The authors would like to acknowledge Michael Solga and the rest of the Flow Cytometry Core staff for providing flow cytometry training and services. The authors would also like to acknowledge Shiva Sai Krishna Dasa, Dustin K. Bauknight, Melissa A. Marshall, James C. Garmey, Chantel McSkimming, Aditi Upadhye, and Prasad Srikakulapu for their assistance with liposome preparation (SSKD, DKB), tissue harvests (MAM, JCG), and flow cytometry staining and sample acquisition (AU, PS, CM). This work was supported by AstraZeneca, R01HL 136098, R01HL 141123 and R01HL 148109, AHA 16PRE30770007, and T32 HL007284 grants.

<ol>
	<li>Allen, T. M., Cullis, P. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Liposomal+drug+delivery+systems:+from+concept+to+clinical+applications.">Liposomal drug delivery systems: from concept to clinical applications.</a> Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews. 65 (1), 36-48 (2013).</li><li>Sercombe, L., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Advances+and+Challenges+of+Liposome+Assisted+Drug+Delivery.">Advances and Challenges of Liposome Assisted Drug Delivery.</a> Frontiers in Pharmacology. 6, 286 (2015).</li><li>Osinski, V., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=In+vivo+liposomal+delivery+of+PPAR&#945;/&#947;+dual+agonist+tesaglitazar+in+a+model+of+obesity+enriches+macrophage+targeting+and+limits+liver+and+kidney+drug+effects.">In vivo liposomal delivery of PPAR&#945;/&#947; dual agonist tesaglitazar in a model of obesity enriches macrophage targeting and limits liver and kidney drug effects.</a> Theranostics. 10 (2), (2020).</li><li>Bauknight, D. K., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Importance+of+thorough+tissue+and+cellular+level+characterization+of+targeted+drugs+in+the+evaluation+of+pharmacodynamic+effects.">Importance of thorough tissue and cellular level characterization of targeted drugs in the evaluation of pharmacodynamic effects.</a> PLoS ONE. 14 (11), (2019).</li><li>Rosales, C., Uribe-Querol, E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Phagocytosis:+A+Fundamental+Process+in+Immunity.">Phagocytosis: A Fundamental Process in Immunity.</a> BioMed Research International. , (2017).</li><li>He, H., Ghosh, S., Yang, H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Nanomedicines+for+dysfunctional+macrophage-associated+diseases.">Nanomedicines for dysfunctional macrophage-associated diseases.</a> Journal of Controlled Release. 247, 106-126 (2017).</li><li>Song, G., Petschauer, J. S., Madden, A. J., Zamboni, W. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Nanoparticles+and+the+mononuclear+phagocyte+system:+pharmacokinetics+and+applications+for+inflammatory+diseases.">Nanoparticles and the mononuclear phagocyte system: pharmacokinetics and applications for inflammatory diseases.</a> Current Rheumatology Reviews. 10 (1), 22-34 (2014).</li><li>Litzinger, D. C., Buiting, A. M. J., van Rooijen, N., Huang, L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Effect+of+liposome+size+on+the+circulation+time+and+intraorgan+distribution+of+amphipathic+poly(ethylene+glycol)-containing+liposomes.">Effect of liposome size on the circulation time and intraorgan distribution of amphipathic poly(ethylene glycol)-containing liposomes.</a> BBA - Biomembranes. , (1994).</li><li>Su, C., Liu, Y., He, Y., Gu, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Analytical+methods+for+investigating+in+vivo+fate+of+nanoliposomes:+A+review.">Analytical methods for investigating in vivo fate of nanoliposomes: A review.</a> Journal of Pharmaceutical Analysis. , (2018).</li><li>Vasquez, K. O., Casavant, C., Peterson, J. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Quantitative+whole+body+biodistribution+of+fluorescent-labeled+agents+by+non-invasive+tomographic+imaging.">Quantitative whole body biodistribution of fluorescent-labeled agents by non-invasive tomographic imaging.</a> PLoS One. 6 (6), 20594 (2011).</li><li>Larmann, J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=In+vivo+fluorescence-mediated+tomography+for+quantification+of+urokinase+receptor-dependent+leukocyte+trafficking+in+inflammation.">In vivo fluorescence-mediated tomography for quantification of urokinase receptor-dependent leukocyte trafficking in inflammation.</a> Anesthesiology. 113 (3), 610-618 (2010).</li><li>Feng, B., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Clodronate+liposomes+improve+metabolic+profile+and+reduce+visceral+adipose+macrophage+content+in+diet-induced+obese+mice.">Clodronate liposomes improve metabolic profile and reduce visceral adipose macrophage content in diet-induced obese mice.</a> PLoS One. 6 (9), 1-11 (2011).</li><li>Bu, L., Gao, M., Qu, S., Liu, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Intraperitoneal+injection+of+clodronate+liposomes+eliminates+visceral+adipose+macrophages+and+blocks+high-fat+diet-induced+weight+gain+and+development+of+insulin+resistance.">Intraperitoneal injection of clodronate liposomes eliminates visceral adipose macrophages and blocks high-fat diet-induced weight gain and development of insulin resistance.</a> The AAPS Journal. 15 (4), 1001-1011 (2013).</li><li>Toita, R., Kawano, T., Murata, M., Kang, J. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Anti-obesity+and+anti-inflammatory+effects+of+macrophage-targeted+interleukin-10-conjugated+liposomes+in+obese+mice.">Anti-obesity and anti-inflammatory effects of macrophage-targeted interleukin-10-conjugated liposomes in obese mice.</a> Biomaterials. 110, 81-88 (2016).</li><li>Sakurai, Y., Kajimoto, K., Hatakeyama, H., Harashima, H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Advances+in+an+active+and+passive+targeting+to+tumor+and+adipose+tissues.">Advances in an active and passive targeting to tumor and adipose tissues.</a> Expert Opin Drug Deliv. 12 (1), 41-52 (2015).</li><li>Nakhlband, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Combating+atherosclerosis+with+targeted+nanomedicines:+Recent+advances+and+future+prospective.">Combating atherosclerosis with targeted nanomedicines: Recent advances and future prospective.</a> BioImpacts. , (2018).</li><li>Sibuyi, N. 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The authors have nothing to disclose.

