This work was supported by the U.S. Department of Energy SLAC Contract No. DE- AC02-76SF00515 and by the U.S. DOE Office of Science, Fusion Energy Sciences under FWP 100182. This work was also partially supported by the National Science Foundation under Grant No. 1632708 and by EC H2020 LASERLAB-EUROPE/LEPP (Contract No. 654148). C.B.C. acknowledges support from the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC). F.T. acknowledges support from National Nuclear Security Administration (NNSA).

The following protocol details the assembly and operation of a 5 &#181;m diameter cylindrical cryogenic hydrogen jet operated at 17 K, 60 psig as an example case. An extension of this platform to other aperture types and gases requires operation at different pressures and temperatures. As a reference, working parameters for other jets are listed in Table 1. Sections 1-3 and section 7 are performed at ambient temperature and pressure, while sections 4-6 are performed at high vacuum.
1. Installation of the cryostat in the vacuum chamber
CAUTION: A vacuum vessel can be hazardous to personnel and equipment from collapse, rupture due to back-fill pressurization, or implosion due to vacuum window failure. Pressure relief valves and burst disks must be installed on vacuum vessels within a cryogenic system to prevent over-pressurization.
<ol>
	<li>Carefully insert the cryostat into the vacuum chamber. Vibrationally isolate the cryostat from the vacuum chamber using a stabilization platform.</li>
	<li>Perform a vacuum test to determine the baseline vacuum pressure which, we have found, must be better than ~5 x 10-5 mBar. A residual gas analyzer (RGA) is often helpful to identify moisture and contaminant gases present in the system.</li>
	<li>Connect the temperature controller and heater to the cryostat and confirm an accurate reading at ambient temperature.
	<ol>
		<li>If an unexpected value is measured, verify continuity from the temperature sensor to the correct terminals on the temperature controller. Otherwise, replace the temperature sensor.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Connect the helium return line(s) to an adjustable flow meter panel.</li>
	<li>Evacuate the insulating vacuum shroud on the transfer line to better than 1 x 10-2 mBar using a turbomolecular pump backed by a dry scroll pump.</li>
	<li>Apply a thin layer of cryogenic vacuum grease to the O-ring inside the head of the cryostat.</li>
	<li>Slowly insert the transfer line refrigerator bayonet into the cryostat until the adjustment screw contacts the cryostat head. There should be minimal resistance. Tighten the adjustment screw to set the needle valve on the refrigerator bayonet to the desired position.</li>
	<li>Conduct a cryostat performance test to verify the temperature sensor reliability by cooling down to the lowest attainable temperature. If unexpected temperatures are measured during the cool-down, visually inspect the temperature sensors for good contact with the cryostat. If necessary, reposition and apply cryogenic vacuum grease to improve contact.</li>
	<li>Assemble the sample gas line according to the P&#38;ID diagram in Figure 1. Use a high sensitivity leak detector to identify any leaks. 
	CAUTION: Hydrogen, deuterium, and methane are extremely flammable gases. Use piping and equipment designed to withstand the pressures and physical hazards. Local exhaust or ventilation are required to keep the concentration below the explosion limit. Before applying this procedure with any other gases, consult the associated safety data sheet (SDS).</li>
	<li>Purge the gas line according to the continuous flow purging technique to dilute contaminant gases and water vapor to the purity of the sample gas. The total time depends on the volume of the gas line and gas flow at a given backing pressure. 
	&#8203;CAUTION: While purging the line, ensure the vacuum chamber is adequately ventilated or maintained under vacuum to prevent accumulation of flammable gases.</li>
	<li>After the initial purge is complete, maintain constant positive pressure (e.g., 30 sccm at 50 psig) on the line to mitigate the risk of contaminant gases entering the line when the vacuum chamber is at ambient pressure.</li>
</ol>
2. Installation of the cryogenic source components
NOTE: All preparation and assembly of the cryogenic source components should be performed in a clean environment with the appropriate cleanroom clothing (i.e., gloves, hairnets, lab coats, etc.).
<ol>
	<li>Use indirect ultrasonic cleaning to remove contaminants (e.g., residual indium) from the cryogenic source components.
	<ol>
		<li>Fill a sonicator with distilled water and add a surfactant to reduce the surface tension of the water.</li>
		<li>Place cryogenic source parts in individual glass beakers, fully submerge them in electronics-grade isopropanol, and loosely cover the beakers with aluminum foil to reduce evaporation and to prevent particle contamination.</li>
		<li>Place the beakers in the cleaning basket or a beaker stand in the sonicator to maximize cavitation. Beakers should not touch the bottom of the sonicator.</li>
		<li>Activate the sonicator for 60 min.</li>
		<li>Inspect the isopropanol using a bright white light for suspended particles or residue.</li>
		<li>If particles are visible, rinse the parts with clean isopropanol, and replace the isopropanol bath. Sonicate in cycles of 60 min until no particles or residue are visible.</li>
		<li>Place the parts on a covered, clean surface to desiccate for a minimum of 30 min before assembly.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Repeat section 2.1 for the stainless-steel filter, source cap, ferrule, and assembly screws.</li>
	<li>Cut a piece of indium to maximally cover the junction between the cryogenic source body and cold finger of the cryostat.</li>
	<li>Place the indium on the cryogenic source and hold it flush with the cold finger of the cryostat. Tighten the retaining screws, ensuring the indium remains flat, to establish a thermal seal between the components. Do not overtighten, as the copper threads are easily damaged.</li>
	<li>Screw the threaded stainless-steel filter onto the cryogenic source flange.</li>
	<li>Place an indium gasket on the source flange. Attach the source flange to the cryogenic source body using the flange screws. Tighten the screws diagonally instead of sequentially around the circumference.</li>
	<li>Connect the sample gas line on the cryostat to the cryogenic source. Check for leaks using a high sensitivity leak detector.</li>
</ol>
3. Installation of aperture
<ol>
	<li>Select an aperture according to experimental needs.
	<ol>
		<li>Inspect the aperture using brightfield and darkfield microscopy techniques to identify imperfections in the aperture, physical obstructions, or residual photoresist.</li>
		<li>Some physical obstructions can be removed easily when rinsed with isopropanol. Otherwise, discard the aperture.</li>
		<li>If there is residual photoresist from the nanofabrication of the aperture, use an acetone bath or piranha solution to remove it. 
		CAUTION: Piranha solution, consisting of 3:1 sulfuric acid (H2SO4) and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), is extremely corrosive to organic material, including the skin and respiratory tract. The reaction of Piranha with organic material releases gas, which may become explosive. Never seal containers containing Piranha. A full-face shield, chemical resistant apron, lab coat, and neoprene gloves are required.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Rinse the aperture with electronics-grade isopropanol to remove any debris or surface contamination. Allow the aperture to dry on a clean and covered surface for 10 min before installation.</li>
	<li>Place the ferrule inside the cap.</li>
	<li>Use clean, soft-tipped tweezers to place the aperture inside the ferrule. Tap the cap to center the aperture in the ferrule.</li>
	<li>Drop an indium ring on top of the aperture. Again, tap the edge of the cap to center the indium ring on the aperture.</li>
	<li>Hand-tighten the cap onto the source flange until minimal resistance is detected.</li>
	<li>Derestrict the flow rate on the mass flow controller by increasing the setpoint to 500 sccm and set the gas pressure to ~50 psig on the pressure regulator.</li>
	<li>Tighten the aperture delicately by a few degrees at a time using a wrench until the flow rate begins to decrease.</li>
	<li>Finish tightening the cap by checking the leak rate at the top of the cap with the high-sensitivity leak detector instead of the mass flow controller. Stop when tightening no longer decreases the measured leak rate.</li>
	<li>If the flow rate does not drop below approximately 50 sccm, proceed with the following steps.
	<ol>
		<li>Use the leak detector to check for leaks around the source flange and cap. Retighten the screws on the source flange and remeasure the leak rate.</li>
		<li>Remove the cap and inspect the aperture and tip of the source flange.</li>
		<li>If the aperture is damaged, clean the cap according to step 2.2 and repeat section 3.</li>
		<li>If the indium ring is fixed to the aperture, discard the aperture and repeat section 3.</li>
		<li>If the complete indium ring is fixed to the flange, use a clean plastic razor blade to scrape off residual indium, then repeat steps 3.2-3.10.</li>
