None

All&#160;in vivo&#160;experiments were performed in compliance with the Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animal resources of Nagoya University Animal Care and Use Committee (approval #2017-29438, #2018-30096, #2019-31234, #2020-20104). Six-week-old homozygote athymic nude mice were purchased and maintained at the Animal Center of Nagoya University. When performing the procedure in mice, they were anesthetized with isoflurane (introduction: 4-5%, maintenance 2-3%); the paw was pressed with tweezers to confirm the depth of anesthesia.
1.&#160;Conjugation of IR700 with mAb
<ol>
	<li>Incubate mAb (1 mg, 6.8 nmol) with IR700 NHS ester (66.8 mg, 34.2 nmol, 5 mmol/L in DMSO) in 0.1 mol/L Na2HPO4&#160;(pH 8.6) at 15-25 &#176;C for 1 h.</li>
	<li>Purify the mixture using a column (e.g., Sephadex). Prepare and wash the column with PBS. Then, apply the mixture onto the column and collect the drop, which contains the purified IR700-conjugated antibody. This IR700-conjugated antibody is referred to as the antibody photosensitizer conjugate (APC).</li>
	<li>Measure the protein and IR700 concentration in the APC.
	<ol>
		<li>Prepare calibration curves for protein and IR700 using a spectrophotometer.</li>
		<li>Mix standard concentrations of albumin with a protein assay kit following the kit protocol (see&#160;Table of Materials, Coomassie Brilliant Blue (CBB) protein staining). Measure the absorbance of albumin at 595 nm wavelength, and plot the calibration curve (a linear approximation formula) for the protein using the following equation: y = ax + b (x: concentration, y: absorbance).</li>
		<li>Obtain calibration curves for IR700 with absorption at 690 nm using the same procedure. The standard concentration of IR700 is recommended at 0.1-5 &#181;M (0.1954-9.77 &#181;g/mL).</li>
		<li>Measure the protein concentration and IR700 concentration in the APC using a calibration curve [x = (y-b)/a (x: concentration, y: absorbance)].</li>
		<li>Determine the number of IR700 dyes bound per mAb with the results of the molar concentration. 
		NOTE: It is important to determine the optimal conjugation number of IR700 molecules per mAb molecule. Generally, approximately three IR700 molecules bound on a single mAb molecule would be effective both&#160;in vitro&#160;and&#160;in vivo. Many IR700 bound per antibody (e.g., six) makes it easier to be trapped in the liver during&#160;in vivo&#160;experiments. The ratio of antibody bound to IR700 was in the range of 1:2-1:4. The proportion of IR700 was reduced, if necessary.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Perform sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) as a confirmation for the formation of an APC. Image the gel at 700 nm using a fluorescent imager, and stain the protein in the gel using a protein staining kit following the kit protocol (see&#160;Table of Materials, CBB protein staining).</li>
</ol>
2.&#160;Generation of a pleural dissemination model
<ol>
	<li>Prepare luciferase-expressing target cells and suspend 1.0 &#215; 106&#160;target cells in 100 &#181;L of phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) 
	NOTE: Intrathoracic cancer cells such as lung cancer and MPM are suitable as target cells. Luciferase-expressing cells were prepared via luciferase gene transfection, and high expression of luciferase was confirmed after &#62; 10 cell passages. Cells were cultured in a medium supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum and penicillin (100 IU/mL) and streptomycin (100 mg/mL). The number of cells was adjusted according to the tumor growth rate and the time course of treatment (1.0. &#215; 105-6.0 &#215; 106&#160;cells/body weight).</li>
	<li>Prepare 8-12-week-old female homozygote athymic nude mice, with a preferable body weight of 19-21 g.</li>
	<li>Anesthetize mice during the procedure with isoflurane (introduction: 4-5%, maintenance 2-3%); press the tail with tweezers to confirm that there is no reaction.</li>
	<li>Make a stopper with polystyrene foam and attach the stopper to the 30 G needle so that the tip remains at 5 mm to prevent lung injury. Bend the needle&#160;tip with clean forceps or by pressing it against a hard object cleaned with 70% EtOH&#160;to avoid pneumothorax (Figure 1). 
	CAUTION: Be careful not to pierce oneself. Use forceps to bend the needle. Do not hold the stopper when attaching it to the needle. It is safer to stick the stopper before filling the cells into the syringe.</li>
	<li>Fill a syringe (1 mL) with target cells, and attach a 30G needle with a stopper.</li>
	<li>Disinfect the chest of the animal with 70% EtOH before the procedure.</li>
	<li>Pierce a needle into the chest of the mouse through the intercostal space. Owing to the resistance while hitting against the ribs at that time, the needle tip moved up and down. After passing through the intercostal space, press the syringe against the mouse and inject 100 &#181;L of target cells (Figure 2). 
	NOTE: The mouse breaths deeply when the needle properly enters the chest cavity. With the bending of the needle tip, pneumothorax and inappropriate injection of cells into the lung could be avoided. 
	NOTE: Right chest wall puncture is recommended to avoid the risk of cardiac wall puncture.</li>
	<li>Roll the mouse 2-3 times to spread the cells throughout the thoracic cavity.</li>
	<li>Return the mouse to a clean and warm&#160;cage and monitor until ambulatory. After the procedure, the mouse will wake up from anesthesia and behave normally.</li>
</ol>
3.&#160;Measurement of bioluminescence
NOTE: The software used for data acquisition is listed in the&#160;Table of Materials.
<ol>
	<li>To confirm the generation of the pleural dissemination model, evaluate the bioluminescence images every day after injecting the cells into the thoracic cavity.</li>
