Name: quasi-metagenomic analysis of salmonella from food and environmental samples
Uploaded: 2018-10-25T14:45:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Quasi-metagenomic Analysis of Salmonella from Food and Environmental Samples at JoVE.com

The authors would like to thank Mark Harrison and Gwen Hirsch of the University of Georgia for kindly providing the bacterial strain and other support to this study.

1. Sample Preparation
NOTE: Food samples are prepared for pre-enrichment according to Microbiology Laboratory Guidebook (MLG) of U.S. Department of Agriculture Food Safety and Inspection Service (USDA-FSIS)11 and Bacteriological analytical manual (BAM) of U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA)12.
<ol>
	<li>Aseptically place a 25 g portion of food sample such as black pepper, chicken breast, ground beef, and alfalfa sprouts or an environmental ...

<ol>
	<li>Valderrama, W. B., Dudley, E. G., Doores, S., Cutter, C. N. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Commercially+Available+Rapid+Methods+for+Detection+of+Selected+Food-borne+Pathogens.">Commercially Available Rapid Methods for Detection of Selected Food-borne Pathogens.</a> Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition. 56 (9), 1519-1531 (2016).</li><li>Leonard, S. R., Mammel, M. K., Lacher, D. W., Elkins, C. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Application+of+metagenomic+sequencing+to+food+safety:+detection+of+Shiga+Toxin-producing+Escherichia+coli+on+fresh+bagged+spinach.">Application of metagenomic sequencing to food safety: detection of Shiga Toxin-producing Escherichia coli on fresh bagged spinach.</a> Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 81 (23), 8183-8191 (2015).</li><li>Leonard, S. R., Mammel, M. K., Lacher, D. W., Elkins, C. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Strain-Level+Discrimination+of+Shiga+Toxin-Producing+Escherichia+coli+in+Spinach+Using+Metagenomic+Sequencing.">Strain-Level Discrimination of Shiga Toxin-Producing Escherichia coli in Spinach Using Metagenomic Sequencing.</a> PLoS One. 11 (12), e0167870 (2016).</li><li>Hyeon, J. Y., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Quasi-metagenomics+and+realtime+sequencing+aided+detection+and+subtyping+of+Salmonella+enterica+from+food+samples.">Quasi-metagenomics and realtime sequencing aided detection and subtyping of Salmonella enterica from food samples.</a> Applied and Environmental Microbiology. , (2017).</li><li>Hyeon, J. Y., Deng, X. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Rapid+detection+of+Salmonella+in+raw+chicken+breast+using+real-time+PCR+combined+with+immunomagnetic+separation+and+whole+genome+amplification.">Rapid detection of Salmonella in raw chicken breast using real-time PCR combined with immunomagnetic separation and whole genome amplification.</a> Food Microbiology. 63, 111-116 (2017).</li><li>Hosono, S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Unbiased+whole-genome+amplification+directly+from+clinical+samples.">Unbiased whole-genome amplification directly from clinical samples.</a> Genome Research. 13 (5), 954-964 (2003).</li><li>Seth-Smith, H. M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Whole-genome+sequences+of+Chlamydia+trachomatis+directly+from+clinical+samples+without+culture.">Whole-genome sequences of Chlamydia trachomatis directly from clinical samples without culture.</a> Genome Research. 23 (5), 855-866 (2013).</li><li>Jacobson, A. P., Gill, V. S., Irvin, K. A., Wang, H., Hammack, T. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Evaluation+of+methods+to+prepare+samples+of+leafy+green+vegetables+for+preenrichment+with+the+Bacteriological+Analytical+Manual+Salmonella+culture+method.">Evaluation of methods to prepare samples of leafy green vegetables for preenrichment with the Bacteriological Analytical Manual Salmonella culture method.</a> Journal of Food Protection. 75 (2), 400-404 (2012).</li><li>Jacobson, A. P., Hammack, T. S., Andrews, W. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Evaluation+of+sample+preparation+methods+for+the+isolation+of+Salmonella+from+alfalfa+and+mung+bean+seeds+with+the+Bacteriological+Analytical+Manual's+Salmonella+culture+method.">Evaluation of sample preparation methods for the isolation of Salmonella from alfalfa and mung bean seeds with the Bacteriological Analytical Manual's Salmonella culture method.</a> Journal of AOAC International. 91 (5), 1083-1089 (2008).