The authors have no acknowledgements.

<ol>
	<li>Kroenke, K., Mangelsdorff, A. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Common+symptoms+in+ambulatory+care:+incidence,+evaluation,+therapy,+and+outcome.">Common symptoms in ambulatory care: incidence, evaluation, therapy, and outcome.</a> The American Journal of Medicine. 86 (3), 262-266 (1989).</li><li>Neuhauser, H. K., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Epidemiology+of+vestibular+vertigo:+A+neurotologic+survey+of+the+general+population.">Epidemiology of vestibular vertigo: A neurotologic survey of the general population.</a> Neurology. 65 (6), 898-904 (2005).</li><li>Kroenke, K., Hoffman, R. M., Einstadter, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=How+common+are+various+causes+of+dizziness?+A+critical+review.">How common are various causes of dizziness? A critical review.</a> Southern Medical Journal. 93 (2), 160-167 (2000).</li><li>Halmagyi, G. M., Curthoys, I. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+clinical+sign+of+canal+paresis.">A clinical sign of canal paresis.</a> Archives of Neurology. 45 (7), 737-739 (1988).</li><li>Halmagyi, G. M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+Video+Head+Impulse+Test.">The Video Head Impulse Test.</a> Frontiers in Neurology. (8), (2017).</li><li>Van Esch, B. F., Nobel-Hoff, G. E., van Benthem, P. P., vander Zaag-Loonen, H. J., Bruintjes, T. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Determining+vestibular+hypofunction:+start+with+the+video-head+impulse+test.">Determining vestibular hypofunction: start with the video-head impulse test.</a> European Archives of Oto-Rhino-Laryngology. 273 (11), 3733-3739 (2016).</li><li>Cleworth, T. W., Carpenter, M. G., Honegger, F., Allum, J. H. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Differences+in+head+impulse+results+due+to+analysis+techniques.">Differences in head impulse results due to analysis techniques.</a> Journal of Vestibular Research. 27 (2-3), 163-172 (2017).</li><li>Curthoys, I. S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+Video+Head+Impulse+Test+(vHIT).">The Video Head Impulse Test (vHIT).</a> Balance Function Assessment and Management 2nd ed. , 391-430 (2014).</li><li>MacDougall, H. G., Weber, K. P., McCarvie, L. A., Halmagyi, G. M., Curthoys, I. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+video+head+impulse+test:+diagnostic+accuracy+in+peripheral+vestibulopathy.">The video head impulse test: diagnostic accuracy in peripheral vestibulopathy.</a> Neurology. 73 (14), 1134-1141 (2009).</li><li>Agrawal, Y., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Evaluation+of+quantitative+head+impulse+testing+using+search+coils+versus+video-oculography+in+older+individuals.">Evaluation of quantitative head impulse testing using search coils versus video-oculography in older individuals.</a> Otology and Neurotology. 35 (2), 283-288 (2014).</li><li>MacDougall, H. G., McGarvie, L. A., Halmagyi, G. M., Curthoys, I. S., Weber, K. P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+video+Head+Impulse+Test+(vHIT)+detects+vertical+semicircular+canal+dysfunction.">The video Head Impulse Test (vHIT) detects vertical semicircular canal dysfunction.</a> PLoS One. 8 (4), 61488 (2013).</li><li>Suh, M. W., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Effect+of+Goggle+Slippage+on+the+Video+Head+Impulse+Test+Outcome+and+Its+Mechanisms.">Effect of Goggle Slippage on the Video Head Impulse Test Outcome and Its Mechanisms.</a> Otology and Neurotology. 38 (1), 102-109 (2017).</li><li>Migliaccio, A. A., Cremer, P. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+2D+modified+head+impulse+test:+a+2D+technique+for+measuring+function+in+all+six+semi-circular+canals.">The 2D modified head impulse test: a 2D technique for measuring function in all six semi-circular canals.</a> Journal of Vestibular Research. 21 (4), 227-234 (2011).</li><li>Abrahamsen, E. R., Christensen, A. E., Hougaard, D. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Intra-+and+Interexaminer+Variability+of+Two+Separate+Video+Head+Impulse+Test+Systems+Assessing+All+Six+Semicircular+Canals.">Intra- and Interexaminer Variability of Two Separate Video Head Impulse Test Systems Assessing All Six Semicircular Canals.</a> Otology and Neurotology. 39 (2), 113-122 (2018).</li><li>. ICS Impulse USB, user guide, Doc. No. 7-50-2060-EN/03 Part No. 7-50-20600-EN Available from: <a target="_blank" href="https://partners.natus.com/asset/resource/file/otometrics/asset/7-50-2060-EN_03.PDF">https://partners.natus.com/asset/resource/file/otometrics/asset/7-50-2060-EN_03.PDF</a> (2017)</li><li>Mantokoudis, G., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Quantifying+the+vestibulo-ocular+reflex+with+video-oculography:+nature+and+frequency+of+artifacts.">Quantifying the vestibulo-ocular reflex with video-oculography: nature and frequency of artifacts.</a> Audiology and Neurotology. 20 (1), 39-50 (2015).</li><li>Pattersson, J. N., Bassett, A. M., Mollak, C. M., Honaker, J. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Effects+of+Hand+Placement+Tecnique+on+the+Video+Head+Impulse+Test+(vHIT)+in+Younger+and+Older+Adults.">Effects of Hand Placement Tecnique on the Video Head Impulse Test (vHIT) in Younger and Older Adults.</a> Otology and Neurotology. 36 (6), 1061-1068 (2015).</li><li>Kim, T. H., Kim, M. B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Effect+of+aging+and+direction+of+impulse+in+video+head+impulse+test.">Effect of aging and direction of impulse in video head impulse test.</a> Laryngoscope. 128 (6), 228-233 (2018).</li><li>Lee, S. H., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Comparison+of+the+Video+Head+Impulse+Test+(vHIT)+Gains+Between+Two+Commercially+Available+Devices+and+by+Different+Analytical+Methods.">Comparison of the Video Head Impulse Test (vHIT) Gains Between Two Commercially Available Devices and by Different Analytical Methods.</a> Otology and Neurotology. 39 (5), 297-300 (2018).</li><li>McGarvie, L. A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+Video+Head+Impulse+Test+(vHIT)+of+Semicircular+Canal+Function+-+Age-Dependent+Normative+Values+of+VOR+Gain+in+Healthy+Subjects.">The Video Head Impulse Test (vHIT) of Semicircular Canal Function - Age-Dependent Normative Values of VOR Gain in Healthy Subjects.</a> Frontiers in Neurology. (6), (2015).</li><li>Bansal, S., Sinha, S. K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Assessment+of+VOR+gain+function+and+its+test-retest+reliability+in+normal+hearing+individuals.">Assessment of VOR gain function and its test-retest reliability in normal hearing individuals.</a> European Archives of Oto-Rhino-Laryngology. 273 (10), 3167-3173 (2016).</li><li>Matino-Soler, E., Esteller-More, E., Martin-Sanchez, J. C., Martinez-Sanchez, J. M., Perez-Fernandez, N. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Normative+data+on+angular+vestibulo-ocular+responses+in+the+yaw+axis+measured+using+the+video+head+impulse+test.">Normative data on angular vestibulo-ocular responses in the yaw axis measured using the video head impulse test.</a> Otology and Neurotology. 36 (3), 466-471 (2015).</li><li>Mossman, B., Mossman, S., Purdie, G., Schneider, E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Age+dependent+normal+horizontal+VOR+gain+of+head+impulse+test+as+measured+with+video-oculography.">Age dependent normal horizontal VOR gain of head impulse test as measured with video-oculography.</a> Journal of Otolaryngology Head and Neck. , (2015).</li><li>Yilmaz, O., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Influence+of+Time+and+Direction+Information+on+Video+Head+Impulse+Gains.">Influence of Time and Direction Information on Video Head Impulse Gains.</a> Journal of International Advanced Otology. 13 (3), 363-367 (2017).</li></ol>