Here we describe a three-part protocol to (i) prepare liposomes that are labeled with a fluorescent lipid dye and loaded with an anti-diabetic compound, tesaglitazar, (ii) administer liposomes to a mouse via retro-orbital injection, and (iii) harvest, process, and stain tissues to detect liposome uptake at a cellular level by flow cytometry. This protocol reviews preparation of approximately 150-&#181;m liposomes and assessment of uptake in adipose, blood, and the spleen. The liposome preparation is scalable, performed mostly at room temperature, and utilizes reverse-phase evaporation to maximize drug loading and removal of organic solvents. Using this protocol, up to 2 mg/mL tesaglitazar concentration can be achieved in the purified liposome sample. The prepared liposomes can be stored in HEPES buffer at 4 &#176;C for over a year. In our experience, they demonstrated minimal variation of mean particle size. Under 10% of drug content loss was demonstrated spectrophotometrically, following ultrafiltration separation of liposomes from external drug with a 10 kDa centrifugal filter.
During liposome preparation, there are some critical steps and factors to consider. First, the order of the protocol steps is important and must be adhered to. Second, the pH of the solution used when loading tesaglitazar must be maintained at 7.4 in order to maximize solubility and effective loading. Third, proper assembly of equipment and filters ensures that the output of each step is of the proper size and purity. For example, if 100- and 200-nm filters are not assembled properly, a more heterogenous and improperly-sized batch of liposomes may result. Fourth, complete removal of Ca-acetate prior to drug-loading is needed to maximize the transfer of tesaglitazar into the liposomes. To test for complete removal of Ca-acetate, use high-speed sedimentation to remove the liposomes and then measure Ca-acetate levels in the non-liposomal solution. Fifth, it is important to weigh and record the mass of all materials added to the liposome preparation at each step. This ensures that proper concentrations can be calculated and needed ratios of materials are maintained. Finally, if the technique is not properly executed, there may be an undesirable level of heterogeneity. It is important to thoroughly check this parameter using DLS and other approaches such as electron microscopy. To improve homogeneity, consider adjusting the selected filter size or stacking two filters.
Additionally, it is critical that controls and an antibody panel for flow cytometry are planned and optimized prior to conducting this protocol in full (Table 1, Table 3). Antibodies should be tested to ensure proper concentrations are used for staining and that overlap between fluorophores is minimal. The excitation and emission of the dye used during liposome preparation must also be factored into panel planning. In our results, we utilized DiD, which has a similar excitation and emission to fluorophores such as Allophycocyanin (APC) and AlexaFluor 647. Thus, we did not select antibodies conjugated to these fluorophores in our antibody panel. Furthermore, isotype controls are not included in this protocol. This is because the antibodies selected for this protocol are well-validated, commercially available antibodies. However, if interested in using an antibody that has not been optimized previously, please consider testing the antibody against an isotype control on the tissues of interest prior to conducting the full experiment.
While this protocol demonstrates how to extract and process the blood, spleen, inguinal adipose, and epididymal adipose tissues from the mouse post-treatment, this general approach can be applied to other tissues. Depending on the tissue of interest, processing and digestion protocols may need to be altered as is published for the following tissues: lung21, liver22, peritoneal cavity3, bone marrow3,23, brain24.
An important limitation of this method to consider is that uptake can only be assessed at one time point per animal. Thus, it may be advantageous to couple this protocol with other non-invasive imaging techniques or plan accordingly to ensure sufficient resources for conducting the assessment. Timing of cellular uptake and cellular turn over are important factors to consider: liposomes will circulate throughout the body in the first 24 h and depending on the lifespan of the cells that take up liposomes or how they respond to uptake, cell death or further phagocytosis may occur. Our previous study demonstrated changes in the population characteristics of DiD+ populations at different time points3. For that reason, evaluating uptake at earlier time points or time points most relevant to the biology of mechanism of interest is important. Additionally, while quantification of cell uptake in the entire tissue can be performed with this protocol, flow cytometry cannot reveal tissue localization. Coupling this approach with histological methods can help to address this limitation.
In general, this protocol complements existing methodology such as histology and whole-body fluorescence imaging. With the continued advancements in flow cytometry tools and methods, the development of larger panels to more and more specific cell populations will become possible. We suggest that this protocol be used in addition to the aforementioned methods as this will improve the evaluation of cellular uptake and also provide the opportunity to validate the outcomes observed by flow cytometry. For example, should it be found that a majority of the particles in adipose tissue were taken up by macrophages by flow cytometry. Immunofluorescence of an additional aliquot of the same adipose tissue could be saved, fixed, sectioned, and stained for macrophage markers to verify that the cell type does indeed take up liposomes. This approach should add rigor to nanoparticle biodistribution assays conducted: validating cell-specific targeting, quantifying cellular uptake, identifying off-target uptake, and hopefully providing information to generate mechanistic hypotheses for observed therapeutic outcomes. This protocol can be also be adapted for future studies using different liposomes, investigating uptake in other tissues, and testing new compounds in the setting of obesity and dysmetabolism or any other disease in which nanoparticle-delivery is a feasible therapeutic option.