</li><li>Deng, X., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Comparative+analysis+of+subtyping+methods+against+a+whole-genome-sequencing+standard+for+Salmonella+enterica+serotype+Enteritidis.">Comparative analysis of subtyping methods against a whole-genome-sequencing standard for Salmonella enterica serotype Enteritidis.</a> Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 53 (1), 212-218 (2015).</li><li>. Microbiology Laboratory Guidebook Available from: <a target="_blank" href="https://www.fsis.usda.gov/wps/portal/fsis/topics/science/laboratories-and-procedures/guidebooks-and-methods/microbiology-laboratory-guidebook/microbiology-laboratory-guidebook">https://www.fsis.usda.gov/wps/portal/fsis/topics/science/laboratories-and-procedures/guidebooks-and-methods/microbiology-laboratory-guidebook/microbiology-laboratory-guidebook</a> (2018)</li><li>. Bacteriological Analytical Manual (BAM) Chapter 5: Salmonella Available from: <a target="_blank" href="https://www.fda.gov/Food/FoodScienceResearch/LaboratoryMethods/ucm070149.htm">https://www.fda.gov/Food/FoodScienceResearch/LaboratoryMethods/ucm070149.htm</a> (2018)</li><li>Malorny, B., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Diagnostic+real-time+PCR+for+detection+of+Salmonella+in+food.">Diagnostic real-time PCR for detection of Salmonella in food.</a> Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 70 (12), 7046-7052 (2004).</li><li>June, G. A., Sherrod, P. S., Hammack, T. S., Amaguana, R. M., Andrews, W. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Relative+effectiveness+of+selenite+cystine+broth,+tetrathionate+broth,+and+Rappaport-Vassiliadis+medium+for+the+recovery+of+Salmonella+from+raw+flesh+and+other+highly+contaminated+foods:+precollaborative+study.">Relative effectiveness of selenite cystine broth, tetrathionate broth, and Rappaport-Vassiliadis medium for the recovery of Salmonella from raw flesh and other highly contaminated foods: precollaborative study.</a> Journal of AOAC International. 78 (2), 375-380 (1995).</li><li>Hammack, T. S., Amaguana, R. M., June, G. A., Sherrod, P. S., Andrews, W. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Relative+effectiveness+of+selenite+cystine+broth,+tetrathionate+broth,+and+Rappaport-Vassiliadis+medium+for+the+recovery+of+Salmonella+spp.+from+foods+with+a+low+microbial+load.">Relative effectiveness of selenite cystine broth, tetrathionate broth, and Rappaport-Vassiliadis medium for the recovery of Salmonella spp. from foods with a low microbial load.</a> Journal of Food Protection. 62 (1), 16-21 (1999).</li><li>Wood, D. E., Salzberg, S. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Kraken:+ultrafast+metagenomic+sequence+classification+using+exact+alignments.">Kraken: ultrafast metagenomic sequence classification using exact alignments.</a> Genome Biology. 15 (3), R46 (2014).</li><li>Davis, S., Pettengill, J. B., Luo, Y., Payne, J., Shpuntoff, A., Rand, H., Strain, E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=CFSAN+SNP+Pipeline:+an+automated+method+for+constructing+SNP+matrices+from+next-generation+sequence+data.">CFSAN SNP Pipeline: an automated method for constructing SNP matrices from next-generation sequence data.</a> PeerJ Computer Science. 1 (e20), (2015).</li><li>Zhang, S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Salmonella+serotype+determination+utilizing+high-throughput+genome+sequencing+data.">Salmonella serotype determination utilizing high-throughput genome sequencing data.</a> Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 53 (5), 1685-1692 (2015).</li><li>Rodrigue, S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Whole+genome+amplification+and+de+novo+assembly+of+single+bacterial+cells.">Whole genome amplification and de novo assembly of single bacterial cells.</a> PLoS One. 4 (9), e6864 (2009).</li><li>Ramamurthy, T., Ghosh, A., Pazhani, G. P., Shinoda, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Current+Perspectives+on+Viable+but+Non-Culturable+(VBNC)+Pathogenic+Bacteria.">Current Perspectives on Viable but Non-Culturable (VBNC) Pathogenic Bacteria.</a> Front Public Health. 2, 103 (2014).</li></ol>

Because of the often-low abundance and in-homogenous presence of Salmonella in food and environmental samples, culture enrichment before IMS-MDA is still necessary for Salmonella detection and subtyping; it is therefore a critical step of the protocol. To identify optimal conditions to increase the abundance of Salmonella relative to sample background flora, different enrichment media may be evaluated for specific samples. According to MLG and BAM, both selective medium such as RV broth and non...