		<li>Over time, indium may accumulate on the tip of the source flange preventing subsequent apertures from sealing. In this case, remove the source flange and repeat sections 2.1-2.2 followed by steps 2.5-2.7.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>As a safety precaution, change the setpoint on the mass flow controller to 10 sccm higher than the final flow determined by the dimensions of the aperture.</li>
</ol>
4. Cool-down procedure
<ol>
	<li>Verify vacuum chamber pressure has reached the expected baseline for a given sample gas flow. To ensure the absence of contaminant gases, which will deposit on the cryogenic source during cool-down, the vacuum chamber is typically pumped for at least 1 h after reaching baseline pressure. This duration varies with local humidity levels and the vacuum system.</li>
	<li>Turn on the cryostat exhaust heater to prevent frosting of the cryostat head from the return flow of helium gas.</li>
	<li>Derestrict the gas flow on the mass flow controller by increasing the setpoint to 500 sccm.</li>
	<li>Fill the open-cycle cold trap with liquid nitrogen. Ensure that the level of liquid nitrogen is above the in-line filter at all times. Monitor and refill as required during cool-down and jet operation. 
	CAUTION: Contact with cryogenic liquids, such as liquid nitrogen or liquid helium, will burn the skin, face, and eyes. When handling large volumes of cryogenic liquids (multi-liter), wear a face shield, safety glasses, thermally insulated cryogenic gloves, cryogenic apron, long pants without cuffs, and close-toed shoes. Such liquids may displace oxygen and cause rapid suffocation.</li>
	<li>Set the adjustable flow meter(s) on the helium return line(s) to fully open.</li>
	<li>Depressurize the liquid helium dewar using the vent valve.</li>
	<li>Close the ball valve to the low pressure relief valve on the liquid helium dewar. The recommended dewar pressure during cool-down is 10 psig. An angle valve on the dewar adapter allows the operator to reduce the dewar pressure if there is surplus cooling power after sample liquefaction.</li>
	<li>Insert the supply dewar bayonet into the liquid helium dewar in one smooth motion. The dewar should pressurize to 10 psig when the bayonet contacts the liquid. 
	CAUTION: Keep all exposed skin away from the neck of the dewar at all times.</li>
	<li>Check for helium gas leaks between the dewar and dewar adapter once the connection has been tightened using a leak detector.</li>
	<li>Activate the heater on the temperature controller and set the temperature setpoint to 295 K.</li>
	<li>Once the transfer line fills and cools, the cryostat temperature will drop from ambient temperature to 295 K, at which point the heater will activate to prevent a further drop in temperature. Note that the time required for the initial drop in temperature depends on the dewar pressure and total transfer line and cryostat length.</li>
	<li>Set the ramp rate on the temperature controller to 0.1 K/s and the setpoint to 200 K. Regulate the helium flow to follow the ramp so the heater does not turn on. Hold at 200 K for a brief dwell segment (e.g., 5 min) to allow the cryostat to thermalize. Repeat for two additional ramp-dwell segments to 120 K then 40 K. A conservative cool-down procedure is used to avoid strong temperature gradients along the system and allows the system parameters to be closely monitored. The dwell temperatures are selected away from sublimation temperatures for contaminant gases.
	<ol>
		<li>If the gas flow increases unexpectedly, the indium seal on the source flange or aperture may have failed. Abort the cool-down procedure by proceeding to step 6.4. Once the vacuum chamber has been vented, inspect the seals and refer to section 3.10 to retighten and check for leaks.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>At 40 K, manually tune the temperature controller P-I-D parameters following the Ziegler-Nichols method22 until the temperature stability is better than &#177;0.02 K.</li>
</ol>
5. Liquefication and jet operation
<ol>
	<li>Confirm that the liquid nitrogen level is above the in-line filter.</li>
	<li>Disable the temperature ramp and change the setpoint temperature to well below the theoretical vapor-liquid phase transition temperature (e.g., 20 K for hydrogen).</li>
	<li>At the onset of liquefaction, the gas flow will increase up to the maximum and a mixture of gas and liquid will spray from the aperture. Increase the helium flow(s) to provide additional cooling power to quickly pass through the phase transition.</li>
	<li>Use high magnification shadowgraphy with pulsed, sub-nanosecond illumination to visualize the jet stability and laminarity23.</li>
	<li>Optional: If an application or experiment has a pre-determined location for the sample (e.g., detectors aligned to the same position in space), translate the cryogenic source using a multi-axis manipulator on the cryostat flange or motorized push-pin actuators in the vacuum chamber.</li>
	<li>Translate the catcher to maximize the pressure in the catcher foreline.</li>
	<li>Optimize the P-I-D parameters and helium flow to improve the temperature stability to better than &#177;0.02 K. Note that the overall stability of the jet strongly depends on the vacuum chamber pressure, gas backing pressure, and temperature. For example, a change in as little as 1 x 10-5 mBar may require reoptimization.</li>
	<li>Scan in temperature and pressure to optimize the jet stability and laminarity. Sample jet parameters are listed in Table 1.
	<ol>
		<li>If the jet breaks up into a spray, the pressure and temperature in phase space may be too close to the vaporization&#160;curve.</li>
		<li>Large amplitude temperature or helium flow oscillations will result in periodic spatial perturbations, which (in the extreme case) result in driven breakup of the jet. Reduce the helium flow and reoptimize P-I-D parameters to damp the oscillations.</li>
		<li>If the jet exhibits transverse (i.e., first-wind regime) or longitudinal waves (i.e., Plateau-Rayleigh instability), decrease the temperature to increase the viscosity, thereby reducing the Reynolds number.</li>
		<li>If laminarity cannot be achieved and the jet characteristics are independent of changes in temperature and pressure, there may be a physical obstruction (e.g., physical debris or ice) in the aperture. Before aborting the test, follow steps 6.1-6.5 and closely monitor the vacuum pressure and cryostat temperature. If a contaminant gas or water has sublimated on the aperture causing a partial or full blockage, it can be identified by the boil-off temperature. Repeat steps 4.11-4.12 and 5.1-5.6 to determine if the jet stability improves.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
6. Warm-up procedure
NOTE: If the aperture is damaged during operation, immediately limit the sample gas flow to 10 sccm and reduce the sample gas pressure to 30 psig. Then, proceed directly to step 6.5.
<ol>
	<li>Change the setpoint to 20 K and decrease the gas pressure from operating pressure to approximately 30 psig.</li>
	<li>Increase the temperature setpoint in steps of 1 K while monitoring the pressure on the gas regulator. As the liquid in the cryogenic source vaporizes, the pressure in the gas line will rapidly increase and the flow across the mass flow controller will read 0 sccm. 
	NOTE: Do not allow the gas pressure to exceed the maximum operating pressure of the components on the sample gas line. If this occurs, wait until the line depressurizes to a safe value through the aperture or pressure relief valve before increasing the setpoint further.</li>
	<li>Repeat step 6.2 until increasing the temperature setpoint by 1 K does not result in an increase in gas line pressure.</li>
	<li>Enable the temperature ramp, change the temperature setpoint to 300 K, and regulate the helium flow as required to maintain a temperature increase of 0.1 K/s.</li>
	<li>Once the source temperature is above 100 K, close the adjustable flowmeter(s) on the helium return line(s). Depressurize the dewar and open the ball valve to the lowest pressure relief valve.</li>
	<li>Wait until the cryostat thermalizes at 300 K before venting the vacuum chamber. This will prevent water vapor from condensing on the cryostat and cryogenic source components.</li>
	<li>Depressurize the dewar, then remove the supply dewar bayonet.</li>
	<li>Remove the liquid nitrogen cold trap.</li>
	<li>Limit the gas flow on the mass flow controller to 30 sccm.</li>
	<li>Turn off the exhaust gas heater.</li>
	<li>Deactivate the heater on the temperature controller.</li>
	<li>If the aperture is damaged or an obstruction is suspected from a change in flow, proceed to section 7. Otherwise, the aperture does not need to be replaced.</li>
</ol>
7. Replacement of aperture
<ol>
	<li>Remove the cap and inspect the aperture and tip of the source flange.</li>
	<li>If the indium ring sticks to the flange, use a clean plastic razor blade to scrape it off using moderate pressure.</li>
	<li>If the aperture remains sealed to the source flange when the cap is removed, limit the gas flow to 10 sccm and confirm the gas backing pressure has dropped to 30 psig. Remove the aperture carefully with a plastic razor blade. If removed prematurely, over-pressurization in the line may damage or eject the aperture.</li>
	<li>Repeat section 3 to install a new aperture.</li>
</ol>