As interest in developing therapies utilizing nanoparticles drug delivery grows, the methods to prepare and assess particle distribution and uptake must continue to advance, expand, and be accessible to the research community1,2. This protocol was developed to assess the exact cell types that took up liposomes in vivo following a treatment with DiD-labeled liposomes loaded with tesaglitazar, a peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR)-&#945;/&#947; agonist3,4. In these studies, we were able to assess which cell types were directly impacted by liposomal tesaglitazar treatment, the efficacy of targeting moieties, and generate hypotheses to explain the treatment outcomes we observed. Furthermore, established biological functions in a variety of cell types suggest that phagocytic cells such as macrophages, dendritic cells, and liver-specific Kupffer cells take up most of the liposomes5,6,7. Utilizing this protocol, we have demonstrated that non-classical phagocytes could also take up liposomes3,4.
This protocol presents an optimized method for solubilizing tesaglitazar, preparing liposomes by reverse-phase evaporation, and using calcium acetate as an attractant for remote drug loading. The methods presented are accessible to many labs and lack hard-to-acquire materials and steps requiring high temperatures. The protocol produces liposomes of sizes which are optimal for increased circulation in vivo8. Furthermore, as summarized by Su et al., to date, methods to evaluate in vivo liposome distribution and tissue uptake have been studied and tested in depth9. Positron emission tomography (PET), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and fluorescence molecular tomography (FMT) methods are applied to quantify tissue-specific biodistribution and uptake9,10,11. While these methods have been optimized to maximize detection in vivo, they still lack the ability to quantify liposome uptake in vivo at cellular resolution. The protocol presented here aims to accomplish this need through the use of flow cytometry. Finally, for this protocol, cellular uptake was narrowed down to a few tissues including adipose tissue. There is a growing body of literature investigating the potential for use of nanoparticles to deliver therapies in the setting of obesity, dysmetabolism, and inflammation12,13,14,15,16,17. As such, we felt it important to share a protocol with effective methods for processing and analyzing adipose tissue&#8212;one of the tissues that plays an important role in these pathologies.

<table>
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>1-mL syringe</td>
			<td>BD</td>
			<td>309659</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>10-mL syringe</td>
			<td>BD</td>
			<td>302995</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>25-gauge needle, sterile for retro-orbital injection</td>
			<td>BD</td>
			<td>305122</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>27-gauge needle, sterile for retro-orbital injection</td>
			<td>BD</td>
			<td>305620</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Anti-mouse B220 BV421</td>
			<td>Biolegend</td>
			<td>103251</td>
			<td>Clone RA3-6B2</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Anti-mouse CD115 PE</td>
			<td>eBioscience</td>
			<td>12-1152-82</td>
			<td>Clone AFS98</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Anti-mouse CD11b PerCP Cy5.5 antibody</td>
			<td>BD Biosciences</td>
			<td>550993</td>
			<td>Clone M1/70</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Anti-mouse CD11c APC ef780 antibody</td>
			<td>eBioscience</td>
			<td>47-0114-82</td>
			<td>Clone N418</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Anti-mouse CD19 PE CF594</td>
			<td>BD Biosciences</td>
			<td>562291</td>
			<td>Clone 1D3</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Anti-mouse CD3 FITC antibody</td>
			<td>BD Biosciences</td>
			<td>553061</td>
			<td>Clone 145-2C11</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Anti-mouse CD31 BV605</td>
			<td>Biolegend</td>
			<td>102427</td>
			<td>Clone 390</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Anti-mouse CD45 PerCP</td>
			<td>BD Biosciences</td>
			<td>557235</td>
			<td>Clone 30-F11</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Anti-mouse F4/80 PE Cy7</td>
			<td>Biolegend</td>
			<td>123114</td>
			<td>Clone BM8</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Bovine serum albumin</td>
			<td>Gemini Bio-products</td>
			<td>700-107P</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Desalting spin-column</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher</td>
			<td>89889, 89890</td>
			<td>Zeba spin column</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DPBS</td>
			<td>Gibco</td>
			<td>14190-144</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dynamic Light Scattering, Nicomp 370</td>
			<td>Particle Sizing System, Inc</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>FIX &#38; PERM Cell Permeabilization Kit</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>GAS004</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Gauze sponges</td>
			<td>Dermacea</td>
			<td>441211</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Heparin</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>3393-1MU</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Liposome extruder</td>
			<td>Millipore Sigma</td>
			<td>Z373400</td>
			<td>LiposoFast</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Live/Dead Aqua</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>L34957</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Nanosight</td>
			<td>Malvern Instruments Ltd</td>
			<td>NS300</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ophthalmic lubricant</td>
			<td>Optixcare</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>20g/70 oz Sterile</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Paraformaldehyde, 16% w/v aq. soln., methanol free</td>
			<td>Alfa Aesar</td>
			<td>433689L</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Polyethylene vial for mincing</td>
			<td>Wheaton</td>
			<td>986701</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Rotary evaporator</td>
			<td>Buchi</td>
			<td>Re111</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sonicator</td>
			<td>Misonix</td>
			<td>XL2020</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>T/Pump Heat therapy pump and pad</td>
			<td>Gaymer Industries</td>
			<td>TP-500</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tesaglitazar</td>
			<td>Tocris</td>
			<td>3965</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Track-etched polycarbonate membranes</td>
			<td>Thomas Scientific</td>
			<td>1141Z**</td>
			<td>Whatman, Nuclepore Polycarbonate hydrophilic membranes</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ZetaSizer/DLS-ELS system</td>
			<td>Malvern Instruments Ltd</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

preparation, administration, and assessment of in vivo tissue-specific cellular uptake of fluorescent dye-labeled liposomes

There is a growing interest in using liposomes to deliver compounds in vivo particularly for targeted treatment approaches. Depending on the liposome formulation, liposomes may be preferentially taken up by different cell types in the body. This may influence the efficacy of the therapeutic particle as progression of different diseases is tissue- and cell-type-specific. In this protocol, we present one method for synthesizing and fluorescently labeling liposomes using DSPC, cholesterol, and PEG-2000 DSPE and the lipid dye DiD as a fluorescent label. This protocol also presents an approach for delivering liposomes in vivo and assessing cell-specific uptake of liposomes using flow cytometry. This approach can be used to determine the types of cells that take up liposomes and quantify the distribution and proportion of liposome-uptake across cell types and tissues. While not mentioned in this protocol, additional assays such as immunofluorescence and single-cell fluorescence imaging on a cytometer will strengthen any findings or conclusions made as they permit assessment of intracellular staining. Protocols may also need to be adapted depending on the tissue(s) of interest.