Dan Dupont Hougaard has received funding for theoretical courses on vHIT from Otometrics.

The experimental design provided should enable examiners to complete vHIT testing of all six SCCs of the best possible quality. There are several critical steps within the protocol that need to be followed meticulously in order to obtain reliable test results. The pretest evaluation is important because several conditions/diseases may either compromise or alter results. For instance, eye muscle palsies, strabismus, or pupillary malformations may seriously affect the test results even if vestibular function is normal. Calibration of the equipment preceding each test is also very critical, because an imprecise or wrong calibration may greatly influence the results. Special attention should also be given when performing the actual test. The participant needs to be cooperative during the test and, when applying the head impulse, special emphasis should given to directing the impulse towards the correct and desired plane.
Both methods described for vHIT testing possess strengths and weaknesses. Especially when performing vertical vHIT tests, the examiner must consider the positions of the head, eyes, and visual target. The position of the head during head impulses can be with the patient facing the wall or with the head rotated 45&#176; to either side. Practitioners can either turn the head or entire body to obtain this position. It should also be taken into consideration which positions are optimal to individual patients, as cooperation during testing is crucial.&#160; Eye movement during testing of the vertical SCCs in the 3D vHIT is both vertical and torsional. In the 2D modified vHIT test method, the torsional component is eliminated by lateralization of the eyeball during testing. The torsional component may add noise to the test, and lateralization of the eyeball may induce artifacts especially from the eyelids or eyelashes. The examiner must also consider the fact that numerous head impulses applied in the vertical planes with continuous lateralization of the eye is fatiguing to a patient. The visual target also needs to be adjusted to each patient&#8217;s eye level. If this is not the case, artifacts and noise may alter the test, and it may be difficult for the patient to keep their eyes on the target if the target is not placed optimally during testing. After completion of the test, the examiner most conclude if test results are of sufficient quality and, if necessary, whether or not to perform all steps of the test again. A final evaluation of the test is mandatory and should include manual removal of any noise and/or artifacts before a final conclusion is drawn15,16.
It is of utmost importance that the examiner is aware of potential artifact triggers during the entire vHIT test procedure. There are many different steps during the test that may individually influence final test results5,12,17,18,19. It is important to be aware that the two important parameters provided by the vHIT test, saccades and mean gain values, may not be correct due to artifacts and/or noise and not because of a compromised VOR function. No standard mean gain calculation method exists, and individual manufacturers use different calculation methods. The examiner must thus use caution when comparing mean gain values obtained by different gain calculation methods.
One particular study found no significant mean gain value differences between several vHIT systems if the same gain calculation method was applied19. However, another recent study found differences in mean gain values depending on both the device and gain calculation method used20. Obtaining normative data for each individual vHIT device is therefore advisable21,22,23,24. Several other factors may alter the mean gain values, among these being goggle slippage (either due to a loose strap or examiner touching the googles), too short of a distance to the wall, and any covert saccades (in case the AUC gain calculation method is used)8,12,17,19,25. Furthermore, no clear definition of pathological saccades exists. Therefore, interpretation of the head and eye velocity graphs following the examination is needed to determine whether or not saccades are present. The conclusions drawn after final analysis upon test completion are subject to inter-rater variation and require previous experience with vHIT testing. It is recommended to use precise and uniform criteria defining pathological saccades. Until a consensus is reached on this matter, application of the four standard criteria, defined in a recent study14, is recommended.
During the last decade, vestibular testing has undergone a revolution. Many clinical bedside tests have been replaced by equipment that enables objective testing of all five paired vestibular end organs. vHIT is superior to the subjective bedside head impulse test and is now offered at many clinics and hospitals worldwide as the initial test of vestibular function in vertiginous patients. The test is fast and can be performed with only minor discomfort to the participant. The test is susceptible to several sources of error, which are more likely to occur if the test is not performed following certain predefined standards. Definition of clinical skills, previous experience, and specific requirements/qualifications need to be clearly defined for both clinical use and research purposes before optimal use of the vHIT test is possible. A recent study indicated that some level of prior experience is beneficial when performing the vHIT; therefore, it is recommended that future examiners undergo systematic training before performing vHIT in a clinical setting14. The vHIT test is not just a &#8220;plug and play&#8221; test; however, if performed correctly, it offers excellent objective diagnostics of vestibular system functioning. This test has a high positive predictive value and offers a specificity very close to one hundred percent14.

