eppendorf</td>
			<td>FemtoJet Express</td>
			<td>Controlling injection time and pressure</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Stereomicroscope</td>
			<td>Leica</td>
			<td>DFC365FX</td>
			<td>Visualization of the embryos during injection</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Analysis Software</td>
			<td>MathWorks</td>
			<td>Matlab</td>
			<td>Analyzing AFM and particle tracking data</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Zebrafish</td>
			<td>AB and TL wild type</td>
			<td>-</td>
			<td>Strains employed for embryo collection</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glass Bottom Plates</td>
			<td>Mat Tek</td>
			<td>P35G-0.170-14-C</td>
			<td>Mounting embryos for nanorheology data collection</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Stage micrometer</td>
			<td>FST</td>
			<td>29025-02</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

afm and microrheology in the zebrafish embryo yolk cell

Elucidating the factors that direct the spatio-temporal organization of evolving tissues is one of the primary purposes in the study of development. Various propositions claim to have been important contributions to the understanding of the mechanical properties of cells and tissues in their spatiotemporal organization in different developmental and morphogenetic processes. However, due to the lack of reliable and accessible tools to measure material properties and tensional parameters in vivo, validating these hypotheses has been difficult. Here we present methods employing atomic force microscopy (AFM) and particle tracking with the aim of quantifying the mechanical properties of the intact zebrafish embryo yolk cell during epiboly. Epiboly is an early conserved developmental process whose study is facilitated by the transparency of the embryo. These methods are simple to implement, reliable, and widely applicable since they overcome intrusive interventions that could affect tissue mechanics. A simple strategy was applied for the mounting of specimens, AFM recording, and nanoparticle injections and tracking. This approach makes these methods easily adaptable to other developmental times or organisms.

Cortical tension measurements 
For each measurement point, five force-displacement (F-z) curves were acquired by AFM by ramping the cantilever at 1 Hz with a peak-to-peak amplitude of 5 &#181;m (velocity = 10 &#181;m/s) up to a maximum indentation of ~2 &#181;m. This procedure was taking less than 20 min and was not affected by epiboly progression. Each experimental condition was tested in at least 5 embryos.
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Watch this Scientific Journal Video about AFM and Microrheology in the Zebrafish Embryo Yolk Cell at JoVE.com

AFM and Microrheology in the Zebrafish Embryo Yolk Cell

The lack of tools to measure material properties and tensional parameters in vivo prevents validating their roles during development. We employed atomic force microscopy (AFM) and nanoparticle-tracking to quantify mechanical features on the intact zebrafish embryo yolk cell during epiboly. These methods are reliable and widely applicable avoiding intrusive interventions.

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Microbead Implantation in the Zebrafish Embryo

The zebrafish has emerged as a valuable genetic model system for the study of developmental biology and disease. Zebrafish share a high degree of genomic ...

Analysis of Zebrafish Larvae Skeletal Muscle Integrity with Evans Blue Dye

The zebrafish model is an emerging system for the study of neuromuscular disorders.  In the study of neuromuscular diseases, the integrity of the muscle ...

Imaging Subcellular Structures in the Living Zebrafish Embryo

In vivo imaging provides unprecedented access to the dynamic behavior of cellular and subcellular structures in their natural context. Performing such ...

Tracking Cells in GFP-transgenic Zebrafish Using the Photoconvertible PSmOrange System

The rapid development of transparent zebrafish embryos (Danio rerio) in combination with fluorescent labelings of cells and tissues allows visualizing ...

Primary Endodermal Epithelial Cell Culture from the Yolk Sac Membrane of Japanese Quail Embryos

We established an endodermal epithelial cell culture model (EEC) for studying the function of certain enzymes and proteins in mediating nutrient ...

Observing Mitotic Division and Dynamics in a Live Zebrafish Embryo

Mitosis is critical for organismal growth and differentiation. The process is highly dynamic and requires ordered events to accomplish proper chromatin ...

Identification Of Erythromyeloid Progenitors And Their Progeny In The Mouse Embryo By Flow Cytometry

Macrophages are professional phagocytes from the innate arm of the immune system. In steady-state, sessile macrophages are found in adult tissues where ...

Use of Immunolabeling to Analyze Stable, Dynamic, and Nascent Microtubules in the Zebrafish Embryo

Microtubules (MTs) are dynamic and fragile structures that are challenging to image in vivo, particularly in vertebrate embryos. Immunolabeling methods ...

Following Endocardial Tissue Movements via Cell Photoconversion in the Zebrafish Embryo

During embryogenesis, cells undergo dynamic changes in cell behavior, and deciphering the cellular logic behind these changes is a fundamental goal in the ...

Minimally Invasive Embryo Transfer and Embryo Vitrification at the Optimal Embryo Stage in Rabbit Model

Assisted reproductive techniques (ARTs), such as in vitro embryo culture or embryo cryopreservation, affect natural development patterns with perinatal ...