Metagenomics sequencing theoretically allows concerted detection and subtyping of foodborne pathogens. However, food samples present challenges to the pathogen analysis by direct sequencing of the food microbiome. First, foodborne pathogens are often present at low levels in food samples. Most of the commercially available rapid detection methods still require 8&#8211;48 h culturing to enrich pathogen cells to a detectable level1. Second, many foods contain abundant microflora cells and/or food DNA, making foodborne pathogen DNA a small fraction of food metagenome and an elusive target for detection and subtyping by direct metagenomic sequencing.
Modification of food microbiomes has been reported to allow substantial concentration of foodborne pathogen DNA to facilitate sequencing-based detection of Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli2,3 and Salmonella enterica4. Because modified food microbiomes are still mixtures of different microbial species, their sequencing is termed as quasi-metagenomic analysis4. Microbiome modification can be performed by culture enrichment alone2,3 or in combination with immunomagnetic separation (IMS) and multiple displacement amplification (MDA)4,5. IMS can selectively capture pathogen cells from the enrichment culture via antibody-coated magnetic beads. MDA can generate sufficient amounts of genomic DNA for sequencing through the highly efficient &#632;29 DNA polymerase6. IMS-MDA has allowed culture-independent pathogen detection from clinical samples7, and shortening of the culture enrichment for quasi-metagenomic detection and subtyping of Salmonella in food samples4.
The overall goal of this method is to prepare quasi-metagenomic DNA from food samples to allow targeted concentration of Salmonella genomic DNA and subsequent detection and subtyping of the Salmonella contaminant by sequencing. Compared to standard methods for Salmonella detection8,9 and subtyping10, the quasimetagenomic approach can substantially shorten the turnaround time from contaminated food and environmental samples to molecular subtypes of the pathogen by unifying the two typically separated analyses into a single workflow. This method is particularly useful for applications such as foodborne outbreak response and other trace back investigations where robust pathogen subtyping is required in addition to pathogen detection and rapid analytical turnaround is important.

<table>
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Laboratory blender bag w/filter</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>10048-886</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Buffered peptone water</td>
			<td>Oxoid Micorbiology Products</td>
			<td>CM0509</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Rappaport Vassiliadis broth</td>
			<td>Neogen Acumedia</td>
			<td>7730A</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Polysorbate 20&#160;</td>
			<td>Millipore Sigma</td>
			<td>P9416</td>
			<td>Tween 20</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Stomacher blender</td>
			<td>Seward&#160;</td>
			<td>30010108</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Centrifuge</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>75005194</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>50ml Centrifuge tubes</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>05-539-6</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Thermal Cycler</td>
			<td>Techne Prime</td>
			<td>EW-93945-13</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>StepOne Real-Time Thermal cycler</td>
			<td>Applied Biosystems</td>
			<td>4.76357</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>AMPure XP beads</td>
			<td>Beckman Coulter</td>
			<td>A63881</td>
			<td>PCR purification beads; mix well before use; store at 4C</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Nextera XT library prep kit</td>
			<td>Illumina</td>
			<td>FC-131-1024</td>
			<td>Store at -80C</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>MinIon library prep kit</td>
			<td>Oxford Nanopore</td>
			<td>SQK-LSK108</td>
			<td>Store at -80C</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NanoDrop</td>
			<td>Thermo Scientific</td>
			<td>ND-2000</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dynabead Anti-Salmonella beads</td>
			<td>Applied Biosystems</td>
			<td>71002</td>
			<td>Vortex well prior to use</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Illustra GenomiPhi V2 DNA amplification kit (MDA kit) 
			-Sample buffer 
			-Reaction buffer 
			-Enzyme mix</td>
			<td>GE Healthcare</td>
			<td>25-6600-30</td>
			<td>Store at -80C</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>HulaMixer</td>
			<td>Invitrogen</td>
			<td>15920D</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DynaMag magnetic rack</td>
			<td>Invitrogen</td>
			<td>12321D</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>TaqMan Universal PCR mastermix</td>
			<td>Applied Biosystems</td>
			<td>4304437</td>
			<td>Mix well before use; store at 4C</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microfuge</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>05-090-100</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

quasi-metagenomic analysis of salmonella from food and environmental samples

Quasi-metagenomics sequencing refers to the sequencing-based analysis of modified microbiomes of food and environmental samples. In this protocol, microbiome modification is designed to concentrate genomic DNA of a target foodborne pathogen contaminant to facilitate the detection and subtyping of the pathogen in a single workflow. Here, we explain and demonstrate the sample preparation steps for the quasi-metagenomics analysis of Salmonella enterica from representative food and environmental samples including alfalfa sprouts, ground black pepper, ground beef, chicken breast and environmental swabs. Samples are first subjected to the culture enrichment of Salmonella for a shortened and adjustable duration (4&#8211;24 h). Salmonella cells are then selectively captured from the enrichment culture by immunomagnetic separation (IMS). Finally, multiple displacement amplification (MDA) is performed to amplify DNA from IMS-captured cells. The DNA output of this protocol can be sequenced by high throughput sequencing platforms. An optional quantitative PCR analysis can be performed to replace sequencing for Salmonella detection or assess the concentration of Salmonella DNA before sequencing.