Liposome Production
Results published here are similar to those in our previously published work3,4,20. Utilizing the protocol presented here, we expect to produce liposomes of approximately 150&#8210;160 nm in size. DLS reveals an average liposome diameter of 163.2 nm and a zeta potential of -19.2 mV (Figure 1A). Cryogenic electron microscopy (cryo-EM) imaging reveals circular liposomes (Figure 1B) and the DLS diagram reveals a relatively small standard deviation from the average diameter (Figure 1C).
Positive liposome binding requires a PBS-treated control
Prior studies from our group employing this protocol investigated what cell subsets in adipose SVF, spleen, and blood bound to liposomes following one week of in vivo administration3,4. Using a PBS-treated mouse, peritoneal cavity and spleen cells were stained with the same antibody panel used on samples from liposome-treated mice. Tissues were harvested after one week of treatments (Figure 2A). The samples from the PBS-treated mouse served as a DiD FMO with which to create positive DiD gates (Figure 2B,C). A positive gate can be created using DiD-positive signal, but samples lacking DiD signal must also be used to verify that the positive gate does not include any DiD-negative samples.
Titrations are needed to optimize fluorescence signals
Prior to executing a full experiment, various conditions including the concentration of fluorescently conjugated antibodies used during cell staining and of lipid dye used during liposome preparation must be optimized. Flow cytometers have an upper limit of detection for fluorescence intensity, so too much dye incorporated in the liposomes will lead to unquantifiable levels of DiD signal in samples run through the cytometer. Furthermore, too much DiD in the liposomes may lead to high levels of non-specific dye transfer, which could skew cellular uptake results. Figure 3 reports results from an experiment in which concentrations of lipid dye were titrated to identify the concentration that would produce an optimal signal within the detection range of the flow cytometer that was used. This was conducted on the tissues of interest for the final experiment: Blood (Figure 3A), inguinal adipose SVF (Figure 3B), and epididymal adipose SVF (Figure 3C). The concentrations selected for testing were 10 mg of DiD (High, red), 1 mg DiD (Middle, blue), or 0.1 mg of DiD (Low, grey) per 1 mL of liposomes. The highest concentration used in the liposomes was too high and surpassed the quantifiable range of the cytometer in all three tissues (Figure 3A&#8210;C, red). The lowest concentration of DiD showed some signal (Figure 3A&#8210;C, grey), but a clear population beyond the PBS-treated cells (Figure 3A&#8210;C, black) was not observed. When quantified, the arithmetic mean of the DiD MFI for each tissue and concentration demonstrated a clear distinction between PBS controls and the middle concentration of DiD (Figure 3D). Thus, as indicated in the protocol, we selected the middle concentration (Figure 3, blue) to use in our liposome preparation.
The use of multi-antibody panel allows for identification of liposome uptake by different cell subsets
Using the panel outlined in Table 3, cells were stained with antibodies against markers for a macrophages, B cells, T cells, dendritic cells, monocytes, and endothelial cells (Figure 4). Slightly different gating strategies are required for each tissue type, but most of the same cell types can be identified in each. Some exceptions include endothelial cells, which are not normally found in the blood, and monocytes, which are typically at higher frequency in the blood than other tissues. Once populations are identified, total size of each cell population and the frequency at which they are DiD+ can be quantified. Further calculations can be performed to characterize the DiD+ population: what percent of DiD+ cells are macrophages, endothelial cells, etc. Please note, these are example gating strategies, but not the only way to analyze the samples. Analysis will be dictated by the selected panel and flow cytometer(s) available.
<img alt="Figure 1" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/61585/61585fig01.jpg" /> 
Figure 1: Example characteristics of prepared liposomes. 
(A) The size and zeta potential were measured as described above and have been reported in table form. Each parameter is presented as the mean &#177; the standard deviation. (B) Cryo-EM was used to image the prepared liposomes. The white scale bar is 50 nm in length. (C) DLS was used to generate a histogram of the diameter of liposomes in this prep. This figure is adapted from Osinski et al.3. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/61585/61585fig01large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 2" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/61585/61585fig02.jpg" /> 
Figure 2: Representative DiD staining from PBS- or Liposome-treated mice. 
(A) Experimental schematic for PBS and liposome treatments. PBS or liposomes were injected three times over the course of one week. Tissues were harvested on Day 8 of treatment. (B, C) Representative flow plots reveal positive DiD staining in liposome-treated (C), but not PBS-treated (B) mice. FSC, forward scatter. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/61585/61585fig02large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 3" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/61585/61585fig03.jpg" /> 
Figure 3: Titration of DiD in liposomes. 
Liposomes were prepared with three different concentrations of DiD and injected into mice. Grey indicates the low concentration at 0.1 mg DiD per 1 mL of liposomes, blue indicates the middle concentration at 1 mg DiD/mL liposomes, and red indicates the high concentration at 10 mg DiD/mL liposomes. A PBS-treated mouse was used as a negative control (black). Blood (A, circle), inguinal adipose (B, triange), and epididymal adipose (C, square) were harvested 24 h post-injection and processed to isolate a single-cell suspension. These samples were run on a flow cytometer to the level of detectable DiD. Tissue-specific histograms with overlays of each treatment group are presented to demonstrate fluorescence intensity per concentration (A&#8210;C). The arithmetic mean of DiD was also quantified for each tissue and concentration and plotted (D). SSC = side scatter. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/61585/61585fig03large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 4" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/61585/61585fig04v4.jpg" /> 
Figure 4: Representative flow cytometry analysis of cell subsets in adipose SVF, blood, and spleen. 
