This work was supported by the European Research Council (ERC) Advanced Grant N&#176; 339244-FUSIMAGINE, the National Agency for Research funding &#39;Pinch&#39; (ANR-18-CE37-005), the Inserm Research Technology Accelerator in Biomedical Ultrasound, the ElfUS technical core of the IPNP, Inserm U1266, the European research program FUSIMICE of the Human Brain Project, and EMBO Short-Term Fellowship 8439 to Andrea Kliewer.

<ol>
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href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Pharmaco-fUS:+Quantification+of+pharmacologically-induced+dynamic+changes+in+brain+perfusion+and+connectivity+by+functional+ultrasound+imaging+in+awake+mice.">Pharmaco-fUS: Quantification of pharmacologically-induced dynamic changes in brain perfusion and connectivity by functional ultrasound imaging in awake mice.</a> NeuroImage. 222, 117231 (2020).</li><li>Tiran, E., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Transcranial+functional+ultrasound+imaging+in+freely+moving+awake+mice+and+anesthetized+young+rats+without+contrast+agent.">Transcranial functional ultrasound imaging in freely moving awake mice and anesthetized young rats without contrast agent.</a> Ultrasound in Medicine and Biology. 43 (8), 1679-1689 (2017).</li><li>Ferrier, J., Tiran, E., Deffieux, T., Tanter, M., Lenkei, Z. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Functional+imaging+evidence+for+task-induced+deactivation+and+disconnection+of+a+major+default+mode+network+hub+in+the+mouse+brain.">Functional imaging evidence for task-induced deactivation and disconnection of a major default mode network hub in the mouse brain.</a> Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 117 (26), 15270-15280 (2020).</li><li>Rabut, C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=4D+functional+ultrasound+imaging+of+whole-brain+activity+in+rodents.">4D functional ultrasound imaging of whole-brain activity in rodents.</a> Nature Methods. 16 (10), 994-997 (2019).</li><li>Brunner, C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+platform+for+brain-wide+volumetric+functional+ultrasound+imaging+and+of+circuit+dynamics+in+awake+mice.">A platform for brain-wide volumetric functional ultrasound imaging and of circuit dynamics in awake mice.</a> Neuron. 108 (5), 861-875 (2020).</li><li>Gesnik, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=3D+functional+ultrasound+imaging+of+the+cerebral+visual+system+in+rodents.">3D functional ultrasound imaging of the cerebral visual system in rodents.</a> NeuroImage. 149, 267-274 (2017).</li><li>Mac&#233;, &. #. 2. 0. 1. ;., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Whole-brain+functional+ultrasound+imaging+reveals+brain+modules+for+visuomotor+integration.">Whole-brain functional ultrasound imaging reveals brain modules for visuomotor integration.</a> Neuron. 100 (5), 1241-1251 (2018).</li><li>Mac&#233;, E., Montaldo, G., Cohen, I., Baulac, M., Fink, M., Tanter, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Functional+ultrasound+imaging+of+the+brain.">Functional ultrasound imaging of the brain.</a> Nature Methods. 8 (8), 662-664 (2011).</li><li>Tiran, E., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Transcranial+functional+ultrasound+imaging+in+freely+moving+awake+mice+and+anesthetized+young+rats+without+contrast+agent.">Transcranial functional ultrasound imaging in freely moving awake mice and anesthetized young rats without contrast agent.</a> Ultrasound in Medicine and Biology. 43 (8), 1679-1689 (2017).</li><li>Claron, J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Large+scale+functional+ultrasound+imaging+of+the+spinal+cord+reveals+in+depth+spatiotemporal+responses+of+spinal+nociceptive+circuits+in+both+normal+and+inflammatory+state.">Large scale functional ultrasound imaging of the spinal cord reveals in depth spatiotemporal responses of spinal nociceptive circuits in both normal and inflammatory state.</a> Pain. , (2020).</li><li>Aydin, A. K., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Transfer+functions+linking+neural+calcium+to+single+voxel+functional+ultrasound+signal.">Transfer functions linking neural calcium to single voxel functional ultrasound signal.</a> Nature Communications. 11 (1), 2954 (2020).</li><li>Bimbard, C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Multi-scale+mapping+along+the+auditory+hierarchy+using+high-resolution+functional+ultrasound+in+the+awake+ferret.">Multi-scale mapping along the auditory hierarchy using high-resolution functional ultrasound in the awake ferret.</a> eLife. 7, 35028 (2018).</li><li>Boido, D., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mesoscopic+and+microscopic+imaging+of+sensory+responses+in+the+same+animal.">Mesoscopic and microscopic imaging of sensory responses in the same animal.</a> Nature Communications. 10 (1), 1110 (2019).</li><li>Kislin, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Flat-floored+air-lifted+platform:+A+new+method+for+combining+behavior+with+microscopy+or+electrophysiology+on+awake+freely+moving+rodents.">Flat-floored air-lifted platform: A new method for combining behavior with microscopy or electrophysiology on awake freely moving rodents.</a> Journal of Visualized Experiments. (88), e51869 (2014).</li><li>Juczewski, K., Koussa, J. A., Kesner, A. J., Lee, J. O., Lovinger, D. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Stress+and+behavioral+correlates+in+the+head-fixed+method:+stress+measurements,+habituation+dynamics,+locomotion,+and+motor-skill+learning+in+mice.">Stress and behavioral correlates in the head-fixed method: stress measurements, habituation dynamics, locomotion, and motor-skill learning in mice.</a> Scientific Reports. 10 (1), 12245 (2020).</li></ol>