An erratum was issued for: <a href="https://www.jove.com/video/59012/functional-testing-all-six-semicircular-canals-with-video-head">Testing of all Six Semicircular Canals with Video Head Impulse Test Systems</a>. The article title was updated.
The article title was updated from:
Functional Testing of all Six Semicircular Canals with Video Head Impulse Test Systems
to:
Testing of all Six Semicircular Canals with Video Head Impulse Test Systems

An erratum was issued for: <a href="https://www.jove.com/video/59012/functional-testing-all-six-semicircular-canals-with-video-head">Testing of all Six Semicircular Canals with Video Head Impulse Test Systems</a>. The article title was updated.

Erratum: Testing of all Six Semicircular Canals with Video Head Impulse Test Systems

Vertigo is the third most common complaint among patients seeking general medical advice and has a lifetime prevalence of 7.8 percent1,2. It is often difficult to determine whether the cause of vertigo is due to disease within the vestibular organs or disease in other parts of the body, because vertigo may be the presenting symptom of numerous diseases3. Traditionally, vestibular testing has been difficult and time-consuming for the clinician and often not very pleasant for the participant. Many of these tests have been done as bedside examinations that rely upon a very skilled examiner and cooperative, dizzy patient. A well-recognized method for bedside testing of vestibular function was introduced in 1988 and termed the &#34;head impulse test&#34;4. Throughout the last decade, there has been rapid development of existing test procedures and methods as well as a rise in new methods of testing. Various laboratory tests, which evaluate the function of the vestibular system, are now commercially available. In 2009, a new test method, video head impulse testing (vHIT), became commercially available. With this test, clinicians around the world are now able to test functioning of the six semicircular canals (SCCs) of the vestibular system objectively and quickly (5-10 min), with only minor discomfort to the patient5. The vHIT test has revolutionized vestibular testing, and in many clinics and hospitals around the world, it is now considered the most important initial test for both acute and chronic vertiginous patients6.
There are several manufacturers of vHIT systems around the world. Some of the most widespread vHIT systems include the EyeSeeCam (Denmark), ICS Impulse (Denmark), and VHIT Ulmer (France) (see Table of Materials). The first two mentioned vHIT systems are quite similar in design and further described in this article (and referred to as vHIT systems A and B, respectively). Both these vHIT systems provide a lightweight goggle that contains a high-speed camera for the recording of eye movements and a sensor that measures head velocity7. Accompanying software needs to be installed on a laptop computer, and the goggle is connected via a USB cable connection to the same computer. During vHIT testing, the goggles are mounted on the patient&#8217;s head and attached firmly. Participants keep their eyes fixed on a target on the wall while the examiner applies fast, abrupt, and unpredictable head impulses in the plane of the semicircular canal being tested. The vHIT provides the examiner with a report that includes 1) a graph depicting head and eye velocity as a function of time and 2) a calculated numeric value termed the &#34;mean gain value&#34;.
After completion of the vHIT test, the software calculates the mean gain value, which is defined as the eye velocity in &#176;/s divided by the head velocity in &#176;/s for each of the SCCs being tested. Individual vHIT systems assess the function of the SCCs by means of testing the vestibular-ocular reflex (VOR), but they often calculate the mean gain value by various methods. The vHIT system A uses the regression gain method, which allows for graphical data analysis over the entire velocity range of head impulses. Following vHIT test completion, it provides the average regression plot slope (a best-fit line through data points at different head velocities with accompanying gain values). The vHIT system B uses the area-under-the-curve (AUC) method for calculation of gain values. The area under the eye velocity record is divided by the area under the head velocity record. This area VOR gain is less affected by minor deviations in eye velocity, which may affect VOR gain calculated from only eye velocity records7. When using the AUC method, the gain value is calculated as the ratio of cumulative slow-phase eye velocity over cumulative head velocity from the onset of the head impulse to the moment at which head velocity returns to zero.
Additionally, unlike the bedside head impulse test, vHIT enables the examiner to detect compensatory eye movements and saccades [both occurring after head movement has stopped (overt saccades) and saccades occurring during the head movement (covert saccades)] by analyzing the graphs provided in the accompanying report8,9. Conclusions on whether or not pathological saccades are present require subjective assessment of the test report, as no consensus exists on the definition of pathological saccades. However, if the software with ICS impulse identifies saccades as pathological, these curves are marked as red. Eye recordings are analyzed differently by the two vHIT systems. In system B, the center of mass of the pupil is determined and used, along with the timestamps from the images, to determine the eye velocities.&#160;These are used along with the head velocities for the gain calculations. In system A, lateral and vertical eye movement velocities are analyzed. If only the pupil is analyzed, only the horizontal and vertical components of eye-in-head position enter a vector analysis algorithm that calculates the VOR gain.
The vHIT test is considered an objective test. This test, however, is technically demanding for the examiner to perform. Head impulses, applied to the participant, need to be unpredictable in both timing and direction, and they need to be delivered at peak head velocities between 150&#176; and 250&#176; per second with an amplitude of 5&#176; to 20&#176;, ideally8,9,10,11. Another prerequisite for successful testing is that the participant is able to understand and comply with the given instructions8. The test is also susceptible to several sources of error, with the most common being goggle slippage8,11,12 and noise/artifacts due to poor pupil detecting and tracking8. The company software discards impulses with too much noise/artifacts during testing. Upon completion of the test, it is often necessary to manually remove additional noise and/or artifacts that the software did not detect and remove automatically.
Both vHIT systems use the same test method for horizontal vHIT testing. Vertical SCC testing is, however, more difficult to perform than horizontal SCC testing. With testing of the vertical SCCs, head impulses are more technical demanding to deliver, the eye movements include a torsional component, the test is more susceptible to goggle slippage, and the test is more uncomfortable for the participant11. The traditional method used for vHIT testing is termed &#34;3D vHIT testing&#34;&#160;and is used when performing vertical SCC testing with the vHIT system A. In response to these challenges, a 2D modified vHIT test method has been developed13. This method, which provides near total removal of the rotational part of the eye movements during testing, is used when performing vertical SCC testing with the vHIT system B. Illustrations and a more detailed description of these two vHIT test methods are provided in the results section. A recent study included both of the abovementioned vHIT systems14. Because these vHIT systems use separate test methods for vertical SCC testing, both the 2D and 3D vHIT test methods were used in the evaluation of vestibular function. The name of the 3D test method may be misleading, as most commercially available vHIT test systems currently measure eye movements in only two dimensions. However, the original test is referred to as the 3D test method throughout this article. The abovementioned two vHIT test methods are described in detail. It should also be noted that 2D vHIT testing is possible with the vHIT system A, but to the best of our knowledge, this test method has not yet been validated for this vHIT system.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width:864px;" width="863">
	<tbody>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:211px;">EyeSeeCam</td>
			<td style="width:149px;">Interacoustics, Denmark</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td style="width:385px;">Video Head Impulse Test Equipment</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:211px;">ICS Impulse</td>
			<td style="width:149px;">Otometrics, Denmark</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td>Video Head Impulse Test Equipment</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:211px;">VHIT Ulmer</td>
			<td style="width:149px;">Synapsys, France</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td>Video Head Impulse Test Equipment</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:211px;">OtoAccess</td>
			<td style="width:149px;">Interacoustics, Denmark</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td>Software for Video Head Impulse Test</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:211px;">OTOsuite</td>
			<td style="width:149px;">Otometrics, Denmark</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td>Software for Video Head Impulse Test</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:211px;">aVOR App</td>
			<td style="width:149px;">Iphone App</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td>Mid section images in figure 4 have been modified from this app</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