(A&#8210;C) Schematic representative of gating strategy to identify cell subsets and DiD+ cells in adipose SVF (A), spleen (B), and blood (C). Abbreviations: FSC = forward scatter; LD = live/dead; L-DCs = lymphoid dendritic cells; M-DCs = myeloid dendritic cells; SSC = side scatter. This figure is adapted from Osinski et al.3. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/61585/61585fig04large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Control</td>
			<td>Purpose</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td rowspan="5">Mouse treated with PBS or saline</td>
			<td>Use the cells from this mouse for the following flow cytometry controls:</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>1. Unstained cells</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>2. Live/dead single stain</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>3. Cells stained with the full panel, but lacking the liposome fluorescence to determine positive liposome signal during analysis</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>This/these mouse/mice will also be used to determine if liposomes have any effects in vivo as you will have a non-liposome control in your experiment.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Unloaded liposomes</td>
			<td>If you are loading a compound in your liposomes, a portion of your liposome batch should be synthesized without the compound. This accounts for any in vivo effects of the liposomes alone.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DiD alone</td>
			<td>Since DiD can also be taken up by cellular membranes, allocating some mice to receive free dye at an amount equal to that found in the liposomes will help account for any background membrane staining.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fluorescence-minus-one (FMO) controls</td>
			<td>These are cells stained with all but one of the antibodies in your panel. Like #3 in the box above, this aids in determining true positive signal for that antibody during analysis</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>
Table 1: Controls to use in this protocol.
<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Solution</td>
			<td>Components</td>
			<td>Approximate volume needed per batch/mouse</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td colspan="3">Liposome preparation</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Calcium acetate</td>
			<td>1 M calcium acetate in H2O</td>
			<td>50 mL</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>HEPES buffer</td>
			<td>10 mM HEPES in H2O, pH 7.4</td>
			<td>50 mL</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tesaglitazar in HEPES</td>
			<td>in 10 mM HEPES</td>
			<td>10 mL</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td colspan="3">Tissue harvest, processing, and staining</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Phosphate-buffered solution (PBS)</td>
			<td>137 mM NaCl, 2.7 mM KCl, 10 mM Na2HPO4, 1.8 mM KH2PO4 in distilled H2O</td>
			<td>2 mL</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>PBS-Heparin</td>
			<td>0.1 mM Heparin in PBS</td>
			<td>10 mL</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>HEPES buffer</td>
			<td>20 mM HEPES in PBS</td>
			<td>5 mL</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Digestion buffer</td>
			<td>2 mg/mL Collagenase Type I in HEPES buffer</td>
			<td>5 mL</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>AKC lysis buffer</td>
			<td>0.158 M NH3Cl, 10 mM KHCO3, 0.1 mM Na2EDTA in ddH2O, pH 7.2</td>
			<td>15 mL</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>FACS buffer</td>
			<td>1% BSA, 0.05% NaN3 in PBS</td>
			<td>15 mL</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fc Block (diluted)</td>
			<td>1:50 Fc Block in FACS buffer</td>
			<td>250 &#181;L</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fixation Buffer</td>
			<td>2% paraformaldehyde in PBS</td>
			<td>200 &#181;L</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>
Table 2: Solutions to prepare.
<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>A</td>
			<td>B</td>
			<td>C</td>
			<td>D</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td colspan="4">Extracellular Staining (2x antibody mix)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Antigen</td>
			<td>Fluorophore</td>
			<td>Ab volume per 100 &#181;L test</td>
			<td>Total volume needed:</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>CD45</td>
			<td>PerCP</td>
			<td>0.5 &#181;L</td>
			<td>Column C x 1.2 x Total # samples</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>CD11b</td>
			<td>PerCP Cy5.5</td>
			<td>0.25 &#181;L</td>
			<td>(0.5 &#181;L/test) x (1.2) x (# samples)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>F4/80</td>
			<td>PE Cy7</td>
			<td>0.25 &#181;L</td>
			<td>(0.25 &#181;L/test) x (1.2) x (# samples)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>CD19</td>
			<td>PE-CF594</td>
			<td>1 &#181;L</td>
			<td>(0.25 &#181;L/test) x (1.2) x (# samples)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>CD3</td>
			<td>FITC</td>
			<td>1 &#181;L</td>
			<td>(1.0 &#181;L/test) x (1.2) x (# samples)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>CD31</td>
			<td>BV605</td>
			<td>0.25 &#181;L</td>
			<td>etc&#8230;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>CD11c</td>
			<td>APC ef780</td>
			<td>1 &#181;L</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>CD115</td>
			<td>PE</td>
			<td>1.5 &#181;L</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td colspan="4">To create your antibody mix, combine the antibodies calculated in column D with FACS buffer or Brilliant Violet Staining Buffer* to a final volume of (50 &#181;L x 1.2 x Total # samples)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td colspan="4">Live/Dead staining (1x)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Live/Dead</td>
			<td>Fluorophore</td>
			<td>L/D volume per 200 uL test</td>
			<td>Total volume needed:</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Live/Dead</td>
			<td>Aqua</td>
			<td>0.67 &#181;L</td>
			<td>Column C x 1.2 x Total # samples</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td colspan="4">Intracellular Staining (1x)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Antigen</td>
			<td>Fluorophore</td>
			<td>Ab volume per 50 &#181;L test</td>
			<td>Total volume needed:</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>&#945;SMA</td>
			<td>FITC</td>
			<td>0.125</td>
			<td>Column C x 1.2 x Total # samples</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td colspan="4">*Brilliant Violet Staining Buffer should be used if more than one antibody conjugated to a Brilliant Violet fluorophore is being used in your panel.</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>
Table 3: Example antibody panel and calculations of staining mixes to use for flow staining.