	<li>Anesthetize mice (step 2.3) and inject intraperitoneally with D-luciferin (15 mg/mL, 200 &#181;L).</li>
	<li>Ensure that the mouse is breathing normally before and after imaging. Use a heater if necessary to prevent hypothermia during anesthesia.&#160;</li>
	<li>Ten minutes after the injection, set the mouse in the bioluminescence imaging (BLI) measuring equipment. For image acquisition, open the&#160;Acquisition&#160;Control Panel&#160;of the software. Select&#160;Luminescent,&#160;Photograph, and&#160;Overlay&#160;(Figure 3).</li>
	<li>Set exposure time as&#160;Auto. Set Binning as small.</li>
	<li>Set f/stop as&#160;1&#160;for luminescent and&#160;8&#160;for photograph; f/stop controls the amount of light received by the charged-coupled device detector.</li>
	<li>Set the Field of View as&#160;C.</li>
	<li>Once the mouse sample is ready for imaging, click&#160;Acquire&#160;for imaging acquisition. Mice with sufficient luciferase activity were selected for further studies. 
	NOTE: A suitable pleural dissemination model shows strong luminescence on the diffused site in the chest when viewed from the ventral side. If the BLI images are not diffused in the thorax, and only at the injection site, the tumor may be transplanted subcutaneously.</li>
	<li>After displaying the image, set the display format to&#160;Radiance. Open the&#160;Tool&#160;Palette&#160;panel (Figure 4A).</li>
	<li>Select&#160;ROI Tools. We recommend using the&#160;Circle&#160;to range the bioluminescent area on images.</li>
	<li>Click&#160;Measure ROIs&#160;to measure the surface bioluminescent intensity (Figure 4B).</li>
	<li>Use&#160;Configure Measurement&#160;on the left corner of the ROI measurement panel to select the values/information needed. Export this data table as a .csv file (Figure 4C).</li>
	<li>Use the values of&#160;Total Flux (p/s)&#160;as the bioluminescent intensity quantification in the .csv file.</li>
</ol>
4.&#160;Diffuse luminescence imaging tomography (DLIT)
NOTE: The software used for data acquisition is listed in the&#160;Table of Materials.
<ol>
	<li>Turn on the&#160;X-ray Armed&#160;button.</li>
	<li>Anesthetize the mice (step 2.3) and then inject D-luciferin (15 mg/mL, 200 &#181;L) intraperitoneally into the mice. To shoot DLIT continuously from 3.2 to 3.7, skip this step.</li>
	<li>Ten minutes after injection, set the mouse in the BLI equipment.</li>
	<li>Open the&#160;Acquisition Control Panel&#160;of the software. Select&#160;Luminescent,&#160;Photograph,&#160;CT,&#160;Standard-One Mouse, and&#160;Overlay. Other settings were the same as in 3.4-3.6 (Figure 5A).</li>
	<li>Select the&#160;Imaging Wizard&#160;on the&#160;Acquisition Control Panel.</li>
	<li>Select&#160;Bioluminescence&#160;and then&#160;DLIT&#160;(Figure 5B).</li>
	<li>Select&#160;Firefly&#160;as the wavelength to measure (Figure 5C).</li>
	<li>Set the Imaging Subject as&#160;Mouse, Exposure parameters as&#160;Auto Settings, Field of View as&#160;C-13.4 cm, and Subject Height as&#160;1.5 cm&#160;(Figure 5D).</li>
	<li>Push the&#160;X-rays will be produced when energized. Acquire.</li>
	<li>Open the CT sequential image data.</li>
	<li>Open&#160;Surface Topography&#160;on the Tool Palette. Select&#160;Show&#160;(Figure 6A).</li>
	<li>Adjust the threshold as the purple display shows only the body surface (Figure 6B). Then, select the Subject&#160;Nude Mouse&#160;and click the&#160;Generate Surface. Make sure that the outline of the mouse is accurately drawn (Figure 6C).</li>
	<li>Open the&#160;Tool Palette,&#160;DLIT 3D Reconstruction&#160;Properties&#160;tab. Select Tissue Properties as&#160;Mouse Tissue&#160;and Source Spectrum as&#160;Firefly&#160;(Figure 6D). Next, open the&#160;Analyze&#160;tab and confirm the data for each selected wavelength data. Finally, click the&#160;Reconstruct&#160;button (Figure 6E).</li>
	<li>Confirm the presence of BLI in the chest cavity in the configured DLIT image.</li>
</ol>
5.&#160;NIR-PIT for&#160;in vivo&#160;pleural dissemination model
<ol>
	<li>Measure the light dose of 690 nm wavelength (NIR) laser with a power meter, and adjust the output to 100 mW/cm2. 
	NOTE: The laser light is coherent with a precise coil size; thus, the light energy hardly changes regardless of the distance within 50 cm. If there are many adverse events, such as burns, reduce the output within the range of 40 mW/cm2.</li>
	<li>Clean the tail with 70% EtOH and intravenously inject APC (100 &#181;g)&#160;via&#160;the tail vein 24 h before NIR irradiation. Apply pressure to the injection site to control bleeding. 
	NOTE: Adjust the volume of APC to 50-200 &#181;L for injection.</li>
	<li>Anesthetize the mice (step 2.3), and lay them on their back. To avoid NIR irradiation to the non-target site, shield other sites with aluminum foil (Figure 7A). Irradiate with NIR light with a laser of 100 J/cm2; if the tumor is disseminated back to the belly, the NIR-light irradiation dose could be divided in multiple directions (Figure 7B). 
	NOTE: Adjust the dose at 30-150 J/cm2&#160;depending on the&#160;in vitro&#160;results and adverse events such as burns.</li>
	<li>When the NIR irradiation is complete and the mouse is awake, return it to the cage.</li>
	<li>Observe the BLI and measure the ROI over time (every day) (See 3.2-3.12).</li>
	<li>For&#160;ex vivo&#160;imaging, euthanize mice with carbon dioxide 24 h after the APC injection, immediately before the NIR irradiation.
	<ol>
		<li>To observe the inside of the chest of the mouse, remove the thorax and cut the ribs and sternum. Capture the fluorescence image (700 nm) alongside the control without APC administration. Then, apply D-luciferin (150 &#181;g/mL) over the exposed thorax, and the BLI was taken (refer 3.2-3.7).</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>