Prior to quasimetagenomic sequencing, the overall quantity and purity of IMS-MDA products can be evaluated by fluorospectrometer (Table 1).
<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td>Enrichment time (h)</td>
			<td>Ct value</td>
			<td>Concentration (ng/ul)</td>
			<td>Purity (260/280)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td><stron...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Quasi-metagenomic Analysis of Salmonella from Food and Environmental Samples at JoVE.com

Quasi-metagenomic Analysis of Salmonella from Food and Environmental Samples

Here, we present a protocol to prepare DNA samples from food and environmental microbiomes for concerted detection and subtyping of Salmonella through quasimetagenomic sequencing. The combined use of culture enrichment, immunomagnetic separation (IMS), and multiple displacement amplification (MDA) allows effective concentration of Salmonella genomic DNA from food and environmental samples.&#160;

Quasi-metagenomic Analysis of Salmonella from Food and Environmental Samples

Quasi-metagenomics sequencing refers to the sequencing-based analysis of modified microbiomes of food and environmental samples. In this protocol, ...

This method can be used to detect Salmonella from food samples and identify the pathogen to the strain level through genetic fingerprinting. The main advantage of this technique is that it combines Salmonella detection and subtyping into a single workflow and substantially shortens the turnaround time from Salmonella-contaminated food sample to fingerprint of the pathogen. To begin, aseptically place a 25 gram sample of food inside a sterile laboratory blender bag with a built-in filter or optionally prepare an environmental swab by aseptically moistening a sponge with enrichment broth, dragging it across a pre-determined surface and placing it inside a blender bag.Using a laboratory blender, thoroughly mix each sample with 225 milliliters of RV enrichment broth. Then incubate the mixture at 42 degrees Celsius for four to 21 hours. After this, collect a 50 milliliter subsample of enrichment broth from the filtered side of the bag.Then centrifuge the subsample at 100 times g for 10 minutes. Carefully transfer the supernatant to a new 50 milliliter centrifuge tube and centrifuge at 3, 000 to 6, 000 times g for 10 minutes. Discard the supernatant and wash the pellet in five milliliters of BPW.Resuspend the pellet in five milliliters of BPW. First, thaw the sample buffer and the reaction buffer from the MDA kit on ice. Place one milliliter of resuspended cells in BPW and 20 microliters of anti-Salmonella beads in a microcentrifuge tube.Place the microcentrifuge tube on a rotating mixer for 30 minutes at room temperature. After this, place the tube on a magnetic stand for three minutes. Invert the magnetic rack several times to concentrate the beads into a pellet.Keeping the tube on the magnetic rack, aspirate and discard the supernatant. Next, add one milliliter of wash buffer to the tube. Remove the tube holder from the rack and invert the tube holder several times to remove any non-specifically binding bacteria from the complex.After the third wash, aspirate the supernatant from the tube and discard it. Then remove the tube from the magnetic rack and centrifuge it for one second. Then place the tube on the magnetic rack for three minutes before removing any residual wash buffer.Resuspend the bead Salmonella complexes in nine microliters of sample buffer and incubate the tube at 95 degrees Celsius for three minutes. After cooling the complexes on ice, add nine microliters of reaction buffer and one microliter of enzyme mix. Incubate the tube in a thermal cycler according to the text protocol and cool the tube on ice.Next, use a fluorospectrometer instrument to measure the DNA concentration and purity of the sample. Store the final products at negative 20 degrees Celsius for future experiments. Prepare 18 microliters of PCR mixture per sample according to the text protocol.Then mix the MDA product by gently pipetting up and down. Add two microliters of the MDA product suspension to the PCR mixture. Using an optimized real-time PCR protocol, run the real-time PCR according to the text protocol.Add buffer solutions and reagents to MDA product as specified in the text protocol and transfer the resulting 40 microliters of the sequencing prepped MDA product to a new plate and add 20 microliters of PCR purification beads to each well. Next, incubate the plate at room temperature for 10 minutes. Then wash the beads with 80%ethanol and dry them for 12 minutes.Resuspend the dried beads in 53 microliters of resuspension buffer and incubate the beads for two minutes at room temperature. Finally, dilute and pool libraries according to the manufacturer's instructions. In this protocol, targeted quantity assessment of Salmonella DNA was performed by real-time PCR.Representative results from two brands of Salmonella-contaminated chicken breast ranged from 701.54 to 945.86 nanograms per microliter indicating that the sample DNA was effectively amplified. While attempting this procedure, it is important to remember to wash and handle IMS beads carefully, keep MDA reagents and products free from contaminants and maintain a clean hood. After its development, this technique paved the way for researchers in the field of food safety and public health to explore rapid and high-resolution tracking of Salmonella contaminants in food samples, product environments and supply chains.Don't forget that working with foodborne pathogens can be extremely hazardous and precautions such as wearing personal protective equipment and following good laboratory practices should always be taken while performing this procedure.