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The authors have nothing to disclose.

Successful operation of the cryogenic liquid jet requires meticulous cleanliness and careful monitoring of temperature stability. One of the most frequent and avoidable failures is a partial or full blockage of the micron-sized aperture. Copper, stainless steel, or indium from the source or airborne particles can be introduced at any step of the source assembly. All components must undergo a robust cleaning process using indirect sonication. Assembly and storage in a Class-10,000 cleanroom or better&#160;improves the success rate.
Another critical step of the procedure is to stabilize the cryogenic source temperature. Users must ensure that the temperature of the liquid exiting the source is measured independently from the variable heat released by continuous liquefaction in the reservoir. This is accomplished by placing the temperature sensor near the aperture (e.g., on the source flange) or far from the heat source. Furthermore, P-I-D parameters must be manually optimized using the Ziegler-Nichols method for each combination of temperature and backing pressure. If the temperature fluctuations become too large, periodic oscillations can be observed on the jet sometimes leading to periodic breakup. It should be noted that built-in autotuning functions or low-pass filters have not been successful in stabilizing the temperature during jet operation.
The cryogenic liquid jet system, while highly adaptable, is challenging to implement at large-scale facilities with established vacuum protocols. For instance, differential pumping stages are required when upstream equipment is sensitive to the residual gas (e.g., FLASH free-electron laser at DESY or MeV-UED instrument at SLAC). In addition, large diameter vacuum chambers, such as those for multi-PW lasers, likely require in-vacuum flexible cryostats. Compared to conventional fixed length cryostats, they can be readily decoupled from chamber vibrations and have a shorter lever arm. A flexible in-vacuum cryostat has already been implemented with the Draco Petawatt laser at Helmholtz-Zentrum Dresden-Rossendorf (HZDR). Another observation is that the aperture can be damaged when the jet is irradiated by an ultra-high intensity laser too close to the source. Recently, a mechanical chopper blade (operating at 150 Hz and synchronized with the laser pulse) has been implemented to protect and isolate the aperture from the laser-plasma interaction.
This system produces micron-scale, highly tunable, turbulent-free, laminar cylindrical and planar cryogenic liquid jets. Ongoing development of the cryogenic liquid jet system is focused on advanced aperture materials and design, vacuum system and catcher improvements, and advanced hydrogen isotope mixing. This system will enable a transition to high repetition rate high energy density science and pave the way to the development of next-generation particle accelerators.