testing of all six semicircular canals with video head impulse test systems

Throughout the last decade, there has been a rapid development of existing test procedures and methods evaluating the human vestibular system. In 2009 and 2013, commercially available video Head Impulse Testing (vHIT) has enabled clinicians to examine the function of all three paired semicircular canals within the vestibular system. The vHIT test has revolutionized vestibular testing and, at many clinics and hospitals around the world, this test is now considered the most important initial test of vertiginous patients. There are several manufacturers of vHIT systems around the world. A test protocol for two of the most widespread vHIT systems, EyeSeeCam and ICS Impulse, will be presented. Included in this protocol is a description of the two different test methods termed 2D vHIT testing and 3D vHIT testing. The vHIT system includes a lightweight goggle with accompanying software. The test is fast (5-10 min) and can be done with minimal discomfort to the person being examined. However, there are many steps of the test, and each of these steps may alter the final test results, if the individual steps of the test are not performed correctly. It is therefore of paramount importance that the examiner is familiar with the potential noise and/or artifact triggers. Systematic training of future examiners before performing vHIT in a clinical setting and compliance with this protocol may minimize these challenges of the test. The vHIT test is not just a &#8220;plug and play&#8221; test. However, if carried out correctly, this test offers excellent objective assessment of the function of the high frequency domain of the vestibular system. It has a very high positive predictive value and offers a specificity very close to one hundred percent.