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Preparation, Administration, and Assessment of In Vivo Tissue-Specific Cellular Uptake of Fluorescent Dye-Labeled Liposomes at JoVE.com

Preparation, Administration, and Assessment of In Vivo Tissue-Specific Cellular Uptake of Fluorescent Dye-Labeled Liposomes

The goal of this protocol is to synthesize fluorescently-labeled liposomes and use flow cytometry to identify in vivo localization of liposomes at a cellular level.

There is a growing interest in using liposomes to deliver compounds in vivo particularly for targeted treatment approaches. Depending on the liposome ...

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JoVE Journal

Bioengineering

3.9K Views.  University of Virginia. The goal of this protocol is to synthesize fluorescently-labeled liposomes and use flow cytometry to identify in vivo localization of liposomes at a cellular level.

Video: Preparation, Administration, and Assessment of In Vivo Tissue-Specific Cellular Uptake of Fluorescent Dye-Labeled Liposomes

Preparation of Complaint Matrices for Quantifying Cellular Contraction

The regulation of cellular adhesion to the extracellular matrix (ECM) is essential for cell migration and ECM remodeling. Focal adhesions are macromolecular assemblies that couple the contractile F-actin cytoskeleton to the ECM. This connection allows for the transmission of intracellular mechanical forces across the cell membrane to the underlying substrate. Recent work has shown the mechanical properties of the ECM regulate focal adhesion and F-actin morphology as well as numerous physiological processes, including cell differentiation, division, proliferation and migration. Thus, the use of cell culture substrates has become an increasingly prevalent method to precisely control and modulate ECM mechanical properties.
To quantify traction forces at focal adhesions in an adherent cell, compliant substrates are used in conjunction with high-resolution imaging and computational techniques in a method termed traction force microscopy (TFM). This technique relies on measurements of the local magnitude and direction of substrate deformations induced by cellular contraction. In combination with high-resolution fluorescence microscopy of fluorescently tagged proteins, it is possible to correlate cytoskeletal organization and remodeling with traction forces.
Here we present a detailed experimental protocol for the preparation of two-dimensional, compliant matrices for the purpose of creating a cell culture substrate with a well-characterized, tunable mechanical stiffness, which is suitable for measuring cellular contraction. These protocols include the fabrication of polyacrylamide hydrogels, coating of ECM proteins on such gels, plating cells on gels, and high-resolution confocal microscopy using a perfusion chamber. Additionally, we provide a representative sample of data demonstrating location and magnitude of cellular forces using cited TFM protocols.

In this video, we demonstrate the experimental techniques used to fabricate compliant, extracellular matrix (ECM) coated substrates suitable for cell culture, and which are amenable to traction force microscopy and observing effects of ECM stiffness on cell behavior.

The regulation of cellular adhesion to the extracellular matrix (ECM) is essential for cell migration and ECM remodeling.  Focal adhesions are ...

Cellular Lipid Extraction for Targeted Stable Isotope Dilution Liquid Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry Analysis

The metabolism of fatty acids, such as arachidonic acid (AA) and linoleic acid (LA), results in the formation of oxidized bioactive lipids, including numerous stereoisomers1,2. These metabolites can be formed from free or esterified fatty acids. Many of these oxidized metabolites have biological activity and have been implicated in various diseases including cardiovascular and neurodegenerative diseases, asthma, and cancer3-7. Oxidized bioactive lipids can be formed enzymatically or by reactive oxygen species (ROS). Enzymes that metabolize fatty acids include cyclooxygenase (COX), lipoxygenase (LO), and cytochromes P450 (CYPs)1,8. Enzymatic metabolism results in enantioselective formation whereas ROS oxidation results in the racemic formation of products.
While this protocol focuses primarily on the analysis of AA- and some LA-derived bioactive metabolites; it could be easily applied to metabolites of other fatty acids. Bioactive lipids are extracted from cell lysate or media using liquid-liquid (l-l) extraction. At the beginning of the l-l extraction process, stable isotope internal standards are added to account for errors during sample preparation. Stable isotope dilution (SID) also accounts for any differences, such as ion suppression, that metabolites may experience during the mass spectrometry (MS) analysis9. After the extraction, derivatization with an electron capture (EC) reagent, pentafluorylbenzyl bromide (PFB) is employed to increase detection sensitivity10,11. Multiple reaction monitoring (MRM) is used to increase the selectivity of the MS analysis. Before MS analysis, lipids are separated using chiral normal phase high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). The HPLC conditions are optimized to separate the enantiomers and various stereoisomers of the monitored lipids12. This specific LC-MS method monitors prostaglandins (PGs), isoprostanes (isoPs), hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acids (HETEs), hydroxyoctadecadienoic acids (HODEs), oxoeicosatetraenoic acids (oxoETEs) and oxooctadecadienoic acids (oxoODEs); however, the HPLC and MS parameters can be optimized to include any fatty acid metabolites13.
Most of the currently available bioanalytical methods do not take into account the separate quantification of enantiomers. This is extremely important when trying to deduce whether or not the metabolites were formed enzymatically or by ROS. Additionally, the ratios of the enantiomers may provide evidence for a specific enzymatic pathway of formation. The use of SID allows for accurate quantification of metabolites and accounts for any sample loss during preparation as well as the differences experienced during ionization. Using the PFB electron capture reagent increases the sensitivity of detection by two orders of magnitude over conventional APCI methods. Overall, this method, SID-LC-EC-atmospheric pressure chemical ionization APCI-MRM/MS, is one of the most sensitive, selective, and accurate methods of quantification for bioactive lipids.

This protocol will demonstrate the extraction and analysis of free and esterified bioactive fatty acids from cells. Fatty acids are accurately quantified using stable isotope dilution, chiral liquid chromatography, electron capture atmospheric chemical ionization multiple reaction monitoring mass spectrometry (SID-LC-ECAPCI-MRM/MS).

The metabolism of fatty acids, such as arachidonic acid (AA) and linoleic acid (LA), results in the formation of oxidized bioactive lipids, including ...

Preparation and Photoacoustic Analysis of Cellular Vehicles Containing Gold Nanorods

Gold nanorods are attractive for a range of biomedical applications, such as the photothermal ablation and the photoacoustic imaging of cancer, thanks to their intense optical absorbance in the near-infrared window, low cytotoxicity and potential to home into tumors. However, their delivery to tumors still remains an issue. An innovative approach consists of the exploitation of the tropism of tumor-associated macrophages that may be loaded with gold nanorods in vitro. Here, we describe the preparation and the photoacoustic inspection of cellular vehicles containing gold nanorods. PEGylated gold nanorods are modified with quaternary ammonium compounds, in order to achieve a cationic profile. On contact with murine macrophages in ordinary Petri dishes, these particles are found to undergo massive uptake into endocytic vesicles. Then these cells are embedded in biopolymeric hydrogels, which are used to verify that the stability of photoacoustic conversion of the particles is retained in their inclusion into cellular vehicles. We are confident that these results may provide new inspiration for the development of novel strategies to deliver plasmonic particles to tumors.

We show the preparation and address the feasibility of cellular vehicles containing gold nanorods for the photoacoustic imaging of cancer.

Gold nanorods are attractive for a range of biomedical applications, such as the photothermal ablation and the photoacoustic imaging of cancer, thanks to ...