The goal of this method is to produce a high-speed, cryogenic liquid flow consisting of pure elements or chemical compounds. Since cryogenic liquids evaporate at ambient temperature and pressure, residual samples from operation at high repetition rates (e.g., 1 kHz) can be entirely evacuated from the vacuum chamber1. Based on the initial work by Grisenti et al.2, this system was first developed using cryogenic hydrogen for high intensity laser-driven proton acceleration3. It has subsequently been extended to other gases and used in a number of experiments, including: ion acceleration4,5, answering&#160;questions in plasma physics such as plasma instabilities6, rapid crystallization and phase transitions in hydrogen7 and deuterium, and meV inelastic X-ray scattering8 to resolve acoustic waves in argon in the Matter in Extreme Conditions (MEC) instrument at the Linac Coherent Light Source (LCLS)9.
Until now, other alternative methods have been developed to generate high repetition rate solid cryogenic hydrogen and deuterium samples. Garcia et al. developed a method in which hydrogen is liquefied and solidified in a reservoir and extruded through an aperture10. Due to the high pressure required for extrusion, the minimum sample thickness demonstrated (to date) is 62 &#181;m11. This system also exhibits large spatial jitter12. More recently, Polz et al. produced a cryogenic hydrogen jet through a glass capillary nozzle using a sample gas backing pressure of 435 psig (pounds per square inch, gauge). The resulting 10 &#181;m cylindrical jet is continuous but appears highly rippled13.
Presented here is a method that produces cylindrical (diameter = 5-10 &#181;m) and planar jets with various aspect ratios (1-7 &#181;m x 10-40 &#181;m). The pointing jitter increases linearly as a function of distance from the aperture5. Fluid properties and the equation of state dictate the elements and chemical compounds that can be operated in this system. For example, methane cannot form a continuous jet due to Rayleigh breakup, but it can be used as droplets14. Moreover, the optimal pressure and temperature conditions vary significantly among aperture dimensions. The following paragraphs provide the theory needed to produce laminar, turbulent-free cryogenic hydrogen jets. This can be extended to other gases.
The cryogenic jet system consists of three main subsystems: (1) sample gas delivery, (2) vacuum, and (3) cryostat and cryogenic source. The system depicted in Figure 1 has been designed to be highly adaptable for installation in different vacuum chambers.
The gas delivery system is comprised of an ultra-high purity compressed gas cylinder, gas regulator, and mass flow controller. The backing pressure of the sample gas is set by the gas regulator, while the mass flow controller is used to measure and restrict the gas flow delivered to the system. The sample gas is first filtered in a liquid nitrogen cold trap to freeze out contaminant gases and water vapor. A second in-line particulate filter prevents debris from entering the final segment of the gas line.
Turbomolecular pumps backed with high pumping speed scroll pumps maintain high vacuum conditions in the sample chamber. The chamber and foreline vacuum pressures are monitored using vacuum gauges V1 and V2, respectively. It should be noted that operating the cryogenic jet introduces a substantial gas load (proportional to the total sample flow) into the vacuum system when the liquid vaporizes.
A proven method to reduce the gas load is to capture the residual liquid before bulk vaporization can occur. The jet catcher system consists of an independent vacuum line terminated by an &#248;800 &#181;m differential pumping aperture located up to 20 mm from the cryogenic source cap. The line is evacuated with a pump that exhibits optimal efficiency in the 1 x 10-2 mBar range (i.e., a roots blower vacuum pump or hybrid turbomolecular pump) and is monitored by a vacuum gauge V3. More recently, the catcher&#160;has allowed cryogenic hydrogen jets of up to 7 &#181;m x 13 &#181;m to be operated with two orders of magnitude improvement to the vacuum chamber pressure.
A fixed length, continuous flow liquid helium cryostat is used to cool the source to cryogenic temperatures. Liquid helium is drawn from a supply dewar using a transfer line. The return flow is connected to an adjustable flowmeter panel to regulate the cooling power. The temperature of the cold finger and cryogenic source is measured with four lead silicon diode temperature sensors. A proportional-integral-derivative (P-I-D) temperature controller delivers variable voltage to a heater installed near the cold finger to adjust and stabilize the temperature. The sample gas enters the vacuum chamber through a custom feedthrough on the cryostat flange. Inside the chamber, the gas line wraps around the cryostat to precool the gas before connecting to a fixed gas line on the cryogenic source assembly. Stainless steel screws and a 51 &#181;m thick layer of indium thermally seal the cryogenic source to the cold finger.
The cryogenic source (Figure 2) consists of six main components: a (1) sample gas line, (2) source body, (3) source flange with in-line particulate filter, (4) aperture, (5) ferrule, and (6) cap. The source body contains a void, which acts as the sample reservoir. A threaded Swagelok sintered 0.5 &#181;m stainless steel filter prevents any debris or solidified contaminants from entering the liquid channel and obstructing the aperture. A thicker, 76 &#181;m thick indium ring is placed between the aperture and liquid channel to increase the deformation length and reliably seal the aperture. When the cap is threaded onto the source flange, the indium is compressed to form a liquid and thermal seal. The ferrule and source cap center the aperture during installation.
There are a number of overall considerations in the initial design of a system for cryogenic liquid jets operated in the continuous, laminar regime. Users must estimate the total cooling power of the cryostat, thermal properties of the cryogenic source design, vacuum system performance, and liquid temperature and pressure. Provided below is the theoretical framework required.
Cooling power considerations
1) Liquefying hydrogen15: the minimum cooling power required to liquify hydrogen from 300 K to a temperature <img alt="Equation 2" src="/files/ftp_upload/61130/61130eq2v2.jpg" style="font-size: 14px;" />&#160;can be roughly estimated using the following equation: 
<img alt="Equation 1" src="/files/ftp_upload/61130/61130eq1v3.jpg" />
Where: <img alt="Equation 3" src="/files/ftp_upload/61130/61130eq3v2.jpg" /> is the specific heat at constant pressure <img alt="Equation 4" src="/files/ftp_upload/61130/61130eq4v2.jpg" />, and <img alt="Equation 5" src="/files/ftp_upload/61130/61130eq5v2.jpg" />&#160;the latent heat of vaporization of H2 at the pressure-dependent liquefaction temperature <img alt="Equation 6" src="/files/ftp_upload/61130/61130eq6v2.jpg" />. For instance, a cryogenic hydrogen jet operated at 60 psig gas pressure and cooled down to 17 K requires a minimum of 4013 kJ/kg. With a hydrogen gas flow of 150 sccm (standard cubic centimeters per second), this corresponds to a heat of&#160;<img alt="Equation 7" src="/files/ftp_upload/61130/61130eq7v2.jpg" /> 0.9 W.
It should be noted that the liquefaction process contributes only one-tenth of the total cooling power required. To reduce the heat load on the cryostat, the gas can be precooled to an intermediate temperature before entering the source body.
2) Radiative heat: to maintain the cryogenic source at a temperature <img alt="Equation 2" src="/files/ftp_upload/61130/61130eq2v2.jpg" />, the cryostat needs to compensate for radiative heating. This can be estimated by balancing the difference of emitted and absorbed blackbody radiation using the following equation: 
<img alt="Equation 8" src="/files/ftp_upload/61130/61130eq8v2.jpg" />
Where: A is the area of the source body,&#160;<img alt="Equation 9" src="/files/ftp_upload/61130/61130eq9v2.jpg" /> is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant, and <img alt="Equation 10" src="/files/ftp_upload/61130/61130eq10v2.jpg" />&#160;is the temperature of the vacuum chamber. For example, a typical jet source of A = 50 cm2 cooled down to 17 K requires a minimum cooling power of 2.3 W. <img alt="Equation 10" src="/files/ftp_upload/61130/61130eq10v2.jpg" /> can be locally decreased by adding an actively cooled radiation shield covering a substantial part of the cryogenic source.
3) Residual gas conduction: although thermal radiation is dominant in ultra-high vacuum conditions, the contribution due to conduction in the residual gas becomes non-negligible during jet operation. The liquid jet introduces substantial gas load in the chamber, resulting in an increase in vacuum pressure. The net heat loss from thermal conduction of the gas at a pressure p is calculated using the following equation: 
<img alt="Equation 11" src="/files/ftp_upload/61130/61130eq11v2.jpg" />
Where: <img alt="Equation 12" src="/files/ftp_upload/61130/61130eq12v2.jpg" />&#160;is a&#160;coefficient depending on the gas species (~3.85 x 10-2 W/cm2/K/mBar for H2), and <img alt="Equation 13" src="/files/ftp_upload/61130/61130eq13v2.jpg" />&#160;is the accommodation coefficient that depends on the gas species, geometry of the source, and temperature of the source and the gas16,17. When operating a cryogenic hydrogen jet at 17 K, assuming a cylindrical geometry of the source and that hydrogen is the main gas present in the vacuum chamber, gas conduction generates heat that can be estimated using the following equation: 
<img alt="Equation 14" src="/files/ftp_upload/61130/61130eq14v2.jpg" />
For example, gas conduction at a vacuum pressure of 4.2 x 10-3 mBar generates as much heat as thermal radiation. Therefore, the vacuum pressure is generally kept below 1 x 10-3 mBar during jet operation, adding a ~0.55 W heat load to the system (A = 50 cm2).
The gas load introduced in the chamber during operation is obtained by the flow of the cryogenic jet. The resulting vacuum pressure is then determined by the effective pumping speed of the vacuum system and volume of the vacuum chamber.