Prerequisites for a valid and precise test result include correct, meticulous, and thorough pretest calibrations. For reports following a correct calibration with the vHIT system A, refer to Figure 1 and Figure 2. Calibration with the system B is done in one step for all six SCCs by asking participants to switch their gazes between the two dots that appear when the lasers are on (see Figure 3). Be careful to check that the eye and head velocities match after this calibration is done. A correct calibration includes a &#8710; value below 21. For a detailed description of the calibration procedures, please refer to the manual provided by the manufacturer15,16.
<img alt="Figure 1" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/59012/59012fig1.jpg" /> 
Figure 1: Standard calibration prior to testing of horizontal SCCs with vHIT system A. It should be ensured that &#34;Eye in Image&#34;&#160;(image on the left) contains markings equivalent to the four outer limits as well as one in the center and that &#34;Eye in Space&#34;&#160;is depicted as a cross with vertical and horizontal lines in zero degrees. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/59012/59012fig1large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 2" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/59012/59012fig2.jpg" /> 
Figure 2: Head calibration for testing prior to testing of vertical SCCs with vHIT system A. Shown is a 3D representation of head movements with respect to the earth. Horizontal and vertical directions are shown together with head movements with respect to the possibly oblique axes of the inertial sensor. The three polar diagrams show the head movements from three different perspectives. Grey dots: raw head movement, black dots: calibrated head movement, solid grey line: camera orientation, solid black line: head orientation. Far left: grey and black dots must follow a line in the right-left direction (horizontal), middle: black and grey dots must follow a line in the superior-inferior direction (vertical), far right: black and grey dots must follow two perpendicular lines looking like a cross. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/59012/59012fig2large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 3" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/59012/59012fig3.jpg" /> 
Figure 3: Calibration procedure setup with vHIT system B. Ask the patient to position the left and right dots equidistant on each side of the fixation dot. As the procedure continues, only one dot at a time will be illuminated and the participant is asked to keep their gaze on the visible dot. As the participant&#8217;s gaze switches, the system tracks the movement of the pupil. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/59012/59012fig3large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
Testing of the horizontal SCCs are done in a similar fashion with both types of equipment. For testing of the vertical SCCs, either the 2D or 3D test method may be used. Please refer to Figure 4 for a detailed description of the two test methods when testing all six SCCs.
<img alt="Figure 4" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/59012/59012fig4.jpg" /> 
Figure 4: Visualization of the vHIT test procedures. The left side illustrates the 3D vHIT procedure with vHIT system A. The right side illustrates the 2D modified vHIT procedure with vHIT system B. The middle section illustrates orientation of the semicircular canals (SCCs) being tested. The middle section illustrations are modifications of images taken from a smartphone application (see Table of Materials) and are used with permission from the copyright owner. For horizontal SCC testing, the examiner placed his hands on the patient&#8217;s jaw, delivering head impulses to each side. For vertical SCC testing, the examiner placed his dominant hand (in this study, both examiners were right-handed) on the top of the head and other hand beneath the chin. (a-c) Illustrations of the performance of the 3D vHIT using vHIT system A. In all three setups, the patient is facing the camera and the head is rotated in the direction of the SCCs being tested. (a) Right anterior left posterior (RALP) SCC testing. (b) Horizontal SCC testing. (c) Left anterior right posterior (LARP) SCC testing. (g&#8211;i) Starting position of the head; arrows illustrate the direction in which the head is rotated; the set of SCCs being tested is marked with red. (d&#8211;f) Illustrations of the performance of the 2D modified vHIT using vHIT system B. (d) RALP SCC testing with the subject turned 45&#176; to the left and the impulses being delivered by either rotating the head forward or backward. (e) Horizontal SCC testing. (f) LARP SCC testing with the subject turned 45&#176; to the right and the impulses being delivered by either rotating the head forward or backward. By rotating the patient&#8217;s head 45&#176; prior to RALP and LARP testing, the eyes align with the axis of the vertical SCCs being tested; therefore, primarily vertical eye movements are produced when applying head impulses. (h), (j), and (k) show the starting positions of the head; the arrows illustrate the direction in which the head is rotated; the set of SCCs being tested is marked with gray. LARP indicates left-anterior-right-posterior plane; RALP indicates right-anterior-left-posterior plane. Reproduction of this figure has been granted with permission. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/59012/59012fig4large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
Every time the vHIT test is performed, all individual steps of the test are important, as they may affect or alter test results. Following completion of every vHIT test, the examiner must go through the report meticulously to determine if results are valid. Special attention must be made to make sure that no noise or artifacts are included in the report. Eight different types of artifacts that may alter results have been described (see Figure 5). Even though the accompanying software removes a lot of noise and/or artifacts from the report, manual deletion of noise and/or artifacts may be needed as an additional step of the evaluation. If the test was carried out properly and participant cooperated fully during the testing, a conclusion of either a normal vestibular function or true compromised function may be drawn following evaluation and interpretation of the report. Please refer to Figure 6, Figure 7, and Figure 8 for test reports following examinations of participants with normal SCC function. Prerequisites for a normal complete vHIT test include mean gain values within the normal range as well as absence of pathological saccades. When mean gain values lie within the normal range, head and eye velocities are almost similar, and the corresponding curves are almost identical in the mirrored view.&#160; When no pathological saccades are present, the depiction of both head and eye velocities closely match both during and after application of the head impulses.
<img alt="Figure 5" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/59012/59012fig5.jpg" /> 
Figure 5: Visualization of eight different artifacts. Each type of artifact is illustrated by a graph as well as accompanying images depicting the test situation triggering the individual artifact (x-axis: time (seconds), y-axis: head and eye velocity (&#176;/s)). Black and red lines indicate eye velocities and head velocities, respectively. The image on the left within a panel shows a subject being tested with vHIT system A, whereas the image on the right shows a subject being tested with vHIT system B. The appurtenant graph shows traces for eye and head movements related to the artifact. (a) Wrong calibration (high gain), (b) touching goggles (two peaks), (c) patient inattention (eye trace goes wrong direction), (d) bounce (head overshoot), (e) loose strap (delay/phase shift), (f) pupil tracking loss (trace oscillations), (g) mini-blink (pseudo-saccade), (h) blink (pseudo-saccade)17. This figure has been modified with permission17. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/59012/59012fig5large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 6" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/59012/59012fig6.jpg" /> 
Figure 6: Report with normal findings for lateral SCCs. It should be noted that the curves for both head and eye velocities match, all mean gain values are within the normal range (0.80-1.20), and there are no pathological saccades present. (A) vHIT system B report. Left: gain values are depicted as individual dots representing coherent pars of peak head velocities and gain values; red = right side, blue = left side. Mean gain values are also shown as a numerical value (0.91 and 1). &#160;Right: x-axis = time (milliseconds), y-axis = head and eye velocities. Head and eye velocities are shown in the same direction (mirrored view) to ease the interpretation. (B) vHIT system A report. Left: x-axis = time (milliseconds), y-axis = head and eye velocities (&#176;/s). Head and eye velocities are shown in opposite directions. Right: gain values are depicted as a best fitted line through individual dots representing coherent pars of peak head velocities and peek eye velocities (first y-axis) as well as gain values (second y-axis); red = right side, blue = left side. Mean gain values are also shown as a numerical value (1.07 and 1.07). <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/59012/59012fig6large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 7" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/59012/59012fig7.jpg" /> 
Figure 7: Report with normal findings for all six SCCs following vHIT system A testing. It should be noted that the curves for both head and eye velocities match, all mean gain values are within the normal range (0.80-1.20) or higher, and there are no pathological saccades present. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/59012/59012fig7large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 8" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/59012/59012fig8.jpg" /> 
Figure 8: Report with normal findings for all six SCCs following vHIT system B testing. It should be noted that the curves for both head and eye velocities match, all mean gain values are within the normal range (0.80-1.20), and there are no pathological saccades present. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/59012/59012fig8large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
In order to conclude that the vestibular function is reduced a low mean gain value AND pathological saccades must be present. When low mean gain values are present, the amplitude of eye velocity is significantly lower than the corresponding amplitude of head velocity. Pathological saccades must also be present if the examination is truly pathological. These saccades might occur during or after the head movement. In order to conclude if saccades are truly pathological, the examiner must evaluate the saccades in terms of frequency, latency, direction, and amplitude. Please refer to Figure 9 and Figure 10 for examples.
<img alt="Figure 9" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/59012/59012fig9.jpg" /> 
Figure 9: Pathological test results after testing with the vHIT system A. Overt saccades are seen after head movement has stopped (A), covert saccades are seen during the head movement (B), and sometimes a mixture of both are seen (C). It should also be noted that mean gain values are below the normal range on the ipsilateral side of the pathological saccades. In (B) and (C), number 1 in red indicates covert saccades, number 2 in red indicates overt saccades, and number 3 in red indicate small correctional saccades that are classified as non-pathological saccades. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/59012/59012fig9large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 10" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/59012/59012fig10.jpg" /> 
Figure 10: Pathological test results after testing with the vHIT system B. Overt saccades are seen after head movement has stopped (A), covert saccades are seen during the head movement (B), and sometimes a mixture of both are seen (C). It should also be noted that mean gain values are below the normal range on the ipsilateral side of the pathological saccades. In (C), number 1 in blue indicates covert saccades and number 2 in blue indicates overt saccades. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/59012/59012fig10large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Testing of all Six Semicircular Canals with Video Head Impulse Test Systems at JoVE.com