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A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Near-infrared+photoimmunotherapy+targeting+EGFR-Shedding+new+light+on+glioblastoma+treatment.">Near-infrared photoimmunotherapy targeting EGFR-Shedding new light on glioblastoma treatment.</a> International Journal of Cancer. 142, 2363-2374 (2018).</li><li>Nagaya, T., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Near+infrared+photoimmunotherapy+using+a+fiber+optic+diffuser+for+treating+peritoneal+gastric+cancer+dissemination.">Near infrared photoimmunotherapy using a fiber optic diffuser for treating peritoneal gastric cancer dissemination.</a> Gastric Cancer. 22, 463-472 (2019).</li><li>Nagaya, T., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Endoscopic+near+infrared+photoimmunotherapy+using+a+fiber+optic+diffuser+for+peritoneal+dissemination+of+gastric+cancer.">Endoscopic near infrared photoimmunotherapy using a fiber optic diffuser for peritoneal dissemination of gastric cancer.</a> Cancer Science. 109, 1902-1908 (2018).</li><li>Harada, T., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Near-infrared+photoimmunotherapy+with+galactosyl+serum+albumin+in+a+model+of+diffuse+peritoneal+disseminated+ovarian+cancer.">Near-infrared photoimmunotherapy with galactosyl serum albumin in a model of diffuse peritoneal disseminated ovarian cancer.</a> Oncotarget. 7, 79408-79416 (2016).</li><li>Journals, O. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=JNCI+Journal+of+the+National+Cancer+Institute+Way+to+Better+DNA.">JNCI Journal of the National Cancer Institute Way to Better DNA.</a> Annals of Internal Medicine. 37, 1-9 (2008).</li></ol>

The authors declare that they have no competing financial interests.

In this study, we demonstrated a method for measuring the therapeutic effect of NIR-PIT on the pleural dissemination model of MPM. Highly selective cell killing was performed with NIR-PIT; thus, the normal tissue was hardly damaged23,24,25. With this type of selective cell killing, NIR-PIT was demonstrated to be safe in disseminated models9,26<...