To operate the cryogenic jet, the cryostat has to generate sufficient cooling power to compensate for the different heat sources above (e.g., 3.75 W), not including the heat losses of the cryostat system itself. Note that the cryostat efficiency also strongly depends on the desired cold finger temperature.
Estimating jet parameters
To establish continuous laminar flow, several conditions must be satisfied. For brevity, the case of a cylindrical liquid flow is shown here. The formation of planar jets involves additional forces, resulting in a more complex derivation that is beyond the scope of this paper18.
1) Pressure-speed relationship: for incompressible liquid flows, conservation of energy yields the Bernoulli equation, as follows: 
<img alt="Equation 15" src="/files/ftp_upload/61130/61130eq15v2.jpg" />
Where: <img alt="Equation 16" src="/files/ftp_upload/61130/61130eq16v2.jpg" />&#160;is the fluid atomic density, <img alt="Equation 17" src="/files/ftp_upload/61130/61130eq17v2.jpg" />&#160;is the fluid velocity, <img alt="Equation 18" src="/files/ftp_upload/61130/61130eq18v2.jpg" />&#160;is gravitational potential energy, and p&#160;is the pressure. Applying the Bernoulli equation across the aperture, the functional relationship between the jet velocity and sample backing pressure can be estimated using the following equation: 
<img alt="Equation 19" src="/files/ftp_upload/61130/61130eq19v2.jpg" />
2) Jet operation regime: the regime of a cylindrical liquid jet can be inferred using the Reynolds and the Ohnesorge numbers. The Reynolds number, defined as the ratio between the inertial and viscous forces within the fluid, is calculated using the following equation: 
<img alt="Equation 20" src="/files/ftp_upload/61130/61130eq20v2.jpg" />
Where: <img alt="Equation 16" src="/files/ftp_upload/61130/61130eq16v2.jpg" />, <img alt="Equation 17" src="/files/ftp_upload/61130/61130eq17v2.jpg" />, <img alt="Equation 21" src="/files/ftp_upload/61130/61130eq21v2.jpg" />, and <img alt="Equation 22" src="/files/ftp_upload/61130/61130eq22v2.jpg" />&#160;are the density, speed, diameter, and dynamic viscosity of the fluid, respectively. Laminar flow occurs when the Reynolds number is less than ~2,000. Similarly, the Weber number compares the relative magnitude of the inertia to the surface tension and is calculated using the following equation: 
<img alt="Equation 23" src="/files/ftp_upload/61130/61130eq23v2.jpg" />
Where: &#963; is the surface tension of the liquid. The Ohnesorge number is then calculated as follows: 
<img alt="Equation 24" src="/files/ftp_upload/61130/61130eq24v2.jpg" />
This velocity-independent quantity is used in combination with the Reynolds number to identify the four liquid jet regimes: (1) Rayleigh, (2) first wind-induced, (3) second wind-induced, and (4) atomization. For laminar turbulent-free cryogenic liquid flow, parameters should be selected to operate within the Rayleigh regime19 (i.e., <img alt="Equation 25" src="/files/ftp_upload/61130/61130eq25v2.jpg" />). In this regime, the fluid column will remain continuous with a smooth surface until the so-called intact length, estimated as follows20 : 
<img alt="Equation 26" src="/files/ftp_upload/61130/61130eq26v2.jpg" />
The different fluid parameters for a 5 &#181;m diameter cylindrical cryogenic hydrogen jet operated at 60 psig and 17 K are summarized in Figure 3. To maintain a continuous jet for longer distances, the liquid must be cooled sufficiently close to the liquid-solid phase transition (Figure 4) so that evaporative cooling, occurring once the jet propagates in vacuum, solidifies the jet before the onset of Rayleigh breakup3,21.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width:1149px;" width="1148">
	<tbody>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:219px;">Cryogenic apron</td>
			<td style="width:182px;">Tempshield</td>
			<td style="width:123px;">Cryo-apron</td>
			<td style="width:626px;">Core body protection from cryogenic liquids</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:219px;">Cryogenic face shield</td>
			<td style="width:182px;">3M</td>
			<td style="width:123px;">82783-00000</td>
			<td style="width:626px;">ANSI Z87.1 rated for full face protection from cryogenic liquids</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:219px;">Cryogenic gloves</td>
			<td style="width:182px;">Tempshield</td>
			<td style="width:123px;">Cryo-gloves MA</td>
			<td style="width:626px;">Hand protection from cryogenic liquids</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:219px;">Cryogenic source components</td>
			<td style="width:182px;">SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory</td>
			<td style="width:123px;">Custom</td>
			<td style="width:626px;">Components are made of Oxygen-free Copper (OFC) to maximize thermal conductivity at cryogenic temperatures.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:219px;">Cryostat and transfer line</td>
			<td style="width:182px;">Advanced Research Systems</td>
			<td style="width:123px;">LT-3B</td>
			<td style="width:626px;">Available in custom lengths up to 1250 mm for compatibility with existing vacuum vessels. Transfer line length and style can be selected based on system or laboratory space constraints.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:219px;">Cylindrical apertures</td>
			<td style="width:182px;">SPI Supplies</td>
			<td style="width:123px;">P2005-AB</td>
			<td style="width:626px;">Commercial cylindrical apertures can be purchased individually</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Electronic-grade isopropanol</td>
			<td style="width:182px;">Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:123px;">733458-4L</td>
			<td>99.999%, minimal particulates/trace metals, dries residue free</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:219px;">Flammable gas regulator</td>
			<td style="width:182px;">Matheson</td>
			<td style="width:123px;">M3816A-350</td>
			<td style="width:626px;">Pressure control of sample gas (e.g. hydrogen, deuterium)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Indium</td>
			<td style="width:182px;">Indium Corporation</td>
			<td style="width:123px;">Custom</td>
			<td>99.99%, 50-75&#181;m thick, for thermal and liquid seals in cryogenic source</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:219px;">Jet catcher system</td>
			<td style="width:182px;">SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory</td>
			<td style="width:123px;">Custom</td>
			<td style="width:626px;">Consists of skimmer, vacuum hardware and feedthroughs, vacuum gauge, roots vacuum pump</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Laboratory-grade acetone</td>
			<td style="width:182px;">Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:123px;">179973-4L</td>
			<td style="width:626px;">Used to remove grease and photoresist from components. Purity and grade not critical since final cleaning will use electronic-grade isopropanol</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:219px;">Leak detector</td>
			<td style="width:182px;">Matheson</td>
			<td style="width:123px;">SEQ8067</td>
			<td style="width:626px;">To ensure jet apertures have sealed before pumping down</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Liquid helium</td>
			<td style="width:182px;">Airgas</td>
			<td style="width:123px;">HE 100LT</td>
			<td>Top-loading dewar, Consumption depends on cryostat, source dimensions, and total gas flow. Typically 3-5 L/h.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Liquid nitrogen</td>
			<td style="width:182px;">Airgas</td>
			<td style="width:123px;">NI 160LT22</td>
			<td>Total cold trap volume 4 L, consumption approximately 2L/h during jet operation</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:219px;">LN dewar flask (4 L)</td>
			<td style="width:182px;">ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:123px;">4150-4000</td>
			<td style="width:626px;">For the liquid nitrogen cold trap</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:219px;">LN transfer hose</td>
			<td style="width:182px;">Cryofab</td>
			<td style="width:123px;">CFUL series</td>
			<td style="width:626px;">Uninsulated cryogenic hose with a phase separator to transfer LN from storage dewar to LN dewar flask for the cold trap</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:219px;">Manual XY manipulator</td>
			<td style="width:182px;">Pfeiffer Vacuum</td>
			<td style="width:123px;">420MXY100-25</td>
			<td style="width:626px;">Course adjustment (+/- 12.5 mm) of cryogenic source.&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:219px;">Manual Z manipulator</td>
			<td style="width:182px;">McAllister Technical Services</td>
			<td style="width:123px;">ZA12</td>
			<td style="width:626px;">Course adjustment of cryostat length for interchangeability on different vacuum vessels. Additionally, retracting cryogenic source from interaction point.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:219px;">Mass flow controller</td>
			<td style="width:182px;">MKS Instruments</td>
			<td style="width:123px;">P9B, GM50A</td>
			<td style="width:626px;">To control and monitor gas flow</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:219px;">Planar apertures</td>
			<td style="width:182px;">Norcada</td>
			<td style="width:123px;">Custom</td>
			<td style="width:626px;">Custom nanofabrication of planar apertures</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:219px;">Positioning actuators</td>
			<td style="width:182px;">Newport</td>
			<td style="width:123px;">LTAHLPPV6, 8303-V</td>
			<td style="width:626px;">High-precision (&#60;2&#181;m), motorized jet positioning</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:219px;">Rotation stage</td>
			<td style="width:182px;">McAllister Technical Services</td>
			<td style="width:123px;">DPRF600</td>
			<td style="width:626px;">Precision alignment of jet orientation</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:219px;">Safety glasses</td>
			<td style="width:182px;">3M</td>
			<td style="width:123px;">S1101SGAF</td>
			<td style="width:626px;">ANSI Z87.1 rated for work with compressed gases</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