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Research

JoVE Journal

Biology

Analyzing Gene Expression from Marine Microbial Communities using Environmental Transcriptomics

Analogous to metagenomics, environmental transcriptomics (metatranscriptomics) retrieves and sequences environmental mRNAs from a microbial assemblage without prior knowledge of what genes the community might be expressing. Thus it provides the most unbiased perspective on community gene expression in situ. Environmental transcriptomics protocols are technically difficult since prokaryotic mRNAs generally lack the poly(A) tails that make isolation of eukaryotic messages relatively straightforward 1 and because of the relatively short half lives of mRNAs 2. In addition, mRNAs are much less abundant than rRNAs in total RNA extracts, thus an rRNA background often overwhelms mRNA signals. However, techniques for overcoming some of these difficulties have recently been developed. A procedure for analyzing environmental transcriptomes by creating clone libraries using random primers to reverse-transcribe and amplify environmental mRNAs was recently described was successful in two different natural environments, but results were biased by selection of the random primers used to initiate cDNA synthesis 3. Advances in linear amplification of mRNA obviate the need for random primers in the amplification step and make it possible to use less starting material decreasing the collection and processing time of samples and thereby minimizing RNA degradation 4. In vitro transcription methods for amplifying mRNA involve polyadenylating the mRNA and incorporating a T7 promoter onto the 3 end of the transcript. Amplified RNA (aRNA) can then be converted to double stranded cDNA using random hexamers and directly sequenced by pyrosequencing 5. A first use of this method at Station ALOHA demonstrated its utility for characterizing microbial community gene expression 6.

We present a method for generating cDNA from environmental mRNA. In general, total RNA is first collected from the environment, rRNA is selectively removed, mRNA is selectively amplified, and cDNA synthesized from the enriched mRNA pool is sequenced. Recovered sequences can be annotated using standard bioinformatics techniques to identify the expressed genes.

Analogous to metagenomics, environmental transcriptomics (metatranscriptomics) retrieves and sequences environmental mRNAs from a microbial assemblage ...

High-Throughput Measurement and Classification of Organic P in Environmental Samples

Many types of organic phosphorus (P) molecules exist in environmental samples1. Traditional P measurements do not detect these organic P compounds since they do not react with colorimetric reagents2,3. Enzymatic hydrolysis (EH) is an emerging method for accurately characterizing organic P forms in environmental samples4,5. This method is only trumped in accuracy by Phosphorus-31 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy (31P-NMR) -a method that is expensive and requires specialized technical training6. We have adapted an enzymatic hydrolysis method capable of measuring three classes of phosphorus (monoester P, diester P and inorganic P) to a microplate reader system7. This method provides researchers with a fast, accurate, affordable and user-friendly means to measure P species in soils, sediments, manures and, if concentrated, aquatic samples. This is the only high-throughput method for measuring the forms and enzyme-lability of organic P that can be performed in a standard laboratory. The resulting data provides insight to scientists studying system nutrient content and eutrophication potential.

This protocol describes a high-throughput method of enzymatic hydrolysis that utilizes a microplate reader to measure and classify soil phosphorus as P monoesters, P diesters and inorganic P. Up to 96 samples can be measured at one time in a standard laboratory.

Many types of organic phosphorus (P) molecules exist in environmental samples1.  Traditional P measurements do not detect these organic P compounds since ...