Cancer remains one of the leading causes of mortality despite decades of research. One reason is that radiation therapy and chemotherapy are highly invasive techniques, which may limit their therapeutic benefits. Cellular- or molecular-targeted therapies, which are less invasive techniques, are receiving increased attention. Photoimmunotherapy is a treatment method that synergistically enhances the therapeutic effect by combining immunotherapy and phototherapy. Immunotherapy enhances tumor immunity by increasing the immunogenicity of the tumor microenvironment and reducing immunoregulatory suppression, resulting in the destruction of tumors in the body. Phototherapy destroys primary tumors with a combination of photosensitizers and light rays, and tumor-specific antigens released from the tumor cells enhance tumor immunity. Tumors can be selectively treated using photosensitizers as they are specific and selective for the target cells. The modality of phototherapy includes photodynamic therapy (PDT), photothermal therapy (PTT), and photochemistry-based therapies1.
Near-infrared photoimmunotherapy (NIR-PIT) is a recently developed method of antitumor phototherapy that combines photochemical-based therapy and immunotherapy1,2. NIR-PIT is a molecularly targeted therapy that targets specific cell surface molecules through the conjugation of a near-infrared silicon phthalocyanine dye, IRdye 700DX (IR700), to a monoclonal antibody (mAb). The cell membrane of the target cell is destroyed upon irradiation with NIR light (690 nm)3.
The concept of using targeted light therapy by combining conventional photosensitizers and antibodies or targeted PDT is over three decades old4,5. Previous studies have attempted to target conventional PDT agents by conjugating them to antibodies. However, there was limited success because these conjugates were trapped in the liver, owing to the hydrophobicity of the photosensitizers6,7. Moreover, the mechanism of NIR-PIT is completely different from that of conventional PDT. Conventional photosensitizers generate oxidative stress that results from an energy conversion that absorbs light energy, dislocates to an excited state, transitions to the ground state, and causes apoptosis. However, NIR-PIT causes rapid necrosis by directly destroying the cell membrane by aggregating photosensitizers on the membrane through a photochemical reaction8. NIR-PIT is superior to conventional targeted PDT in many ways. Conventional photosensitizers have low extinction coefficients, requiring the attachment of large numbers of photosensitizers to a single antibody molecule, potentially reducing binding affinity. Most conventional photosensitizers are hydrophobic, making it difficult to bind the photosensitizers to antibodies without compromising their immunoreactivity or&#160;in vivo&#160;target accumulation. Conventional photosensitizers typically absorb light in the visible range, reducing tissue penetration.
Several studies on NIR-PIT targeting intrathoracic tumors such as lung cancer and malignant pleural mesothelioma (MPM) cells have been reported9,10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17. However, only a few reports have described the efficacy of NIR-PIT in pleural disseminated MPM or lung cancer models9,10,11,12. Subcutaneous tumor xenograft models are thought to be standard tumor models and are currently widely used to evaluate the antitumor effects of new therapies18. However, the subcutaneous tumor microenvironment is not permissive for the development of an appropriate tissue structure or a condition that properly recapitulates a true malignant phenotype19,20,21,22. Ideally, orthotopic disease models should be established for a more precise evaluation of the antitumor effects.
Here, we demonstrate a method of efficacy evaluation in a mouse model of pleural disseminated lung cancer, which was treated using NIR-PIT. A pleural dissemination mouse model is generated by injecting tumor cells into the thoracic cavity and confirmed using luciferase luminescence. The mouse was treated with an intravenous injection of mAb conjugated with IR700 and NIR irradiation to the chest. The therapeutic effect was evaluated using luciferase luminescence.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>0.25w/v% Trypsin-1mmol/l EDTA 4Na Solution with Phenol Red</td>
			<td>Wako</td>
			<td>209-016941</td>
			<td>for cell culture</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>1mL syringe</td>
			<td>TERUMO</td>
			<td>SS-01T</td>
			<td>for mice experiment</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>30G needle</td>
			<td>Nipro</td>
			<td>1907613</td>
			<td>for mice experiment</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>BALB/cSlc-nu/nu</td>
			<td>Japan SLC</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Collidal Blue Staining Kit</td>
			<td>Invitrogen</td>
			<td>LC6025</td>
			<td>use for gel protein staining</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Coomassie (bradford) Plus protein assay</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher Scientific Inc (Waltham, MA, USA)</td>
			<td>PI-23200</td>
			<td>for measuring the APC concentration</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO)</td>
			<td>Wako</td>
			<td>043-07216</td>
			<td>use for conjugation of IR700</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>D-Luciferin (potassium salt)</td>
			<td>Cayman Chemical</td>
			<td>14681</td>
			<td>for bioluminescence imaging and DLIT</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>GraphPad Prism7</td>
			<td>GraphPad software</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>for statistical analysis</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Image Studio</td>
			<td>Li-Cor Biosciences</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>for analyzing 700 nm fluorescent image</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>IRDye 700DX Ester Infrared Dye</td>
			<td>LI-COR Bioscience (Lincoln, NE, USA)</td>
			<td>929-70011</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>isoflurane</td>
			<td>Wako</td>
			<td>095-06573</td>
			<td>for mice anesthesia</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>IVIS Spectrum CT</td>
			<td>PerkinElmer</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>for capturing bioluminescent image and DLIT</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Living Image</td>
			<td>PerkinElmer</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>for analyzing bioluminescent image and DLIT</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Na2HPO4</td>
			<td>SIGMA-ALDRICH (St. Louis, MO, USA)</td>
			<td>S9763</td>
			<td>use for conjugation of IR700</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NIR Laser</td>
			<td>Changchun New Industries Optoelectronics Technology</td>
			<td>MRL-III-690R</td>
			<td>for NIR irradiation</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Novex WedgeWell 4 to 20%, Tris-Glycine, 1.0 mm, Mini Protein Gel, 12 well</td>
			<td>Invitrogen</td>
			<td>XP04202BOX</td>
			<td>use for SDS-PAGE</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NuPAGE LDS Sample Buffer (x4)</td>
			<td>Invitrogen</td>
			<td>NP0007</td>
			<td>use for SDS-PAGE</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Optical power meter</td>
			<td>Thorlabs (Newton, NJ, USA)</td>
			<td>PM100</td>
			<td>for measuring the output of the NIR laser&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>PBS(-)</td>
			<td>Wako</td>
			<td>166-23555</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Pearl Trilogy imaging system</td>
			<td>Li-Cor Biosciences</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>for capturing 700 nm fluorecent image</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Penicilin-Streptomycin Solution (x100)</td>
			<td>Wako</td>
			<td>168-23191</td>
			<td>for cell culture</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Puromycin Dihydrochloride</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher</td>
			<td>A1113803</td>
			<td>for luciferase transfection</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>RediFect Red-Fluc-Puromycin Lentiviral Prticles</td>
			<td>PerkinElmer</td>
			<td>CLS960002</td>
			<td>for luciferase transfection</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>RPMI-1640 with L-glutamine and Phenol Red</td>
			<td>Wako</td>
			<td>189-02025</td>
			<td>for cell culture</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sephadex G25 column (PD-10)&#160;</td>
			<td>GE Healthcare (Piscataway, NJ, USA)</td>
			<td>17-0851-01</td>
			<td>use for conjugation of IR700</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>UV-1900i</td>
			<td>Shimadzu</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>for measuring the APC concentration</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

near infrared photoimmunotherapy for mouse models of pleural dissemination

The efficacy of photoimmunotherapy can be evaluated more accurately with an orthotopic mouse model than with a subcutaneous one. A pleural dissemination model can be used for the evaluation of treatment methods for intrathoracic diseases such as lung cancer or malignant pleural mesothelioma.
Near-infrared photoimmunotherapy (NIR-PIT) is a recently developed cancer treatment strategy that combines the specificity of tumor-targeting antibodies with toxicity caused by a photoabsorber (IR700Dye) after exposure to NIR light. The efficacy of NIR-PIT has been reported using various antibodies; however, only a few reports have shown the therapeutic effect of this strategy in an orthotopic model. In the present study, we demonstrate an example of efficacy evaluation of the pleural disseminated lung cancer model, which was treated using NIR-PIT.