cryogenic liquid jets for high repetition rate discovery science

This protocol presents a detailed procedure for the operation of continuous, micron-sized cryogenic cylindrical and planar liquid jets. When operated as described here, the jet exhibits high laminarity and stability for centimeters. Successful operation of a cryogenic liquid jet in the Rayleigh regime requires a basic understanding of fluid dynamics and thermodynamics at cryogenic temperatures. Theoretical calculations and typical empirical values are provided as a guide to design a comparable system. This report identifies the importance of both cleanliness during cryogenic source assembly and stability of the cryogenic source temperature once liquefied. The system can be used for high repetition rate laser-driven proton acceleration, with an envisioned application in proton therapy. Other applications include laboratory astrophysics, materials science, and next-generation particle accelerators.

Following step 5.4, high magnification shadowgraphs are used to assess laminarity, positioning jitter, and long-term stability during jet operation. It is critical to use pulsed, sub-nanosecond illumination to record an instantaneous image of the jet so that the jet motion (~0.1 &#181;m/ns for H2) does not blur surface irregularities or turbulence. Sample images of 2 x 20 &#181;m2 H2, 4 x 12 &#181;m2 H2, and 4 x 20 &#181;m2 D2 jets are shown in Figure 5.
An additional high magnification imaging system is used to precisely position the cryogenic liquid jet in space. For simplicity, the imaging systems are designed to provide front and side views of the jet. It is particularly important to assess the jet stability and determine the orientation of the planar jets. A study of the spatial jitter of a 2 x 20 &#181;m2 H2 as a function of distance from the aperture, performed during a single test over several hours, is shown in Figure 6. The 1&#963; positioning jitter for each datapoint in Figure 6A was calculated from 49 images recorded at 10 Hz. Here, the jet position was determined relative to a fixed reference position. Figure 6B shows the normalized histograms of the jet position at 23 mm as an example. A more detailed study can be found in Obst et al.5. On average, the spatial jitter increases linearly away from the nozzle.
Typical system observables during liquefying and jet operation (according to section 5) of a 4 x 20 &#181;m2 cryogenic deuterium jet are shown in Figure 7. Careful monitoring of the temperature, flow, sample backing pressure, and vacuum pressures allows the operator to quickly identify any irregularities and react accordingly. For example, if the jet leaves the catcher, indicated by a dashed box, the vacuum chamber and foreline pressure increase significantly. Additional cooling power is then needed to maintain the setpoint temperature.
Once stabilized, all observables should be constant with minimal oscillations. Any long-term drift is indicative of a problem (e.g., leaks, gas contamination, decrease in vacuum system performance, positioning drift in catcher). The choice of aperture strongly dictates the operational parameters of the jet in the Rayleigh regime. Once the optimal parameters are identified for a given gas and aperture type, the resulting jet is highly reproducible; however, any minor deviations in the aperture require reoptimization starting from the previously identified values. Typical operation parameters are summarized in Table 1.
<img alt="Figure 1" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/61130/61130fig1.jpg" /> 
Figure 1: P&#38;ID diagram of a typical cryogenic liquid jet delivery platform. The sample gas, vacuum, and cryogenic subsystems are depicted. The vacuum chamber, turbomolecular pump foreline, and jet catcher foreline pressures are monitored with vacuum gauges V1, V2, and V3, respectively. The cryostat temperature is actively regulated using a P-I-D temperature controller. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/61130/61130fig1large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 2" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/61130/61130fig2.jpg" /> 
Figure 2: Three-dimensional exploded-view drawing of the cryogenic source assembly. Indium seals are installed between the cold finger and source body, source body and flange, and source flange and aperture. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/61130/61130fig2large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 3" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/61130/61130fig3.jpg" /> 
Figure 3:&#160;Summary of fluid dynamics parameters. Parameters are provided, assuming a &#248;5 &#181;m cylindrical cryogenic hydrogen jet operated at 60 psig and 17 K. Values for density, viscosity, and surface tension are from NIST.15. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/61130/61130fig3large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 4" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/61130/61130fig4.jpg" /> 
Figure 4:&#160;Hydrogen equation of state at cryogenic temperatures15. The critical and triple points are indicated by blue and orange filled circles, respectively. Jet operation follows an isobar through the gas-liquid phase transition. The jet solidifies via evaporative cooling in the vacuum chamber. The grey box indicates the range of backing pressures (40-90 psia) and temperatures (17-20 K) which are scanned over to optimize the stability of a &#248;5 &#181;m cylindrical cryogenic hydrogen jet. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/61130/61130fig4large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 5" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/61130/61130fig5.jpg" /> 
Figure 5:&#160;Representative 20x magnification shadowgraphs of turbulent-free, laminar cryogenic liquid jetsusing a 10 ps/1057 nm wavelength laser. (A) Aperture = 2 x 20 &#181;m2, gas = H2, T = 15.8 K, P = 188 psig. (B) Aperture = 4 x 12 &#181;m2, gas = H2, T = 17.2 K, P = 80 psig. (C) Aperture = 4 x 20 &#181;m2, gas: D2, T = 20 K, P = 141 psig. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/61130/61130fig5large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 6" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/61130/61130fig6.jpg" /> 
Figure 6: Jet position stability for 2 x 20 &#181;m2 cryogenic hydrogen jet. Parameters are 18 K, 60 psig, and Re <img alt="Equation 27" src="/files/ftp_upload/61130/61130eq27v2.jpg" style="font-size: 14px;" />&#160;1887. (A) Positioning jitter as a function of distance from the aperture. The longitudinal (lateral) jitter corresponds to motion parallel to the short (long) axis of the rectangular sheet. (B) Normalized histogram of jet position to determine the lateral jitter (&#963; = 5.5 &#181;m) and longitudinal jitter (&#963; = 8.5 &#181;m) 23 mm from the nozzle. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/61130/61130fig6large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 7" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/61130/61130fig7.jpg" /> 
Figure 7:&#160;Representative flow and pressures during cryogenic jet operation. (A) Left: sample gas flow, right: sample gas backing pressure as a function of time. Semi-log plot of the vacuum chamber pressure (V1; B), turbomolecular pump foreline pressure (V2; C), and jet catcher pressure (V3; D) as functions of time. Circled numbers identify changes in the system observed during section 5 of the protocol. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/61130/61130fig7large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Sample gas</td>
			<td>Aperture</td>
			<td>Temperature (K)</td>
			<td>Pressure (psig)</td>
			<td>Flow (sccm)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hydrogen</td>
			<td>&#248;5 &#181;m cylindrical</td>
			<td>17</td>
			<td>60</td>
			<td>150</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>50% Hydrogen, 50% Deuterium</td>
			<td>&#248;5 &#181;m cylindrical</td>
			<td>20</td>
			<td>30, 30</td>
			<td>130</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Deuterium</td>
			<td>&#248;5 &#181;m cylindrical</td>
			<td>22</td>
			<td>75</td>
			<td>80</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hydrogen</td>
			<td>1 &#181;m x 20 &#181;m planar</td>
			<td>18</td>
			<td>182</td>
			<td>150</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hydrogen</td>
			<td>2 &#181;m x 20 &#181;m planar</td>
			<td>18</td>
			<td>218</td>
			<td>236</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hydrogen</td>
			<td>4 &#181;m x 20 &#181;m planar</td>
			<td>17.5</td>
			<td>140</td>
			<td>414</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Deuterium</td>
			<td>4 &#181;m x 20 &#181;m planar</td>
			<td>20.5</td>
			<td>117</td>
			<td>267</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Argon</td>
			<td>&#248;5 &#181;m cylindrical</td>
			<td>90</td>
			<td>50</td>
			<td>18.5</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Methane</td>
			<td>&#248;5 &#181;m cylindrical</td>
			<td>100</td>
			<td>75</td>
			<td>46</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>
Table 1: Sample jet operation conditions.

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Cryogenic Liquid Jets for High Repetition Rate Discovery Science at JoVE.com

Cryogenic Liquid Jets for High Repetition Rate Discovery Science

This protocol presents the operation and principles of micron-scale cylindrical and planar cryogenic liquid jets. Until now, this system has been used as a high repetition rate target in laser-plasma experiments. Anticipated cross-disciplinary applications range from laboratory astrophysics to material science, and eventually next-generation particle accelerators.

This protocol presents a detailed procedure for the operation of continuous, micron-sized cryogenic cylindrical and planar liquid jets. When operated as ...

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2.9K Views.  SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory. This protocol presents the operation and principles of micron-scale cylindrical and planar cryogenic liquid jets. Until now, this system has been used as a high repetition rate target in laser-plasma experiments. Anticipated cross-disciplinary applications range from laboratory astrophysics to material science, and eventually next-generation particle accelerators.