Testing of all Six Semicircular Canals with Video Head Impulse Test Systems

This protocol describes how to correctly perform the video head impulse test with two separate test systems commonly used worldwide. Both the 2D and 3D video head impulse test methods are described.

Throughout the last decade, there has been a rapid development of existing test procedures and methods evaluating the human vestibular system. In 2009 and ...

testing-all-six-semicircular-canals-with-video-head-impulse-test

Research

Education

JoVE Core

JoVE Journal

Electrical Engineering

Medicine

Unit 1

First and Second-Order Circuits

SCIENTISTS IN ACTION

30.0K Views.  Aalborg University Hospital. This protocol describes how to correctly perform the video head impulse test with two separate test systems commonly used worldwide. Both the 2D and 3D video head impulse test methods are described.

Video: Testing of all Six Semicircular Canals with Video Head Impulse Test Systems

A Novel Application of Musculoskeletal Ultrasound Imaging

Ultrasound is an attractive modality for imaging muscle and tendon motion during dynamic tasks and can provide a complementary methodological approach for biomechanical studies in a clinical or laboratory setting. Towards this goal, methods for quantification of muscle kinematics from ultrasound imagery are being developed based on image processing. The temporal resolution of these methods is typically not sufficient for highly dynamic tasks, such as drop-landing. We propose a new approach that utilizes a Doppler method for quantifying muscle kinematics. We have developed a novel vector tissue Doppler imaging (vTDI) technique that can be used to measure musculoskeletal contraction velocity, strain and strain rate with sub-millisecond temporal resolution during dynamic activities using ultrasound. The goal of this preliminary study was to investigate the repeatability and potential applicability of the vTDI technique in measuring musculoskeletal velocities during a drop-landing task, in healthy subjects. The vTDI measurements can be performed concurrently with other biomechanical techniques, such as 3D motion capture for joint kinematics and kinetics, electromyography for timing of muscle activation and force plates for ground reaction force. Integration of these complementary techniques could lead to a better understanding of dynamic muscle function and dysfunction underlying the pathogenesis and pathophysiology of musculoskeletal disorders.

We describe a new ultrasound-based vector tissue Doppler imaging technique to measure muscle contraction velocity, strain and strain rate with sub-millisecond temporal resolution during dynamic activities. This approach provides complementary measurements of dynamic muscle function and could lead to a better understanding of mechanisms underlying musculoskeletal disorders.

Ultrasound is an attractive modality for imaging muscle and tendon  motion during dynamic tasks and can provide a complementary methodological  approach ...

An &#8220;All-laser&#8221; Endothelial Transplant

The &#8220;all laser&#8221; assisted endothelial keratoplasty is a procedure that is performed with a femtosecond laser used to cut the donor tissue at an intended depth, and a near infrared diode laser to weld the corneal tissue. The proposed technique enables to reach the three main goals in endothelial keratoplasty: a precise control in the thickness of the donor tissue; its easy insertion in the recipient bed and a reduced risk of donor lenticule dislocation. The donor cornea thickness is measured in the surgery room with optical coherence tomography (OCT), in order to correctly design the donor tissue dimensions. A femtosecond laser is used to cut the donor cornea. The recipient eye is prepared by manual stripping of the descemetic membrane. The donor endothelium is inserted into a Busin-injector, the peripheral inner side is stained with a proper chromophore (a water solution of Indocyanine Green) and then it is pulled in the anterior chamber. The transplanted tissue is placed in the final and correct location and then diode laser welding is induced from outside the eyeball. The procedure has been performed on more than 15 patients evidencing an improvement in surgery performances, with a good recovery of visual acuity and a reduced donor lenticule dislocation event.

An &amp;#8220;All-laser&amp;#8221; Endothelial Transplant

An all laser procedure is proposed in the endothelial transplant. The surgical technique is based on the use of a femtosecond laser to prepare the donor tissue. Laser welding technique is then used to secure the donor endothelium in the correct position.

The &#8220;all laser&#8221; assisted endothelial keratoplasty is a procedure that is performed with a femtosecond laser used to cut the donor tissue at an ...