Anti-podoplanin antibody NZ-1 was conjugated with IR700 to generate NZ-1-IR700. We confirmed the binding of NZ-1 and IR700 on an SDS-PAGE (Figure 8). Luciferase-expressing H2373 (H2373-luc) was prepared by transfecting malignant mesothelioma cells (H2373) with a luciferase gene10.
We anesthetized 8-12-week-old female homozygote athymic nude mice and injected 1 &#215; 105&#160;H2373-luc cells into the thoracic cavity. The day of i...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Near Infrared Photoimmunotherapy for Mouse Models of Pleural Dissemination at JoVE.com

Near Infrared Photoimmunotherapy for Mouse Models of Pleural Dissemination

Near-infrared photoimmunotherapy (NIR-PIT) is an emerging cancer therapeutic strategy that utilizes an antibody-photoabsorber (IR700Dye) conjugate and NIR light to destroy cancer cells. Here, we present a method to evaluate the antitumor effect of NIR-PIT in a mouse model of pleural disseminated lung cancer and malignant pleural mesothelioma using bioluminescence imaging.

The efficacy of photoimmunotherapy can be evaluated more accurately with an orthotopic mouse model than with a subcutaneous one. A pleural dissemination ...

near-infrared-photoimmunotherapy-for-mouse-models-pleural

Research

JoVE Journal

Medicine

3.1K Views.  Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine. Near-infrared photoimmunotherapy (NIR-PIT) is an emerging cancer therapeutic strategy that utilizes an antibody-photoabsorber (IR700Dye) conjugate and NIR light to destroy cancer cells. Here, we present a method to evaluate the antitumor effect of NIR-PIT in a mouse model of pleural disseminated lung cancer and malignant pleural mesothelioma using bioluminescence imaging.

Video: Near Infrared Photoimmunotherapy for Mouse Models of Pleural Dissemination

In vivo Near Infrared Fluorescence (NIRF) Intravascular Molecular Imaging of Inflammatory Plaque, a Multimodal Approach to Imaging of Atherosclerosis

The vascular response to injury is a well-orchestrated inflammatory response triggered by the accumulation of macrophages within the vessel wall leading to an accumulation of lipid-laden intra-luminal plaque, smooth muscle cell proliferation and progressive narrowing of the vessel lumen. The formation of such vulnerable plaques prone to rupture underlies the majority of cases of acute myocardial infarction. The complex molecular and cellular inflammatory cascade is orchestrated by the recruitment of T lymphocytes and macrophages and their paracrine effects on endothelial and smooth muscle cells.1
Molecular imaging in atherosclerosis has evolved into an important clinical and research tool that allows in vivo visualization of inflammation and other biological processes. Several recent examples demonstrate the ability to detect high-risk plaques in patients, and assess the effects of pharmacotherapeutics in atherosclerosis.4 While a number of molecular imaging approaches (in particular MRI and PET) can image biological aspects of large vessels such as the carotid arteries, scant options exist for imaging of coronary arteries.2 The advent of high-resolution optical imaging strategies, in particular near-infrared fluorescence (NIRF), coupled with activatable fluorescent probes, have enhanced sensitivity and led to the development of new intravascular strategies to improve biological imaging of human coronary atherosclerosis.
Near infrared fluorescence (NIRF) molecular imaging utilizes excitation light with a defined band width (650-900 nm) as a source of photons that, when delivered to an optical contrast agent or fluorescent probe, emits fluorescence in the NIR window that can be detected using an appropriate emission filter and a high sensitivity charge-coupled camera. As opposed to visible light, NIR light penetrates deeply into tissue, is markedly less attenuated by endogenous photon absorbers such as hemoglobin, lipid and water, and enables high target-to-background ratios due to reduced autofluorescence in the NIR window. Imaging within the NIR 'window' can substantially improve the potential for in vivo imaging.2,5
Inflammatory cysteine proteases have been well studied using activatable NIRF probes10, and play important roles in atherogenesis. Via degradation of the extracellular matrix, cysteine proteases contribute importantly to the progression and complications of atherosclerosis8. In particular, the cysteine protease, cathepsin B, is highly expressed and colocalizes with macrophages in experimental murine, rabbit, and human atheromata.3,6,7 In addition, cathepsin B activity in plaques can be sensed in vivo utilizing a previously described 1-D intravascular near-infrared fluorescence technology6, in conjunction with an injectable nanosensor agent that consists of a poly-lysine polymer backbone derivatized with multiple NIR fluorochromes (VM110/Prosense750, ex/em 750/780nm, VisEn Medical, Woburn, MA) that results in strong intramolecular quenching at baseline.10 Following targeted enzymatic cleavage by cysteine proteases such as cathepsin B (known to colocalize with plaque macrophages), the fluorochromes separate, resulting in substantial amplification of the NIRF signal. Intravascular detection of NIR fluorescence signal by the utilized novel 2D intravascular NIRF catheter now enables high-resolution, geometrically accurate in vivo detection of cathepsin B activity in inflamed plaque.
In vivo molecular imaging of atherosclerosis using catheter-based 2D NIRF imaging, as opposed to a prior 1-D spectroscopic approach,6 is a novel and promising tool that utilizes augmented protease activity in macrophage-rich plaque to detect vascular inflammation.11,12 The following research protocol describes the use of an intravascular 2-dimensional NIRF catheter to image and characterize plaque structure utilizing key aspects of plaque biology. It is a translatable platform that when integrated with existing clinical imaging technologies including angiography and intravascular ultrasound (IVUS), offers a unique and novel integrated multimodal molecular imaging technique that distinguishes inflammatory atheromata, and allows detection of intravascular NIRF signals in human-sized coronary arteries.