In Vivo Quantitative Assessment of Myocardial Structure, Function, Perfusion and Viability Using Cardiac Micro-computed Tomography

The use of Micro-Computed Tomography (MicroCT) for in vivo studies of small animals as models of human disease has risen tremendously due to the fact that MicroCT provides quantitative high-resolution three-dimensional (3D) anatomical data non-destructively and longitudinally. Most importantly, with the development of a novel preclinical iodinated contrast agent called eXIA160, functional and metabolic assessment of the heart became possible. However, prior to the advent of commercial MicroCT scanners equipped with X-ray flat-panel detector technology and easy-to-use cardio-respiratory gating, preclinical studies of cardiovascular disease (CVD) in small animals required a MicroCT technologist with advanced skills, and thus were impractical for widespread implementation. The goal of this work is to provide a practical guide to the use of the high-speed Quantum FX MicroCT system for comprehensive determination of myocardial global and regional function along with assessment of myocardial perfusion, metabolism and viability in healthy mice and in a cardiac ischemia mouse model induced by permanent occlusion of the left anterior descending coronary artery (LAD).

In Vivo Quantitative Assessment of Myocardial Structure, Function, Perfusion and Viability Using Cardiac Micro-computed Tomography

This method outlines the use of Quantum Micro-Computed Tomography (MicroCT) to assess cardiac morphology, function, perfusion, metabolism and viability with iodinated contrast agent in mice with experimentally-induced myocardial ischemia. The technique can be applied for non-destructive high-throughput longitudinal in vivo imaging of various animal models of human heart disease.

The use of Micro-Computed Tomography (MicroCT) for in vivo studies of small animals as models of human disease has risen tremendously due to the fact that ...

Preparation of 3D Collagen Gels and Microchannels for the Study of 3D Interactions In Vivo

Historically, most cellular processes have been studied in only 2 dimensions. While these studies have been informative about general cell signaling mechanisms, they neglect important cellular cues received from the structural and mechanical properties of the local microenvironment and extracellular matrix (ECM). To understand how cells interact within a physiological ECM, it is important to study them in the context of 3 dimensional assays. Cell migration, cell differentiation, and cell proliferation are only a few processes that have been shown to be impacted by local changes in the mechanical properties of a 3-dimensional ECM. Collagen I, a core fibrillar component of the ECM, is more than a simple structural element of a tissue. Under normal conditions, mechanical cues from the collagen network direct morphogenesis and maintain cellular structures. In diseased microenvironments, such as the tumor microenvironment, the collagen network is often dramatically remodeled, demonstrating altered composition, enhanced deposition and altered fiber organization. In breast cancer, the degree of fiber alignment is important, as an increase in aligned fibers perpendicular to the tumor boundary has been correlated to poorer patient prognosis1. Aligned collagen matrices result in increased dissemination of tumor cells via persistent migration2,3. The following is a simple protocol for embedding cells within a 3-dimensional, fibrillar collagen hydrogel. This protocol is readily adaptable to many platforms, and can reproducibly generate both aligned and random collagen matrices for investigation of cell migration, cell division, and other cellular processes in a tunable, 3-dimensional, physiological microenvironment.

Preparation of 3D Collagen Gels and Microchannels for the Study of 3D Interactions In Vivo

Collagen is a core component of the ECM, and provides essential cues for several cellular processes ranging from migration to differentiation and proliferation. Provided here is a protocol for embedding cells within 3D collagen hydrogels, and a more advanced technique for generating randomized or aligned collagen matrices using PDMS microchannels.

Historically, most cellular processes have been studied in only 2 dimensions.  While these studies have been informative about general cell signaling ...

Delivery of Therapeutic siRNA to the CNS Using Cationic and Anionic Liposomes

Prion diseases result from the misfolding of the normal, cellular prion protein (PrPC) to an abnormal protease resistant isomer called PrPRes. The emergence of prion diseases in wildlife populations and their increasing threat to human health has led to increased efforts to find a treatment for these diseases. Recent studies have found numerous anti-prion compounds that can either inhibit the infectious PrPRes isomer or down regulate the normal cellular prion protein. However, most of these compounds do not cross the blood brain barrier to effectively inhibit PrPRes formation in brain tissue, do not specifically target neuronal PrPC, and are often too toxic to use in animal or human subjects. 
We investigated whether siRNA delivered intravascularly and targeted towards neuronal PrPC is a safer and more effective anti-prion compound. This report outlines a protocol to produce two siRNA liposomal delivery vehicles, and to package and deliver PrP siRNA to neuronal cells. The two liposomal delivery vehicles are 1) complexed-siRNA liposome formulation using cationic liposomes (LSPCs), and 2) encapsulated-siRNA liposome formulation using cationic or anionic liposomes (PALETS). For the LSPCs, negatively charged siRNA is electrostatically bound to the cationic liposome. A positively charged peptide (RVG-9r [rabies virus glycoprotein]) is added to the complex, which specifically targets the liposome-siRNA-peptide complexes (LSPCs) across the blood brain barrier (BBB) to acetylcholine expressing neurons in the central nervous system (CNS). For the PALETS (peptide addressed liposome encapsulated therapeutic siRNA), the cationic and anionic lipids were rehydrated by the PrP siRNA. This procedure results in encapsulation of the siRNA within the cationic or anionic liposomes. Again, the RVG-9r neuropeptide was bound to the liposomes to target the siRNA/liposome complexes to the CNS. Using these formulations, we have successfully delivered PrP siRNA to AchR-expressing neurons, and decreased the PrPC expression of neurons in the CNS.

The goal of this protocol is to use cationic/anionic liposomes with a neuro-targeting peptide as a CNS delivery system to enable siRNA to cross the BBB. The optimization of a delivery system for treatments, like siRNA, would allow for more treatment options for prion and other neurodegenerative diseases.

Prion diseases result from the misfolding of the normal, cellular prion protein (PrPC) to an abnormal protease resistant isomer called PrPRes.  The ...