One-step Purification of Twin-Strep-tagged Proteins and Their Complexes on Strep-Tactin Resin Cross-linked With Bis(sulfosuccinimidyl) Suberate (BS3)

Affinity purification of Strep-tagged fusion proteins on resins carrying an engineered streptavidin (Strep-Tactin) has become a widely used method for isolation of protein complexes under physiological conditions. Fusion proteins containing two copies of Strep-tag II, designated twin-Strep-tag or SIII-tag, have the advantage of higher affinity for Strep-Tactin compared to those containing only a single Strep-tag, thus allowing more efficient protein purification. However, this advantage is offset by the fact that elution of twin-Strep-tagged proteins with biotin may be incomplete, leading to low protein recovery. The recovery can be dramatically improved by using denaturing elution with sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS), but this leads to sample contamination with Strep-Tactin released from the resin, making the assay incompatible with downstream proteomic analysis. To overcome this limitation, we have developed a method whereby resin-coupled tetramer of Strep-Tactin is first stabilized by covalent cross-linking with Bis(sulfosuccinimidyl) suberate (BS3) and the resulting cross-linked resin is then used to purify target protein complexes in a single batch purification step. Efficient elution with SDS ensures good protein recovery, while the absence of contaminating Strep-Tactin allows downstream protein analysis by mass spectrometry. As a proof of concept, we describe here a protocol for purification of SIII-tagged viral protein VPg-Pro from nuclei of virus-infected N. benthamiana plants using the Strep-Tactin polymethacrylate resin cross-linked with BS3. The same protocol can be used to purify any twin-Strep-tagged protein of interest and characterize its physiological binding partners.

One-step Purification of Twin-Strep-tagged Proteins and Their Complexes on Strep-Tactin Resin Cross-linked With Bissulfosuccinimidyl Suberate BS3

A method is described for efficient purification of twin-Strep-tagged fusion proteins and their specific complexes on modified streptavidin (Strep-Tactin) resin covalently cross-linked with Bis(sulfosuccinimidyl) suberate (BS3). The method has the advantages of fast speed, good target protein recovery and high purity, and is compatible with subsequent analysis by mass spectrometry.

Affinity purification of Strep-tagged fusion proteins on resins carrying an engineered streptavidin (Strep-Tactin) has become a widely used method for ...

Determination of Sialic Acids in Liver and Milk Samples of Wild-type and CMAH Knock-out Mice.

CMAH (cytidine monophosphate-N-acetylneuraminic acid hydroxylase) is responsible for the oxidation of cytidine monophosphate-N-acetylneuraminic acids in mammals. However, humans cannot oxidize cytidine monophosphate-N-acetylneuraminic acid to cytidine monophosphate-N-glycolylneuraminic acid due to a primary exon deletion of the CMAH gene. To understand the effects and implications of the lack of CMAH activity in more detail, a Cmah knock-out model in mice is of keen interest in basic and applied research. The analysis method to determine the phenotype of this mouse model is herein described in detail, and is based on the detection of both N-acetylneuraminic acid and N-glycolylenuraminic acid in the liver and milk of wild-type and Cmah knock-out mice. Endogenous sialic acids are released and derivatized with o-phenylenediamine to generate fluorogenic derivatives, which can be subsequently analyzed by HPLC. The presented protocol can be also applied for the analysis of milk and tissue samples from various other origins, and may be of use to investigate the nutritional and health effects of N-glycolylneuraminic acid.

Determination of Sialic Acids in Liver and Milk Samples of Wild-type and CMAH Knock-out Mice.

We describe a HPLC-based method for the determination of N-acetylneuraminic acid and N-glycolylenuraminic acid in mouse liver and milk.

CMAH (cytidine monophosphate-N-acetylneuraminic acid hydroxylase) is responsible for the oxidation of cytidine monophosphate-N-acetylneuraminic acids in ...

Laboratory Protocol for Genetic Gut Content Analyses of Aquatic Macroinvertebrates Using Group-specific rDNA Primers

Analyzing food webs is essential for a better understanding of ecosystems. For example, food web interactions can undergo severe changes caused by the invasion of non-indigenous species. However, an exact identification of field predator-prey interactions is difficult in many cases. These analyses are often based on a visual evaluation of gut content or the analysis of stable isotope ratios (&#948;15N and &#948;13C). Such methods require comprehensive knowledge about, respectively, morphologic diversity or isotopic signature from individual prey organisms, leading to obstacles in the exact identification of prey organisms. Visual gut content analyses especially underestimate soft bodied prey organisms, because maceration, ingestion and digestion of prey organisms make identification of specific species difficult. Hence, polymerase chain reaction (PCR) based strategies, for example the use of group-specific primer sets, provide a powerful tool for the investigation of food web interactions. Here, we describe detailed protocols to investigate the gut contents of macroinvertebrate consumers from the field using group-specific primer sets for nuclear ribosomal deoxyribonucleic acid (rDNA). DNA can be extracted either from whole specimens (in the case of small taxa) or out of gut contents of specimens collected in the field. Presence and functional efficiency of the DNA templates need to be confirmed directly from the tested individual using universal primer sets targeting the respective subunit of DNA. We also demonstrate that consumed prey can be determined further down to species level via PCR with unmodified group-specific primers combined with subsequent single strand conformation polymorphism (SSCP) analyses using polyacrylamide gels. Furthermore, we show that the use of different fluorescent dyes as labels enables parallel screening for DNA fragments of different prey groups from multiple gut content samples via automated fragment analysis.