In vivo Near Infrared Fluorescence NIRF Intravascular Molecular Imaging of Inflammatory Plaque, a Multimodal Approach to Imaging of Atherosclerosis

We detail a new near-infrared fluorescence (NIRF) catheter for 2-dimensional intravascular molecular imaging of plaque biology in vivo. The NIRF catheter can visualize key biological processes such as inflammation by reporting on the presence of plaque-avid activatable and targeted NIR fluorochromes. The catheter utilizes clinical engineering and power requirements and is targeted for application in human coronary arteries. The following research study describes a multimodal imaging strategy that utilizes a novel in vivo intravascular NIRF catheter to image and quantify inflammatory plaque in proteolytically active inflamed rabbit atheromata.

The vascular response to injury is a well-orchestrated inflammatory response triggered by the accumulation of macrophages within the vessel wall leading ...

Near Infrared Optical Projection Tomography for Assessments of &beta;-cell Mass Distribution in Diabetes Research

By adapting OPT to include the capability of imaging in the near infrared (NIR) spectrum, we here illustrate the possibility to image larger bodies of pancreatic tissue, such as the rat pancreas, and to increase the number of channels (cell types) that may be studied in a single specimen. We further describe the implementation of a number of computational tools that provide: 1/ accurate positioning of a specimen's (in our case the pancreas) centre of mass (COM) at the axis of rotation (AR)2; 2/ improved algorithms for post-alignment tuning which prevents geometric distortions during the tomographic reconstruction2 and 3/ a protocol for intensity equalization to increase signal to noise ratios in OPT-based BCM determinations3. In addition, we describe a sample holder that minimizes the risk for unintentional movements of the specimen during image acquisition. Together, these protocols enable assessments of BCM distribution and other features, to be performed throughout the volume of intact pancreata or other organs (e.g. in studies of islet transplantation), with a resolution down to the level of individual islets of Langerhans.

Near Infrared Optical Projection Tomography for Assessments of &amp;#946;-cell Mass Distribution in Diabetes Research

We describe the adaptation of optical projection tomography (OPT)1 to imaging in the near infrared spectrum, and the implementation of a number of computational tools. These protocols enable assessments of pancreatic &beta;-cell mass (BCM) in larger specimens, increase the multichannel capacity of the technique and increase the quality of OPT data.

By adapting OPT to include the capability of imaging in the near infrared (NIR) spectrum, we here illustrate the possibility to image larger bodies of ...

Mouse Models for Graft Arteriosclerosis

Graft arteriosclerois (GA), also called allograft vasculopathy, is a pathologic lesion that develops over months to years in transplanted organs characterized by diffuse, circumferential stenosis of the entire graft vascular tree. The most critical component of GA pathogenesis is the proliferation of smooth muscle-like cells within the intima. When a human coronary artery segment is interposed into the infra-renal aortae of immunodeficient mice, the intimas could be expand in response to adoptively transferred human T cells allogeneic to the artery donor or exogenous human IFN-&gamma; in the absence of human T cells. Interposition of a mouse aorta from one strain into another mouse strain recipient is limited as a model for chronic rejection in humans because the acute cell-mediated rejection response in this mouse model completely eliminates all donor-derived vascular cells from the graft within two-three weeks. We have recently developed two new mouse models to circumvent these problems. The first model involves interposition of a vessel segment from a male mouse into a female recipient of the same inbred strain (C57BL/6J). Graft rejection in this case is directed only against minor histocompatibility antigens encoded by the Y chromosome (present in the male but not the female) and the rejection response that ensues is sufficiently indolent to preserve donor-derived smooth muscle cells for several weeks. The second model involves interposing an artery segment from a wild type C57BL/6J mouse donor into a host mouse of the same strain and gender that lacks the receptor for IFN-&gamma; followed by administration of mouse IFN-&gamma; (delivered via infection of the mouse liver with an adenoviral vector. There is no rejection in this case as both donor and recipient mice are of the same strain and gender but donor smooth muscle cells proliferate in response to the cytokine while host-derived cells, lacking receptor for this cytokine, are unresponsive. By backcrossing additional genetic changes into the vessel donor, both models can be used to assess the effect of specific genes on GA progression. Here, we describe detailed protocols for our mouse GA models.

We describe protocols for our mouse graft arteriosclerois (GA) models which involve interposition of a mouse vessel segment into a recipient of the same inbred strain. By backcrossing additional genetic changes into the vessel donor, the model can assess the effect of specific genes on GA.

Graft arteriosclerois (GA),  also called allograft vasculopathy, is a pathologic lesion that develops over  months to years in transplanted organs ...