Experimental Protocol of a Three-minute, All-out Arm Crank Exercise Test in Spinal-cord Injured and Able-bodied Individuals

Reliable exercise protocols are required to test changes in exercise performance in elite athletes. Performance improvements in these athletes may be small; therefore, sensitive tools are fundamental to exercise physiology. There are currently many exercise tests that allow for the examination of exercise capacity in able-bodied athletes, with protocols mainly for lower-body or whole-body exercise. There is a trend to test athletes in a sport-specific setting that closely resembles the actions that the participants are used to performing. Only a few protocols test short-term, high-intensity exercise capacity in participants with an impairment of the lower body. Most of these protocols are very sport-specific and are not applicable to a wide range of athletes. One well-known test protocol is the 30 s Wingate test, which is well-established in cycling and in arm crank exercise testing. This test analyzes high-intensity exercise performance over a 30 s time duration. In order to monitor exercise performance over a longer duration, a different method was modified for application to the upper body. The 3 min, all-out arm crank ergometer test allows athletes to be tested in a manner specific to 1,500 m wheelchair racing (in terms of exercise duration), as well as to upper body exercises such as rowing or hand-cycling. In order to increase the reliability with identical test conditions, it is crucial to precisely replicate settings such as the resistance (i.e., torque factor) and the position of the participants (i.e., the height of the crank, the distance between the crank and the participant, and the fixation of the participant). Another important issue concerns the beginning of the exercise test. Fixed revolutions per minute are required to standardize the test conditions for the start of the exercise test. This exercise protocol shows the importance of accurate operations to reproduce identical test conditions and settings.

We present a protocol to test the aerobic and anaerobic power of the upper body muscles over a duration of 3 min in able-bodied as well as in paraplegic and tetraplegic individuals. The protocol presents specific modifications in its application for upper-body exercise in individuals with or without disability.

Reliable exercise protocols are required to test changes in exercise performance in elite athletes. Performance improvements in these athletes may be ...

Posterior Semicircular Canal Approach for Inner Ear Gene Delivery in Neonatal Mouse

Inner ear gene therapy offers great promise as a potential treatment for hearing loss and dizziness. One of the critical determinants of the success of inner ear gene therapy is to find a delivery method which results in consistent transduction efficiency of targeted cell types while minimizing hearing loss. In this study, we describe the posterior semicircular canal approach as a viable method for inner ear gene delivery in neonatal mice. We show that gene delivery through the posterior semicircular canal is able to perfuse the entire inner ear. The easy anatomic identification of the posterior semicircular canal, as well as minimal manipulation of the temporal bone required, make this surgical approach an attractive option for inner ear gene delivery.

In this study, we describe the posterior semicircular canal approach as a reliable method for inner ear gene delivery in neonatal mice. We show that gene delivery through the posterior semicircular canal is able to perfuse the entire inner ear.

Inner ear gene therapy offers great promise as a potential treatment for hearing loss and dizziness. One of the critical determinants of the success of ...

Taste Exam: A Brief and Validated Test

The emerging importance of taste in medicine and biomedical research, and new knowledge about its genetic underpinnings, has motivated us to supplement classic taste-testing methods in two ways. First, we explain how to do a brief assessment of the mouth, including the tongue, to ensure that taste papillae are present and to note evidence of relevant disease. Second, we draw on genetics to validate taste test data by comparing reports of perceived bitterness intensity and inborn receptor genotypes. Discordance between objective measures of genotype and subjective reports of taste experience can identify data collection errors, distracted subjects or those who have not understood or followed instructions. Our expectation is that fast and valid taste tests may persuade researchers and clinicians to assess taste regularly, making taste testing as common as testing for hearing and vision. Finally, because many tissues of the body express taste receptors, taste responses may provide a proxy for tissue sensitivity elsewhere in the body and, thereby, serve as a rapid, point-of-care test to guide diagnosis and a research tool to evaluate taste receptor protein function.

This protocol measures human taste responses and includes a brief anatomical assessment, a short taste test, and a validation method using the subject&#39;s reported sensation and taste receptor genotype.

The emerging importance of taste in medicine and biomedical research, and new knowledge about its genetic underpinnings, has motivated us to supplement ...

Endoscopic Septoplasty with Limited Two-line Resection: Minimally Invasive Surgery for Septal Deviation

Endoscopic septoplasty is a surgical procedure in otolaryngology that is commonly performed to treat nasal airway obstruction caused by nasal septal deviation. It has a long history with multiple variations. In this article, a modified endoscopic septoplasty procedure using the limited two-line resection (2LoRs) technique at the posterior and inferior junction of the cartilaginous and bony septum is presented based on embryologic and anatomic knowledge of the nasal septum and the biomechanics of cartilaginous behavior. With this procedure, the quadrangular cartilage can be preserved as much as possible, which is helpful in retaining the supporting framework and rigidness of the septum. 2LoRs has been proven effective and sound for the correction of nasal septal deviation with rare complications. This modified procedure can be applied to correct the deviated nasal septum in the absence of any external nasal deformity to improve nasal patency or to improve access to the middle meatus or to the axillary region of the middle turbinate. It may also be used to expand the indications of septoplasty to children and adolescents because of its minimally invasive approach.

Endoscopic septoplasty is a time-honored surgical procedure with multiple variations. This paper focuses on a step-by-step surgical approach to perform a modified septoplasty procedure known as limited two-line resection. This surgical technique can be applied to correct a deviated nasal septum in the absence of an external nasal deformity.

Endoscopic septoplasty is a surgical procedure in otolaryngology that is commonly performed to treat nasal airway obstruction caused by nasal septal ...

Protocol for Developing a Femur Osteotomy Model in Wistar Albino Rats

Fracture healing is a physiological process resulting in the regeneration of bone defects by the coordinated action of osteoblasts and osteoclasts. Osteoanabolic drugs have the potential to augment the repair of fractures but have constraints like high costs or undesirable side effects. The bone healing potential of a drug can initially be determined by in vitro studies, but in vivo studies are needed for the final proof of concept. Our objective was to develop a femur osteotomy rodent model that could help researchers understand the development of callus formation following fracture of the shaft of the femur and that could help establish whether a potential drug has bone healing properties. Adult male Wistar albino rats were used after Institutional Animal Ethics Committee clearance. The rodents were anesthetized, and under aseptic conditions, complete transverse fractures at the middle one-third of the shafts of the femurs were created using open osteotomy. The fractures were reduced and internally fixed using intramedullary K-wires, and secondary fracture healing was allowed to take place. After surgery, intraperitoneal analgesics and antibiotics were given for 5 days. Sequential weekly x-rays assessed callus formation. The rats were sacrificed based on radiologically pre-determined time points, and the development of the fracture callus was analyzed radiologically and using immunohistochemistry.