Jeremy Ferrier and Bruno-F&#233;lix Osmanski are employees of Iconeus. Thomas Deffieux, Zsolt Lenkei, Bruno-F&#233;lix Osmanski,&#160;and Mickael Tanter are co-founders and shareholders of Iconeus.

Whole brain imaging methods are crucial tools to better understand brain physiology and pathology. The method described here allows the precise quantification of hemodynamic signals in the living brain directly at the bench. The unmatched sensitivity and spatio-temporal resolution of functional ultrasound is particularly well suited for the mouse physiology. Functional responses and resting-state networks can be mapped within short acquisition times, longitudinally and without having to average trials or subjects to obtain a reliable measure. The relevant combination of high sensitivity ultrasonic linear probes and fast motorized setups enables one to perform transcranial volumetric fUS imaging in mice within reasonable acquisition times. This protocol can be performed either on anesthetized or awake mice using a mobile home cage.
Whisker stimulation, the sensory stimulus used as an illustrating example in this manuscript, is a standard functional activation paradigm in rodents and a reliable read-out to study sensory processing, neurovascular coupling and their alterations5,6,10, 11. While coarse manual brushing of the whiskers may be preferred for its ease of use, this method lacks spatial and temporal precision. The use of an automatic stimulator, such as the one described here triggered with the fUS imaging scanner, allows for a better control of several parameters including the time of onset, the amplitude displacement, the frequency as well as the angle of the Q-tip/comb, resulting in a better inter-animal reproducibility. Additionally, a more precise timing of stimulation enables the modeling of the Hemodynamic Response Function (HRF) by determining the time to onset and time to peak parameters12,13. To ensure better precision on the number of whiskers deflected during the stimulation (and thus the area of the activated region), more sophisticated stimulators can be adapted to this protocol. Many other stimuli such as light8, sound14 or odor presentation15 can be implemented using the same protocol.
The compatibility of functional ultrasound with awake and behaving animals is an important advantage compared to other neuroimaging techniques, enabling functional activation mapping without the anesthesia bias. Using an air-lifted mobile homecage is a good alternative to other existing head-fixed apparatus such as linear or spherical treadmills. While being firmly head-fixed, the motion of the homecage gives the mouse the illusion to navigate the environment, allowing a wide-range of behavioral testings to be coupled to fUS imaging16. However, the habituation procedure to head-fixing constitutes an important step to decrease stress, especially for experiments where it can be considered a confounding factor. The procedure detailed here (6-days of handling and habituation to head fixation) gives robust results for sensory stimulation and resting-state functional connectivity. However, it might be necessary to extend the habituation period for more refined behavioral tests17.