Tissue-simulating Phantoms for Assessing Potential Near-infrared Fluorescence Imaging Applications in Breast Cancer Surgery

Inaccuracies in intraoperative tumor localization and evaluation of surgical margin status result in suboptimal outcome of breast-conserving surgery (BCS). Optical imaging, in particular near-infrared fluorescence (NIRF) imaging, might reduce the frequency of positive surgical margins following BCS by providing the surgeon with a tool for pre- and intraoperative tumor localization in real-time. In the current study, the potential of NIRF-guided BCS is evaluated using tissue-simulating breast phantoms for reasons of standardization and training purposes.
Breast phantoms with optical characteristics comparable to those of normal breast tissue were used to simulate breast conserving surgery. Tumor-simulating inclusions containing the fluorescent dye indocyanine green (ICG) were incorporated in the phantoms at predefined locations and imaged for pre- and intraoperative tumor localization, real-time NIRF-guided tumor resection, NIRF-guided evaluation on the extent of surgery, and postoperative assessment of surgical margins. A customized NIRF camera was used as a clinical prototype for imaging purposes.
Breast phantoms containing tumor-simulating inclusions offer a simple, inexpensive, and versatile tool to simulate and evaluate intraoperative tumor imaging. The gelatinous phantoms have elastic properties similar to human tissue and can be cut using conventional surgical instruments. Moreover, the phantoms contain hemoglobin and intralipid for mimicking absorption and scattering of photons, respectively, creating uniform optical properties similar to human breast tissue. The main drawback of NIRF imaging is the limited penetration depth of photons when propagating through tissue, which hinders (noninvasive) imaging of deep-seated tumors with epi-illumination strategies.

Near-infrared fluorescence (NIRF) imaging may improve therapeutic outcome of breast cancer surgery by enabling intraoperative tumor localization and evaluation of surgical margin status. Using tissue-simulating breast phantoms containing fluorescent tumor-simulating inclusions, potential clinical applications of NIRF imaging in breast cancer patients can be assessed for standardization and training purposes.

Inaccuracies in intraoperative tumor localization and evaluation of surgical margin status result in suboptimal outcome of breast-conserving surgery ...

Mouse Kidney Transplantation: Models of Allograft Rejection

Rejection of the transplanted kidney in humans is still a major cause of morbidity and mortality. The mouse model of renal transplantation closely replicates both the technical and pathological processes that occur in human renal transplantation. Although mouse models of allogeneic rejection in organs other than the kidney exist, and are more technically feasible, there is evidence that different organs elicit disparate rejection modes and dynamics, for instance the time course of rejection in cardiac and renal allograft differs significantly in certain strain combinations. This model is an attractive tool for many reasons despite its technical challenges. As inbred mouse strain haplotypes are well characterized it is possible to choose donor and recipient combinations to model acute allograft rejection by transplanting across MHC class I and II loci. Conversely by transplanting between strains with similar haplotypes a chronic process can be elicited were the allograft kidney develops interstitial fibrosis and tubular atrophy. We have modified the surgical technique to reduce operating time and improve ease of surgery, however a learning curve still needs to be overcome in order to faithfully replicate the model. This study will provide key points in the surgical procedure and aid the process of establishing this technique.

Here, we present a protocol to study the immunology of rejection. The surgical model presented reports a short operating time and a concise technique. Depending on the donor-recipient strain combination, the transplanted kidney may develop acute cellular rejection or chronic allograft damage, defined by interstitial fibrosis and tubular atrophy.

Rejection of the transplanted kidney in humans is still a major cause of morbidity and mortality. The mouse model of renal transplantation closely ...

High-frequency Ultrasound Imaging of Mouse Cervical Lymph Nodes

High-frequency ultrasound (HFUS) is widely employed as a non-invasive method for imaging internal anatomic structures in experimental small animal systems. HFUS has the ability to detect structures as small as 30 &#181;m, a property that has been utilized for visualizing superficial lymph nodes in rodents in brightness (B)-mode. Combining power Doppler with B-mode imaging allows for measuring circulatory blood flow within lymph nodes and other organs. While HFUS has been utilized for lymph node imaging in a number of mouse&#160; model systems, a detailed protocol describing HFUS imaging and characterization of the cervical lymph nodes in mice has not been reported. Here, we show that HFUS can be adapted to detect and characterize cervical lymph nodes in mice. Combined B-mode and power Doppler imaging can be used to detect increases in blood flow in immunologically-enlarged cervical nodes. We also describe the use of B-mode imaging to conduct fine needle biopsies of cervical lymph nodes to retrieve lymph tissue for histological&#160; analysis. Finally, software-aided steps are described to calculate changes in lymph node volume and to visualize changes in lymph node morphology following image reconstruction. The ability to visually monitor changes in cervical lymph node biology over time provides a simple and powerful technique for the non-invasive monitoring of cervical lymph node alterations in preclinical mouse models of oral cavity disease.

This protocol describes the application of high-frequency ultrasound (HFUS) for imaging mouse cervical lymph nodes. This technique optimizes visualization and quantification of cervical lymph node morphology, volume and blood flow. Image-guided biopsy of cervical lymph nodes and processing of lymph tissue for histological evaluation is also demonstrated.

High-frequency ultrasound (HFUS) is widely employed as a non-invasive method for imaging internal anatomic structures in experimental small animal ...

Combined Near-infrared Fluorescent Imaging and Micro-computed Tomography for Directly Visualizing Cerebral Thromboemboli

Direct thrombus imaging visualizes the root cause of thromboembolic infarction. Being able to image thrombus directly allows far better investigation of stroke than relying on indirect measurements, and will be a potent and robust vascular research tool. We use an optical imaging approach that labels thrombi with a molecular imaging thrombus marker&#160;&#8212; a Cy5.5 near-infrared fluorescent (NIRF) probe that is covalently linked to the fibrin strands of the thrombus by the fibrin-crosslinking enzymatic action of activated coagulation factor XIIIa during the process of clot maturation. A micro-computed tomography (microCT)-based approach uses thrombus-seeking gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) functionalized to target the major component of the clot: fibrin. This paper describes a detailed protocol for the combined in vivo microCT and ex vivo NIRF imaging of thromboemboli in a mouse model of embolic stroke. We show that in vivo microCT and fibrin-targeted glycol-chitosan AuNPs (fib-GC-AuNPs) can be used for visualizing both in situ thrombi and cerebral embolic thrombi. We also describe the use of in vivo microCT-based direct thrombus imaging to serially monitor the therapeutic effects of tissue plasminogen activator-mediated thrombolysis. After the last imaging session, we demonstrate by ex vivo NIRF imaging the extent and the distribution of residual thromboemboli in the brain. Finally, we describe quantitative image analyses of microCT and NIRF imaging data. The combined technique of direct thrombus imaging allows two independent methods of thrombus visualization to be compared: the area of thrombus-related fluorescent signal on ex vivo NIRF imaging vs. the volume of hyperdense microCT thrombi in vivo.