Video: Cryogenic Liquid Jets for High Repetition Rate Discovery Science

Synthesis and Microdiffraction at Extreme Pressures and Temperatures

High pressure compounds and polymorphs are investigated for a broad range of purposes such as determine structures and processes of deep planetary interiors, design materials with novel properties, understand the mechanical behavior of materials exposed to very high stresses as in explosions or impacts. Synthesis and structural analysis of materials at extreme conditions of pressure and temperature entails remarkable technical challenges. In the laser heated diamond anvil cell (LH-DAC), very high pressure is generated between the tips of two opposing diamond anvils forced against each other; focused infrared laser beams, shined through the diamonds, allow to reach very high temperatures on samples absorbing the laser radiation. When the LH-DAC is installed in a synchrotron beamline that provides extremely brilliant x-ray radiation, the structure of materials under extreme conditions can be probed in situ. LH-DAC samples, although very small, can show highly variable grain size, phase and chemical composition. In order to obtain the high resolution structural analysis and the most comprehensive characterization of a sample, we collect diffraction data in 2D grids and combine powder, single crystal and multigrain diffraction techniques. Representative results obtained in the synthesis of a new iron oxide, Fe4O5 1 will be shown.

The laser heated diamond anvil cell combined with synchrotron micro-diffraction techniques allows researchers to explore the nature and properties of new phases of matter at extreme pressure and temperature (PT) conditions. Heterogeneous samples can be characterized in situ under high pressure by 2D mapping and combined powder, single-crystal and multigrain diffraction approaches.

High pressure compounds and polymorphs are investigated for a broad range of purposes such as determine structures and processes of deep planetary ...

Visualization of High Speed Liquid Jet Impaction on a Moving Surface

Two apparatuses for examining liquid jet impingement on a high-speed moving surface are described: an air cannon device (for examining surface speeds between 0 and 25 m/sec) and a spinning disk device (for examining surface speeds between 15 and 100 m/sec). The air cannon linear traverse is a pneumatic energy-powered system that is designed to accelerate a metal rail surface mounted on top of a wooden projectile. A pressurized cylinder fitted with a solenoid valve rapidly releases pressurized air into the barrel, forcing the projectile down the cannon barrel. The projectile travels beneath a spray nozzle, which impinges a liquid jet onto its metal upper surface, and the projectile then hits a stopping mechanism. A camera records the jet impingement, and a pressure transducer records the spray nozzle backpressure. The spinning disk set-up consists of a steel disk that reaches speeds of 500 to 3,000 rpm via a variable frequency drive (VFD) motor. A spray system similar to that of the air cannon generates a liquid jet that impinges onto the spinning disc, and cameras placed at several optical access points record the jet impingement. Video recordings of jet impingement processes are recorded and examined to determine whether the outcome of impingement is splash, splatter, or deposition. The apparatuses are the first that involve the high speed impingement of low-Reynolds-number liquid jets on high speed moving surfaces. In addition to its rail industry applications, the described technique may be used for technical and industrial purposes such as steelmaking and may be relevant to high-speed 3D printing.

Two experimental devices for examining liquid jet impingement on a high-speed moving surface are described: an air cannon device and a spinning disk device. The apparatuses are used to determine optimal approaches to the application of liquid friction modifier (LFM) onto rail tracks for top-of-rail friction control.

Two apparatuses for examining liquid jet impingement on a high-speed moving surface are described: an air cannon device (for examining surface speeds ...

A Simple Dewar/Cryostat for Thermally Equilibrating Samples at Known Temperatures for Accurate Cryogenic Luminescence Measurements

The design and operation of a simple liquid nitrogen Dewar/cryostat apparatus based upon a small fused silica optical Dewar, a thermocouple assembly, and a CCD spectrograph are described. The experiments for which this Dewar/cryostat is designed require fast sample loading, fast sample freezing, fast alignment of the sample, accurate and stable sample temperatures, and small size and portability of the Dewar/cryostat cryogenic unit. When coupled with the fast data acquisition rates of the CCD spectrograph, this Dewar/cryostat is capable of supporting cryogenic luminescence spectroscopic measurements on luminescent samples at a series of known, stable temperatures in the 77-300 K range. A temperature-dependent study of the oxygen quenching of luminescence in a rhodium(III) transition metal complex is presented as an example of the type of investigation possible with this Dewar/cryostat. In the context of this apparatus, a stable temperature for cryogenic spectroscopy means a luminescent sample that is thermally equilibrated with either liquid nitrogen or gaseous nitrogen at a known measureable temperature that does not vary (&#916;T &#60; 0.1 K) during the short time scale (~1-10 sec) of the spectroscopic measurement by the CCD. The Dewar/cryostat works by taking advantage of the positive thermal gradient dT/dh that develops above liquid nitrogen level in the Dewar where h is the height of the sample above the liquid nitrogen level. The slow evaporation of the liquid nitrogen results in a slow increase in h over several hours and a consequent slow increase in the sample temperature T over this time period. A quickly acquired luminescence spectrum effectively catches the sample at a constant, thermally equilibrated temperature.

A simple liquid nitrogen Dewar/cryostat apparatus comprised of a small fused silica optical Dewar, a thermocouple, and a charge-coupled device (CCD) spectrograph are described. The experiments for which this Dewar/cryostat is designed require fast sample loading, freezing, and alignment, accurate and stable sample temperatures, and small size/portability.

The design and operation of a simple liquid nitrogen Dewar/cryostat apparatus based upon a small fused silica optical Dewar, a thermocouple assembly, and ...

A High Performance Impedance-based Platform for Evaporation Rate Detection

This paper describes the method of a novel impedance-based platform for the detection of the evaporation rate. The model compound hyaluronic acid was employed here for demonstration purposes. Multiple evaporation tests on the model compound as a humectant with various concentrations in solutions were conducted for comparison purposes. A conventional weight loss approach is known as the most straightforward, but time-consuming, measurement technique for evaporation rate detection. Yet, a clear disadvantage is that a large volume of sample is required and multiple sample tests cannot be conducted at the same time. For the first time in literature, an electrical impedance sensing chip is successfully applied to a real-time evaporation investigation in a time sharing, continuous and automatic manner. Moreover, as little as 0.5 ml of test samples is required in this impedance-based apparatus, and a large impedance variation is demonstrated among various dilute solutions. The proposed high-sensitivity and fast-response impedance sensing system is found to outperform a conventional weight loss approach in terms of evaporation rate detection.

This paper presents an impedance-based apparatus for evaporation rate detection of solutions. It offers clear advantages over a conventional weight loss approach: a fast response, high-sensitivity detection, a small sample requirement, multiple sample measurements, and easy disassembly for cleaning and reuse purposes.

This paper describes the method of a novel impedance-based platform for the detection of the evaporation rate. The model compound hyaluronic acid was ...

Orientational Transition in a Liquid Crystal Triggered by the Thermodynamic Growth of Interfacial Wetting Sheets

In liquid crystal (LC) physical chemistry, molecules near the surface play a great role in controlling bulk orientation. Thus far, mainly to achieve desired molecular orientation states in LC displays, the "static" surface property of LCs, so-called surface anchoring, has been intensively studied. As a rule of thumb, once the initial orientation of LCs is "locked" by specific surface treatments, such as rubbing or treatment with a specific alignment layer, it hardly changes with temperature. Here, we present a system exhibiting an orientational transition upon temperature variation, which conflicts with the consensus. Right on the transition, the bulk LC molecules experience the orientational rotation, with 90&#176; between the planar (P) orientation at high temperatures and the vertical (V) orientation at low temperatures in the first-order transitional manner. We have tracked thermodynamic surface anchoring behavior by means of polarizing optical microscopy (POM), dielectric spectroscopy (DS), high-resolution differential scanning calorimetry (HR-DSC), and grazing incidence X-ray diffraction (GI-XRD) and reached a plausible physical explanation: that the transition is triggered by a growth of surface wetting sheets, which impose the V orientation locally against the P orientation in the bulk. This landscape would provide a general link explaining how the equilibrium bulk orientation is affected by surface-localized orientation in many LC systems. In our characterization, POM and DS are advantageous by offering information on the spatial distribution of the orientation of LC molecules. HR-DSC gives information about the precise thermodynamic information on transitions, which cannot be addressed by conventional DSC instruments due to limited resolution. GI-XRD provides information on surface-specific molecular orientation and short-range orderings. The goal of this paper is to present a protocol for preparing a sample that exhibits the transition and to demonstrate how the thermodynamic structural variation, both in the bulk and on surfaces, can be analyzed through the abovementioned methods.