Over the last two decades, neuroimaging has become an important tool for studying brain function and organization, enabling researchers to make important discoveries in the field of neuroscience. Today, functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) has become the gold standard clinical neuroimaging technique to assess task or drug-evoked brain activation and to map functional connectivity at rest. While human fMRI has high reliability and sensibility, mouse fMRI remains technically challenging for numerous reasons1. First, fMRI has a poor spatial and temporal resolution. The small size of the mouse brain necessitates the use of strong magnetic fields using expensive scanners to achieve reasonable spatial resolution. Second, maintaining stable physiological parameters within the narrow range allowing efficient neuro-vascular coupling is very difficult in anesthetized mice. Finally, the blood oxygen level dependent (BOLD) signal on which fMRI studies rely has relatively poor sensitivity, leading to low signal-to-noise ratio when applied to mice and often requires repeated stimulus presentation over long acquisition to detect small variations. The mouse being the most widely used animal model in biomedical preclinical research, these limitations are partly responsible for the translational gap in neuropsychiatry, hindering new promising therapeutic targets on the bench to be transposed into effective treatments on bedside.
Functional ultrasound (fUS) is a recently developed neuroimaging technique based on ultrafast doppler2. By directly sampling cerebral blood volume, this technique allows probing brain activity in real-time through the neurovascular coupling. Compared to other neuroimaging techniques, fUS yields a spatial resolution of 100 &#181;m and a temporal resolution in the tens of milliseconds. This technique allows whole-brain imaging of complete coronal sections of the mouse brain, completely non-invasively. Furthermore, it is fully compatible with conscious and behaving animals3,4,5. One of the main current limitations of fUS is its 2D feature, allowing to record a single coronal plane at the same time. While volumetric 3D fUS using 2D matrix array transducers has already been successfully demonstrated in rats6 and confirmed in mice7, its current lack of sensitivity requires a full craniotomy as well as averaging an important number of trials to detect a slight change of activity. Alternatively, linear transducers can be stepped across multiple positions and perform functional imaging plane by plane to cover the whole brain. However, this technique requires numerous experimental paradigm repetitions and as such long acquisition times (3-4 hours for the mouse brain)8,9.
In the present work, we describe a robust experimental platform including a commercially available functional ultrasound scanner and a fast plane-switching linear transducer with procedures to acquire 3D fUS data in anesthetized and awake mice, allowing volumetric and transcranial functional mapping of the mouse brain, non-invasively, without contrast-agent and within short acquisition times. We illustrate this feature by mapping somatosensory cortex activation following whisker stimulation as well as resting-state functional connectivity. Aside from animal preparation and data collection, we also describe the procedure for visualization, atlas registration and analysis of real-time fUS signals.

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			<td>BD Plastipak 1 mL syringes</td>
			<td>Dutscher, France</td>
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			<td>Orion Pharma, France</td>
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			<td>5 mg/ml injectable solution</td>
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			<td>Dental Ciment</td>
			<td>Sun M&#233;dical, Shiga, japan</td>
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			<td>Depilatory cream</td>
			<td>Klorane</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
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			<td>Eye Ointment</td>
			<td>TVM, UK</td>
			<td>Ocry-gel</td>
			<td></td>
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			<td>Hair trimmer</td>
			<td>Wella Profesionnals</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td></td>
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			<td>Head plates</td>
			<td>Neurotar, Finland</td>
			<td>Model 14</td>
			<td></td>
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			<td>Iconeus One standard package for fUS</td>
			<td>Iconeus, France</td>
			<td>Iconeus One</td>
			<td></td>
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		<tr>
			<td>IcoScan acquisition software (v1.0)</td>
			<td>Iconeus, France</td>
			<td>IcoScan</td>
			<td></td>
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			<td>IcoStudio analysis software (v1.0)</td>
			<td>Iconeus, France</td>
			<td>IcoStudio</td>
			<td></td>
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			<td>Isoflurane Anesthesia station</td>
			<td>Minerve, Esternay, France</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
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			<td>Ketamine</td>
			<td>Virbac, France</td>
			<td>Ketamine1000</td>
			<td>100 mg/ml injectable solution</td>
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		<tr>
			<td>Lidocaine</td>
			<td>Vetoquinol</td>
			<td>Lurocaine&#174;</td>
			<td>20 mg/ml injectable solution</td>
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		<tr>
			<td>Medetomidine</td>
			<td>Orion Pharma, France</td>
			<td>Domitor&#174;</td>
			<td>1 mg/ml injectable solution</td>
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			<td>Meloxicam</td>
			<td>Boehringer lingelheim</td>
			<td>Metacam&#174;</td>
			<td>0.5 mg/ml injectable solution</td>
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			<td>Mobile HomeCage Large with tracking capability</td>
			<td>Neurotar, Finland</td>
			<td>MHC-L-T-V4</td>
			<td></td>
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			<td>Monitoring of ECG and breathing rate</td>
			<td>AD Systems, (USA) and LabChart software</td>
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			<td>Servomotor</td>
			<td>Feetech</td>
			<td>FT90B</td>
			<td></td>
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			<td>Stereotaxic frame</td>
			<td>David Kopf (Tujunga, USA)</td>
			<td>900-WA</td>
			<td>Using Mouse Adaptor&#160; (Ref: 922) and Non-Rupture Ear Bars (ref: 922)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Surgical glue</td>
			<td>3M, USA</td>
			<td>Vetbond</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Syringe Pump</td>
			<td>KD Scientific, USA</td>
			<td>Legato&#174; 130, Cat# 788130</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ultrasound gel</td>
			<td>DREXCO medical, France</td>
			<td>Medi&#39;Gel</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Xylazine 2%</td>
			<td>Bayer, France</td>
			<td>Rompun&#174;</td>
			<td>20 mg/ml injectable solution</td>
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whole-brain 3d activation and functional connectivity mapping in mice using transcranial functional ultrasound imaging