Most common gut content analyses of macroinvertebrates are visual. Requiring intense knowledge about morphological diversity of prey organisms, they miss soft bodied prey and, due to strong comminution of prey, are nearly impossible for some organisms, including amphipods. We provide detailed, novel genetic approaches for macroinvertebrate prey identification in the diet of amphipods.

Analyzing food webs is essential for a better understanding of ecosystems. For example, food web interactions can undergo severe changes caused by the ...

Precise, High-throughput Analysis of Bacterial Growth

Bacterial growth is a central concept in the development of modern microbial physiology, as well as in the investigation of cellular dynamics at the systems level. Recent studies have reported correlations between bacterial growth and genome-wide events, such as genome reduction and transcriptome reorganization. Correctly analyzing bacterial growth is crucial for understanding the growth-dependent coordination of gene functions and cellular components. Accordingly, the precise quantitative evaluation of bacterial growth in a high-throughput manner is required. Emerging technological developments offer new experimental tools that allow updates of the methods used for studying bacterial growth. The protocol introduced here employs a microplate reader with a highly optimized experimental procedure for the reproducible and precise evaluation of bacterial growth. This protocol was used to evaluate the growth of several previously described Escherichia coli strains. The main steps of the protocol are as follows: the preparation of a large number of cell stocks in small vials for repeated tests with reproducible results, the use of 96-well plates for high-throughput growth evaluation, and the manual calculation of two major parameters (i.e., maximal growth rate and population density) representing the growth dynamics. In comparison to the traditional colony-forming unit (CFU) assay, which counts the cells that are cultured in glass tubes over time on agar plates, the present method is more efficient and provides more detailed temporal records of growth changes, but has a stricter detection limit at low population densities. In summary, the described method is advantageous for the precise and reproducible high-throughput analysis of bacterial growth, which can be used to draw conceptual conclusions or to make theoretical observations.

Quantitative evaluation of bacterial growth is essential to understanding microbial physiology as a systems-level phenomenon. A protocol for experimental manipulation and an analytical approach are introduced, allowing for precise, high-throughput analysis of bacterial growth, which is a key subject of interest in systems biology.

Bacterial growth is a central concept in the development of modern microbial physiology, as well as in the investigation of cellular dynamics at the ...

Laser Capture Microdissection of Highly Pure Trabecular Meshwork from Mouse Eyes for Gene Expression Analysis

Laser capture microdissection (LCM) has allowed gene expression analysis of single cells and enriched cell populations in tissue sections. LCM is a great tool for the study of the molecular mechanisms underlying cell differentiation and the development and progression of various diseases, including glaucoma. Glaucoma, which comprises a family of progressive optic neuropathies, is the most common cause of irreversible blindness worldwide. Structural changes and damage within the trabecular meshwork (TM) can result in increased intraocular pressure (IOP), which is a major risk factor for developing glaucoma. However, the precise molecular mechanisms involved are still poorly understood. The ability to perform gene expression analysis will be crucial in obtaining further insights into the function of these cells and its role in the regulation of IOP and glaucoma development. To achieve this, a reproducible method for isolating highly enriched TM from frozen sections of mouse eyes and a method for downstream gene expression analysis, such as RT-qPCR and RNA-Seq is needed. The method described herein is developed to isolate highly pure TM from mouse eyes for downstream digital PCR and microarray analysis. In addition, this technique can be easily adapted for the isolation of other highly enriched ocular cells and cell compartments that have been difficult to isolate from mouse eyes. The combination of LCM and RNA analysis can contribute to a more comprehensive understanding of the cellular events underlying glaucoma.

Here, we describe a protocol for a reproducible laser capture microdissection (LCM) for isolating trabecular meshwork (TM) for downstream RNA analysis. The ability to analyze changes in gene expression in the TM will help in understanding the underlying molecular mechanisms of TM-related ocular diseases.

Laser capture microdissection (LCM) has allowed gene expression analysis of single cells and enriched cell populations in tissue sections. LCM is a great ...