Fabrication of Extracellular Matrix-derived Foams and Microcarriers as Tissue-specific Cell Culture and Delivery Platforms

Cell function is mediated by interactions with the extracellular matrix (ECM), which has complex tissue-specific composition and architecture. The focus of this article is on the methods for fabricating ECM-derived porous foams and microcarriers for use as biologically-relevant substrates in advanced 3D in vitro cell culture models or as pro-regenerative scaffolds and cell delivery systems for tissue engineering and regenerative medicine. Using decellularized tissues or purified insoluble collagen as a starting material, the techniques can be applied to synthesize a broad array of tissue-specific bioscaffolds with customizable geometries. The approach involves mechanical processing and mild enzymatic digestion to yield an ECM suspension that is used to fabricate the three-dimensional foams or microcarriers through controlled freezing and lyophilization procedures. These pure ECM-derived scaffolds are highly porous, yet stable without the need for chemical crosslinking agents or other additives that may negatively impact cell function. The scaffold properties can be tuned to some extent by varying factors such as the ECM suspension concentration, mechanical processing methods, or synthesis conditions. In general, the scaffolds are robust and easy to handle, and can be processed as tissues for most standard biological assays, providing a versatile and user-friendly 3D cell culture platform that mimics the native ECM composition. Overall, these straightforward methods for fabricating customized ECM-derived foams and microcarriers may be of interest to both biologists and biomedical engineers as tissue-specific cell-instructive platforms for in vitro and in vivo applications.

The tissue-specific extracellular matrix (ECM) is a key mediator of cell function. This article describes methods for synthesizing pure ECM-derived foams and microcarriers that are stable in culture without the need for chemical crosslinking for applications in advanced 3D in vitro cell culture models or as pro-regenerative bioscaffolds.

Cell function is mediated by interactions with the extracellular matrix (ECM), which has complex tissue-specific composition and architecture. The focus ...

Preparation, Purification, and Use of Fatty Acid-containing Liposomes

Liposomes containing single-chain amphiphiles, particularly fatty acids, exhibit distinct properties compared to those containing diacylphospholipids due to the unique chemical properties of these amphiphiles. In particular, fatty acid liposomes enhance dynamic character, due to the relatively high solubility of single-chain amphiphiles. Similarly, liposomes containing free fatty acids are more sensitive to salt and divalent cations, due to the strong interactions between the carboxylic acid head groups and metal ions. Here we illustrate techniques for preparation, purification, and use of liposomes comprised in part or whole of single chain amphiphiles (e.g., oleic acids).

Liposomes containing single-chain amphiphiles, particularly fatty acids, exhibit distinct properties compared to those containing diacylphospholipids due to the unique chemical properties of single chain amphiphiles. Here we describe techniques for the preparation, purification, and use of liposomes comprised in part or whole of these amphiphiles.

Liposomes containing single-chain amphiphiles, particularly fatty acids, exhibit distinct properties compared to those containing diacylphospholipids due ...

Repressing Gene Transcription by Redirecting Cellular Machinery with Chemical Epigenetic Modifiers

Regulation of chromatin compaction is an important process that governs gene expression in higher eukaryotes. Although chromatin compaction and gene expression regulation are commonly disrupted in many diseases, a locus-specific, endogenous, and reversible method to study and control these mechanisms of action has been lacking. To address this issue, we have developed and characterized novel gene-regulating bifunctional molecules. One component of the bifunctional molecule binds to a DNA-protein anchor so that it will be recruited to an allele-specific locus. The other component engages endogenous cellular chromatin-modifying machinery, recruiting these proteins to a gene of interest. These small molecules, called chemical epigenetic modifiers (CEMs), are capable of controlling gene expression and the chromatin environment in a dose-dependent and reversible manner. Here, we detail a CEM approach and its application to decrease gene expression and histone tail acetylation at a Green Fluorescent Protein (GFP) reporter located at the Oct4 locus in mouse embryonic stem cells (mESCs). We characterize the lead CEM (CEM23) using fluorescent microscopy, flow cytometry, and chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP), followed by a quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR). While the power of this system is demonstrated at the Oct4 locus, conceptually, the CEM technology is modular and can be applied in other cell types and at other genomic loci.

Regulation of the chromatin environment is an essential process required for proper gene expression. Here, we describe a method for controlling gene expression through the recruitment of chromatin-modifying machinery in a gene-specific and reversible manner.

Regulation of chromatin compaction is an important process that governs gene expression in higher eukaryotes. Although chromatin compaction and gene ...

Rigid Embedding of Fixed and Stained, Whole, Millimeter-Scale Specimens for Section-free 3D Histology by Micro-Computed Tomography

For over a hundred years, the histological study of tissues has been the gold standard for medical diagnosis because histology allows all cell types in every tissue to be identified and characterized. Our laboratory is actively working to make technological advances in X-ray micro-computed tomography (micro-CT) that will bring the diagnostic power of histology to the study of full tissue volumes at cellular resolution (i.e., an X-ray Histo-tomography modality). Toward this end, we have made targeted improvements to the sample preparation pipeline. One key optimization, and the focus of the present work, is a straightforward method for rigid embedding of fixed and stained millimeter-scale samples. Many of the published methods for sample immobilization and correlative micro-CT imaging rely on placing the samples in paraffin wax, agarose, or liquids such as alcohol. Our approach extends this work with custom procedures and the design of a 3-dimensional printable apparatus to embed the samples in an acrylic resin directly into polyimide tubing, which is relatively transparent to X-rays. Herein, sample preparation procedures are described for the samples from 0.5 to 10 mm in diameter, which would be suitable for whole zebrafish larvae and juveniles, or other animals and tissue samples of similar dimensions. As proof of concept, we have embedded the specimens from Danio, Drosophila, Daphnia, and a mouse embryo; representative images from 3-dimensional scans for three of these samples are shown. Importantly, our methodology leads to multiple benefits including rigid immobilization, long-term preservation of laboriously-created resources, and the ability to re-interrogate samples.

We developed protocols and designed a custom apparatus to enable embedding of millimeter-scale specimens. We present sample preparation procedures with an emphasis on embedding in acrylic resin and polyimide tubing to achieve rigid immobilization and long-term storage of specimens for the interrogation of tissue architecture and cell morphology by micro-CT.

For over a hundred years, the histological study of tissues has been the gold standard for medical diagnosis because histology allows all cell types in ...