Functional ultrasound (fUS) imaging is a novel brain imaging modality that relies on the high-sensitivity measure of the cerebral blood volume achieved by ultrafast doppler angiography. As brain perfusion is strongly linked to local neuronal activity, this technique allows the whole-brain 3D mapping of task-induced regional activation as well as resting-state functional connectivity, non-invasively, with unmatched spatio-temporal resolution and operational simplicity. In comparison with fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging), a main advantage of fUS imaging consists in enabling a complete compatibility with awake and behaving animal experiments. Moreover, fMRI brain mapping in mice, the most used preclinical model in Neuroscience, remains technically challenging due to the small size of the brain and the difficulty to maintain stable physiological conditions. Here we present a simple, reliable and robust protocol for whole-brain fUS imaging in anesthetized and awake mice using an off-the-shelf commercial fUS system with a motorized linear transducer, yielding significant cortical activation following sensory stimulation as well as reproducible 3D functional connectivity pattern for network identification.

This protocol describes the 3D quantification of cerebral hemodynamic variations transcranially in the mouse brain, at rest or in response to sensory stimulation. Whisker stimulation, a standard paradigm to map brain functional activation in rodents, has been selected as an example of sensory stimulation-evoked response. Figure 4 shows a representative activation map in response to mechanical whisker stimulation in an anesthetized mouse obtained using transcranial fUS imaging. The total trial time was 760 s, with a 60 s baseline (before and after the stimulation), an 80 s stimulation and a 60 s recovery time, repeated 5x. Significant activation was determined with the resolution of a general linear model (GLM) using a default mouse hemodynamic response function (HRF). The activated regions (Z scores with p-value &#62;0.0000006 after stringent Bonferroni correction for multiple comparison) are displayed as color-coded values overlaid onto the Allen common coordinate framework template. Voxel-wise time course of the contralateral primary somatosensory cortex, barrel field region (S1BF) revealed a 15-20% increase of the CBV compared to baseline.
<img alt="Figure 4" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/62267/62267fig4v2.jpg" /> 
Figure 4: Transcranial activation Maps and rCBV time course following whiskers stimulation in ketamine/xylazine anesthetized mouse.&#160;A. Activation map showing significantly activated voxels following mechanical stimulation of the right whiskers (80 s ON, 60 s OFF ,5x) under ketamine/xylazine anesthesia. Maps were obtained by computing Z-scores based on general linear model analysis (GLM) with Bonferroni correction for multiple comparison. Z-scores (color coded) are overlaid on the Allen brain 3D template (after registration with the brain positioning system) and displayed in three-views: coronal (left), sagittal (middle) and axial (right). Anatomical regions from the Allen mouse brain common coordinate framework are displayed for reference. Activated voxels are well located inside the left S1BF cortex. Scale bar: 1 mm. Each sample volume was scanned over 2.8 mm (corresponding to 7 slices in the elevation direction) in 3.85 s allowing to record 20 volumic samples during each functional response. B. 3D rendering of whisker stimulation-evoked relative cerebral blood volume (rCBV) increase compared to baseline level. The anatomical delineation of the S1BF is indicated in blue. C. Time course of CBV variations in the left S1BF (blue) and the corresponding stimulus applied (red).&#160;<a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/62267/62267fig4v2large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
The same paradigm has been applied in a head-fixed behaving mouse in the mobile homecage using the awake preset of IcoScan. Figure 5 presents the activation map after a multiple whisker stimulation experiment using the experimental setup described in Figure 2. A few posterior and caudal whiskers were stimulated with the following pattern: 30 s baseline followed by five consecutive trials of 30 s ON (4 Hz) and 30 s OFF (Figure 5C). Stimulation was delivered using a servo-motor driven by an Arduino UNO card triggering the image acquisition sequence for synchronization. Significant activation was determined with the resolution of a general linear model (GLM) using a default mouse hemodynamic response function (HRF). Multiple comparison correction was performed with the Bonferroni method. Conventional alpha level of 0.05 was normalized by the total number of voxels in the acquisition volume, resulting in a final stringent threshold of 0.000003.