Loop-Mediated Isothermal Amplification for Screening Salmonella in Animal Food and Confirming Salmonella from Culture Isolation

Loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) has emerged as a powerful nucleic acid amplification test for the rapid detection of numerous bacterial, fungal, parasitic, and viral agents. Salmonella is a bacterial pathogen of worldwide food safety concern, including food for animals. Presented here is a multi-laboratory-validated Salmonella LAMP protocol that can be used to rapidly screen animal food for the presence of Salmonella contamination and can also be used to confirm presumptive Salmonella isolates recovered from all food categories. The LAMP assay specifically targets the Salmonella invasion gene (invA) and is rapid, sensitive, and highly specific. Template DNAs are prepared from enrichment broths of animal food or pure cultures of presumptive Salmonella isolates. The LAMP reagent mixture is prepared by combining an isothermal master mix, primers, DNA template, and water. The LAMP assay runs at a constant temperature of 65 &#176;C for 30 min. Positive results are monitored via real-time fluorescence and can be detected as early as 5 min. The LAMP assay exhibits high tolerance to inhibitors in animal food or culture medium, serving as a rapid, reliable, robust, cost-effective, and user-friendly method for screening and confirming Salmonella. The LAMP method has recently been incorporated into the U.S. Food and Drug Administration&#8217;s Bacteriological Analytical Manual (BAM) Chapter 5.

Loop-Mediated Isothermal Amplification for Screening Salmonella in Animal Food and Confirming Salmonella from Culture Isolation

Loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) is an isothermal nucleic acid amplification test (iNAAT) that has attracted broad interest in the pathogen detection field. Here, we present a multi-laboratory-validated Salmonella LAMP protocol as a rapid, reliable, and robust method for screening Salmonella in animal food and confirming presumptive Salmonella from culture isolation.

Loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) has emerged as a powerful nucleic acid amplification test for the rapid detection of numerous bacterial, ...

Elucidating Glycan Structure and Occurrence Using Microarray Polymer Profiling

Microarray Polymer Profiling (MAPP) for High-Throughput Glycan Analysis

Microarray polymer profiling (MAPP) is a robust and reproducible approach to systematically determine the composition and relative abundance of glycans and glycoconjugates within a variety of biological samples, including plant and algal tissues, food materials, and human, animal, and microbial samples. Microarray technology underpins the efficacy of this method by providing a miniaturized, high-throughput screening platform, allowing thousands of interactions between glycans and highly specific glycan-directed molecular probes to be characterized concomitantly, using only small amounts of analytes. Constituent glycans are chemically and enzymatically fractionated, before being sequentially extracted from the sample and directly immobilized onto nitrocellulose membranes. The glycan composition is determined by the attachment of specific glycan-recognizing molecular probes to the extorted and printed molecules. MAPP is complementary to conventional glycan analysis techniques, such as monosaccharide and linkage analysis and mass spectrometry. However, glycan-recognizing molecular probes provide insight into the structural configurations of glycans, which can aid in elucidating biological interactions and functional roles.

Author Spotlight: MAPP Protocol &amp;#8211; Advancing Glycan Analysis 

Microarray polymer profiling (MAPP) is a high-throughput technique for compositional analysis of glycans in biological samples.

Microarray polymer profiling (MAPP) is a robust and reproducible approach to systematically determine the composition and relative abundance of glycans ...

POC Method and Integrated Decision Support Tool for Estimating Anemia

A Point-of-Care Method with Integrated Decision Support Tool to Estimate Anemia at Population Level

Robust point-of-care methods are required to estimate anemia at the population level. The accurate methods are lab-based and cannot be used at the point of care. To address this caveat, a novel method based on pooled capillary blood and a portable autoanalyzer was developed for the estimation of Hb. Additionally, custom software was developed for near-real-time integration of the Hb values from the auto analyzer to the server. Moreover, a decision support tool that can immediately categorize the participants into different stages of anemia was developed. The decision support tool was designed based on the World Health Organization (WHO) cut-off for anemia at the population level and was available for all age and gender groups. This simple and user-friendly tool could&#160;easily be used by front-line health workers who have limited technical skills. Overall, the method developed could&#160;be used at the point of care and is accurate. This high-throughput method could&#160;be used for screening anemia at the population level for all age and gender groups.

Author Spotlight: Developing a Point-of-Care Hemoglobin Estimation Method for Anemia Management

An accurate hemoglobin estimation method is lacking at the point of care and may hinder population-based programs for treating anemia. Therefore, we developed a point-of-care method based on pooled capillary blood and an auto-analyzer integrated into a custom software application to categorize the hemoglobin values into different grades of anemia.

Robust point-of-care methods are required to estimate anemia at the population level. The accurate methods are lab-based and cannot be used at the point ...