Here, we present a protocol to trigger an orientational transition of a liquid crystal in response to temperature. Methodologies are described for preparing a sample in order to observe the transition and the detailed transitional evolution.

In liquid crystal (LC) physical chemistry, molecules near the surface play a great role in controlling bulk orientation. Thus far, mainly to achieve ...

Detecting the Water-soluble Chloride Distribution of Cement Paste in a High-precision Way

To improve the accuracy of the chloride distribution along the depth of cement paste under cyclic wet-dry conditions, a new method is proposed to obtain a high-precision chloride profile. Firstly, paste specimens are molded, cured, and exposed to cyclic wet-dry conditions. Then, powder samples at different specimen depths are grinded when the exposure age is reached. Finally, the water-soluble chloride content is detected using a silver nitrate titration method, and chloride profiles are plotted. The key to improving the accuracy of the chloride distribution along the depth is to exclude the error in the powderization, which is the most critical step for testing the distribution of chloride. Based on the above concept, the grinding method in this protocol can be used to grind powder samples automatically layer by layer from the surface inward, and it should be noted that a very thin grinding thickness (less than 0.5 mm) with a minimum error less than 0.04 mm can be obtained. The chloride profile obtained by this method better reflects the chloride distribution in specimens, which helps researchers to capture the distribution features that are often overlooked. Furthermore, this method can be applied to studies in the field of cement-based materials, which require high chloride distribution accuracy.

A protocol for obtaining a water-soluble chloride profile by using a high precision milling method is presented.

To improve the accuracy of the chloride distribution along the depth of cement paste under cyclic wet-dry conditions, a new method is proposed to obtain a ...

Measuring Magnetically-Tuned Ferroelectric Polarization in Liquid Crystals

Materials showing coupling phenomena between magnetism and (ferro)electricity, i.e., magnetoelectric effects, have attracted a great deal of attention due to their potential applications for future device technologies such as sensors and storage. However, conventional approaches, which usually utilize materials containing magnetic metal ions (or radicals), have a major problem: only a few materials have been found to show the coupling phenomena at room temperature. Recently, we proposed a new approach to achieve room-temperature magnetoelectrics. In contrast to conventional approaches, our alternative proposal focuses on a completely different material, a &#34;liquid crystal&#34;, free from magnetic metal ions. In such liquid crystals, a magnetic field can be utilized to control the orientational state of constituent molecules and the corresponding electric polarization through magnetic anisotropy of the molecules; it is an unprecedented mechanism of the magnetoelectric effect. In this context, this paper provides a protocol to measure ferroelectric properties induced by a magnetic field, that is, the direct magnetoelectric effect, in a liquid crystal. With the method detailed here, we successfully detected magnetically-tuned electric polarization in the chiral smectic C phase of a liquid crystal at room temperature. Taken together with the flexibility of constituent molecules, which directly affects the magnetoelectric responses, the introduced method will serve to allow liquid crystal cells to acquire more functions as room-temperature magnetoelectrics and associated optical materials.

In this report, we present a protocol to examine direct magnetoelectric effects, i.e., induction of ferroelectric polarization by applying magnetic fields, in liquid crystals. This protocol provides a unique approach, supported by the softness of liquid crystals, to achieve room-temperature magnetoelectrics.

Materials showing coupling phenomena between magnetism and (ferro)electricity, i.e., magnetoelectric effects, have attracted a great deal of attention due ...

Preparation of Graphene Liquid Cells for the Observation of Lithium-ion Battery Material

In this work, we introduce the preparation of graphene liquid cells (GLCs), encapsulating both electrode materials and organic liquid electrolytes between two graphene sheets, and the facile synthesis of one-dimensional nanostructures using electrospinning. The GLC enables in situ transmission electron microscopy (TEM) for the lithiation dynamics of electrode materials. The in situ GLC-TEM using an electron beam for both imaging and lithiation can utilize not only realistic battery electrolytes, but also the high-resolution imaging of various morphological, phase, and interfacial transitions.

Here, we present a protocol for the fabrication and preparation of a graphene liquid cell for in situ transmission electron microscopy observation, along with a synthesis of electrode materials and electrochemical battery cell tests.

In this work, we introduce the preparation of graphene liquid cells (GLCs), encapsulating both electrode materials and organic liquid electrolytes between ...

Determination of Aggregate Surface Morphology at the Interfacial Transition Zone (ITZ)

Here, we present a comprehensive method to illustrate the uneven distribution of the interfacial transition zone (ITZ) around the aggregate and the effect of aggregate surface morphology on the formation of ITZ. First, a model concrete sample is prepared with a spherical ceramic particle in roughly the central part of the cement matrix, acting as a coarse aggregate used in common concrete/mortar. After curing until the designed age, the sample is scanned by X-ray computed tomography to determine the relative location of the ceramic particle inside the cement matrix. Three locations of the ITZ are chosen: above the aggregate, on the side of the aggregate, and below the aggregate. After a series of treatments, the samples are scanned with a SEM-BSE detector. The resultant images were further processed using a digital image processing method (DIP) to obtain quantitative characteristics of the ITZ. The surface morphology is characterized at the pixel level based on the digital image. Thereafter, K-means clustering method is used to illustrate the effect of surface roughness on ITZ formation.

Determination of Aggregate Surface Morphology at the Interfacial Transition Zone ITZ

Hereby, we proposed a protocol to illustrate the effect of aggregate surface morphology on the ITZ microstructure. The SEM-BSE image were quantitatively analyzed to obtain ITZ's porosity gradient via digital image processing and a K-means clustering algorithm was further employed to establish a relationship between porosity gradient and surface roughness.

Here, we present a comprehensive method to illustrate the uneven distribution of the interfacial transition zone (ITZ) around the aggregate and the effect ...

Rapid Repetition Rate Fluctuation Measurement of Soliton Crystals in a Microresonator

Temporal solitons have attracted great interest in the past decades for their behavior in a steady state, where the dispersion is balanced by the nonlinearity in a propagation Kerr medium. The development of dissipative Kerr solitons (DKSs) in high-Q microcavities drives a novel, compact, chip-scale soliton source. When DKSs serve as femtosecond pulses, the repetition rate fluctuation can be applied to ultrahigh precision metrology, high-speed optical sampling, and optical clocks, etc. In this paper, the rapid repetition rate fluctuation of soliton crystals (SCs), a special state of DKSs where particle-like solitons are tightly packed and fully occupy a resonator, is measured based on the well-known delayed self-heterodyne method. The SCs are generated using a thermal-controlled method. The pump is a frequency fixed laser with a linewidth of 100 Hz. The integral time in frequency fluctuation measurements is controlled by the length of the delay fiber. For a SC with a single vacancy, the repetition rate fluctuations are ~53.24 Hz within 10 &#181;s and ~509.32 Hz within 125 &#181;s, respectively.

Here, we present a protocol to generate soliton crystals in a butterfly-packaged micro-ring resonator using a thermal tuned method. Further, the repetition rate fluctuations of a soliton crystal with a single vacancy are measured using a delayed self-heterodyne method.