Here, we present a protocol to iatrogenically fracture the shaft of the femur of Wistar albino rats and follow up on the development of the callus. This femur osteotomy model can help researchers evaluate the process of fracture healing and to study how a drug could influence fracture healing.

Fracture healing is a physiological process resulting in the regeneration of bone defects by the coordinated action of osteoblasts and osteoclasts. ...

Augmented Reality Navigation-Guided Core Decompression for Osteonecrosis of Femoral Head

Osteonecrosis of the femoral head (ONFH) is a common joint disease in young and middle-aged patients, which seriously burdens their lives and work. For early-stage ONFH, core decompression surgery is a classical and effective hip preservation therapy. In traditional procedures of core decompression with Kirschner wire, there are still many problems such as X-ray exposure, repeated puncture verification, and damage to normal bone tissue. The blindness of the puncture process and the inability to provide real-time visualization are crucial reasons for these problems.
To optimize this procedure, our team developed an intraoperative navigation system on the basis of augmented reality (AR) technology. This surgical system can intuitively display the anatomy of the surgical areas and render preoperative images and virtual needles to intraoperative video in real-time. With the guide of the navigation system, surgeons can accurately insert Kirschner wires into the targeted lesion area and minimize the collateral damage. We conducted 10 cases of core decompression surgery with this system. The efficiency of positioning and fluoroscopy is greatly improved compared to the traditional procedures, and the accuracy of puncture is also guaranteed.

Augmented reality technology was applied to core decompression for osteonecrosis of the femoral head to realize real-time visualization of this surgical procedure. This method can effectively improve the safety and precision of core decompression.

Osteonecrosis of the femoral head (ONFH) is a common joint disease in young and middle-aged patients, which seriously burdens their lives and work. For ...

Characterization of LISW Effects on Cochlear Pathophysiology in Mice

Research Application of Laser-Induced Shock Wave for Studying Blast-Induced Cochlear Injury

The ear is the organ most susceptible to explosion overpressure, and cochlear injuries frequently occur after blast exposure. Blast exposure can lead to sensorineural hearing loss (SNHL), which is an irreversible hearing loss that negatively affects the quality of life. Detailed blast-induced cochlear pathologies, such as the loss of hair cells, spiral ganglion neurons, cochlear synapses, and disruption of stereocilia, have been previously documented. However, determining cochlear sensorineural deterioration after a blast injury is challenging because animals exposed to blast overpressure usually experience tympanic membrane perforation (TMP), which causes concurrent conductive hearing loss. To evaluate pure sensorineural cochlear dysfunction, we developed an experimental animal model of blast-induced cochlear injury using a laser-induced shock wave. This method avoids TMP and concomitant systemic injuries and reproduces the functional decline in the SNHL component in an energy-dependent manner after LISW exposure. This animal model could be a platform for elucidating the pathological mechanisms and exploring potential treatments for blast-induced cochlear dysfunction.

Author Spotlight: Development of a Laser-Induced Shock Wave Animal Model Without Tympanic Membrane Perforation

Here, we describe experimental protocols for creating an animal model of blast-induced cochlear injury using laser-induced shock wave (LISW). Exposure of the temporal bone to LISW allows the reproduction of blast-induced cochlear pathophysiology. This animal model could be a platform for elucidating cochlear pathology and exploring potential treatments for blast injuries.

The ear is the organ most susceptible to explosion overpressure, and cochlear injuries frequently occur after blast exposure. Blast exposure can lead to ...

Accelerated Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing in Blood Culture Bottles

Direct Microbial Identification using An Automated Microbial Identification System to Facilitate the EUCAST RAST Method Without Mass Spectrometry

Gram-negative (GN) sepsis is a medical emergency where management in resource-limited settings relies on conventional microbiological culture techniques providing results in 3-4 days. Recognizing this delay in turnaround time (TAT), both EUCAST and CLSI have developed protocols for determining AST results directly from positively flagged automated blood culture bottles (+aBCs). EUCAST rapid AST (RAST) protocol was first introduced in 2018, where zone diameter breakpoints for four common etiological agents of GN sepsis, i.e., Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Acinetobacter baumannii complex can be reported. However, those clinical laboratories that have implemented this method in their routine workflow rely on mass spectrometry-based microbial identification, which is not easily available, thus precluding its implementation in resource-limited settings. To circumvent it, we evaluated a direct inoculum protocol (DIP) using a commercial automated microbial identification and antimicrobial susceptibility testing system (aMIAST) to enable early microbial identification within 8 h of positive flagging of aBC. We evaluated this protocol from January to October 2023 to identify the four RAST reportable GN (RR-GN) in the positively flagged aBC. The microbial identification results in DIP were compared with the standard inoculum preparation protocol (SIP) in aMIAST. Of 204 +aBCs with monomorphic GN (+naBC), one of the 4 RR-GN was identified in 105 +naBCs by SIP (E. coli: 50, K. pneumoniae: 20, P. aeruginosa: 9 and A. baumannii complex: 26). Of these, 94% (98/105) were correctly identified by DIP whereas major error and very major error rates were 6% (7/105) and 1.7% (4/240), respectively. When DIP for microbial identification is done using the EUCAST RAST method, provisional clinical reports can be provided within 24 h of receiving the sample. This approach has the potential to significantly reduce the TAT, enabling early institution of appropriate antimicrobial therapy.

Author Spotlight: Accelerating Diagnostic Accuracy with Direct Identification of Gram-Negatives from Blood Culture Bottles

EUCAST has developed a direct antimicrobial susceptibility testing (AST) protocol for automated blood cultures. However, its dependence on mass spectrometry-based microbial identification can be obviated by using a direct inoculum preparation protocol in an automated microbial identification system. This approach can provide AST reports within 24 h of sample collection.

Gram-negative (GN) sepsis is a medical emergency where management in resource-limited settings relies on conventional microbiological culture techniques ...