This protocol describes the application of combined near-infrared fluorescent (NIRF) imaging and micro-computed tomography (microCT) for visualizing cerebral thromboemboli. This technique allows the quantification of thrombus burden and evolution. The NIRF imaging technique visualizes fluorescently labeled thrombus in excised brain, while the microCT technique visualizes thrombus inside living animals using gold-nanoparticles.

Direct thrombus imaging visualizes the root cause of thromboembolic infarction. Being able to image thrombus directly allows far better investigation of ...

A New Best Practice for Validating Tail Vein Injections in Rat with Near-infrared-Labeled Agents

Intravenous (IV) administration of agents into the tail vein of rats can be both difficult and inconsistent. Optimizing tail vein injections is a key part of many experimental procedures where reagents need to be introduced directly into the bloodstream. Unwittingly, the injection can be subcutaneous, possibly altering the scientific outcomes. Utilizing a nanoemulsion-based biological probe with an incorporated near-infrared fluorescent (NIRF) dye, this method offers the capability of imaging a successful tail vein injection in vivo. With the use of a NIRF imager, images are taken before and after the injection of the agent. An acceptable IV injection is then qualitatively or quantitatively determined based on the intensity of the NIRF signal at the site of injection.

Here we present a method to validate tail vein injections in rats by utilizing near-infrared fluorescence imaging data from dyes incorporated into agents or biological probes. The tail is imaged before and after the injection, the fluorescent signal is quantified, and an assessment of the injection quality is made.

Intravenous (IV) administration of agents into the tail vein of rats can be both difficult and inconsistent. Optimizing tail vein injections is a key part ...

How to Administer Near-Infrared Spectroscopy in Critically ill Neonates, Infants, and Children

Near infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) calculates regional tissue oxygenation (rSO2) using the different absorption spectra of oxygenated and deoxygenated hemoglobin molecules. A probe placed on the skin emits light that is absorbed, scattered, and reflected by the underlying tissue. Detectors in the probe sense the amount of reflected light: this reflects the organ-specific ratio of oxygen supply and consumption - independent of pulsatile flow. Modern devices enable the simultaneous monitoring at different body sites. A rise or dip in the rSO2 curve visualizes changes in oxygen supply or demand before vital signs indicate them. The evolution of rSO2 values in relation to the starting point is more important for interpretation than are absolute values.
A routine clinical application of NIRS is the surveillance of somatic and cerebral oxygenation during and after cardiac surgery. It is also administered in preterm infants at risk for necrotizing enterocolitis, newborns with hypoxic ischemic encephalopathy and a potential risk of impaired tissue oxygenation. In the future, NIRS could be increasingly used in multimodal neuromonitoring, or applied to monitor patients with other conditions (e.g., after resuscitation or traumatic brain injury).

This protocol is designed to assist clinicians to measure regional tissue oxygenation at different body sites in infants and children. It can be used in situations where tissue oxygenation is potentially compromised, particularly during cardiopulmonary bypass, when using non-pulsatile cardiac-assist devices, and in critically ill neonates, infants and children.

Near infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) calculates regional tissue oxygenation (rSO2) using the different absorption spectra of oxygenated and deoxygenated ...

Measurement of Tissue Oxygenation Using Near-Infrared Spectroscopy in Patients Undergoing Hemodialysis

Near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) has recently been applied as a tool to measure regional oxygen saturation (rSO2), a marker of tissue oxygenation, in clinical settings including cardiovascular and brain surgery, neonatal monitoring and prehospital medicine. The NIRS monitoring devices are real-time and noninvasive, and have mainly been used for evaluating cerebral oxygenation in critically ill patients during an operation or intensive care. Thus far, the use of NIRS monitoring in patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD) including hemodialysis (HD) has been limited; therefore, we investigated rSO2 values in some organs during HD. We monitored rSO2 values using a NIRS device transmitting near-infrared light at 2 wavelengths of attachment. The HD patients were placed in a supine position, with rSO2 measurement sensors attached to the foreheads, the right hypochondrium and the lower legs to evaluate rSO2 in the brain, liver and lower leg muscles, respectively. NIRS monitoring could be a new approach to clarify changes in organ oxygenation during HD or factors affecting tissue oxygenation in CKD patients. This article describes a protocol to measure tissue oxygenation represented by rSO2 as applied in HD patients.

We present a protocol to measure regional oxygen saturation (rSO2) in hemodialysis (HD) patients by using a near-infrared spectroscopy monitor. The rSO2 value is an index of tissue oxygenation. This noninvasive and real-time monitoring could be useful for confirming changes in organ oxygenation during HD.

Near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) has recently been applied as a tool to measure regional oxygen saturation (rSO2), a marker of tissue oxygenation, in ...