<img alt="Figure 5" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/62267/62267fig5v2.jpg" /> 
Figure 5: Activation Maps and rCBV time course following whiskers stimulation in awake behaving mouse.&#160;A. Activation map showing significantly activated voxels following mechanical stimulation of the right whiskers (30 s ON, 30 s OFF, 5x) in an awake mouse in the mobile homecage. Maps were obtained by computing Z-scores based on general linear model analysis (GLM) with Bonferroni correction for multiple comparison (normalization by the total number of voxels). Z-scores (color coded) are overlaid on the Allen brain 3D template (after registration with the Brain Positioning System) and displayed in three-views: coronal (left), sagittal (middle) and axial (right). Anatomical regions from the Allen Mouse Brain Common Coordinate Framework are displayed for reference. Activated voxels are well located inside the left S1BF cortex. Scales bars, 1 mm. Each sample volume was scanned over 1.6 mm (corresponding to 3 slices in the elevation direction) in 3.85 s allowing to record 17 volumic samples during each functional response. B. 3D rendering of whisker stimulation-evoked relative Cerebral Blood Volume (rCBV) increase compared to baseline level. The anatomical delineation of the S1BF is indicated in blue. C. Illustration of the mouse in the mobile homecage during the right whisker stimulation experiment, during which five 30 s trials were performed for a total acquisition time of 330 s. D. Instantaneous relative CBV time course extracted inside the activated area (blue), with the corresponding stimulus superimposed (red).&#160;<a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/62267/62267fig5v2large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
Figure 6&#160;shows the temporal correlations of normalized low-frequency (&#60;0.2 Hz) spontaneous CBV fluctuations between 3D brain regions (identified from registration to the Allen common coordinate framework) in a ketamine-xylazine anesthetized mouse. Total acquisition time was 20 min (1200 s). Atlas-supervised analysis revealed strong interhemispheric connectivity patterns, with resulting correlation coefficient values up to 0.8. Seed-based analysis in the dorsal hippocampus revealed a significant interhemispheric connectivity between right and left hippocampus as well as deep retro-hippocampal regions and piriform cortices. A seed region selected in the S1BF also resulted in a symmetrical (cortico-cortical) correlation pattern, as previously described.
<img alt="Figure 6" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/62267/62267fig6v2.jpg" /> 
Figure 6: Transcranial volumetric resting-state functional connectivity of the mouse brain under ketamine/xylazine anesthesia assessed on a 20 min 3D fUS acquisition.&#160;A. Correlation matrix based on 3D regions of the Allen common coordinate framework registered on the transcranial functional acquisition. The matrix is obtained by computing the normalized Pearson&#39;s correlation of spontaneous low-frequency fluctuations (&#60;0.1 Hz) of the average time signals from all the voxels included in each identified ROI after slice timing correction. Each sampled volume was scanned over 1.6 mm in the elevation direction (corresponding to 4 slices) acquired over 2.2 s. B. Seed-based analysis projected onto a 3D template. The seed was selected within the right dorsal hippocampus at &#946; - 2.1 mm. Correlation map is obtained by computing the Pearson Correlation coefficient between the temporal signals of the seed and each voxel of the whole acquisition after slice timing correction. C. 3D correlation map based on seed-based analysis with seed region selected within the S1BF at &#946; - 2.1 mm. Scale bars: 1 mm.&#160;<a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/62267/62267fig6v2large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>

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Whole-Brain 3D Activation and Functional Connectivity Mapping in Mice using Transcranial Functional Ultrasound Imaging

This protocol describes the quantification of volumetric cerebral hemodynamic variations in the mouse brain using functional ultrasound (fUS). Procedures for 3D functional activation map following sensory stimulation as well as resting-state functional connectivity are provided as illustrative examples, in anesthetized and awake mice.

Functional ultrasound (fUS) imaging is a novel brain imaging modality that relies on the high-sensitivity measure of the cerebral blood volume achieved by ...

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9.6K Views.  PSL Research University. This protocol describes the quantification of volumetric cerebral hemodynamic variations in the mouse brain using functional ultrasound (fUS). Procedures for 3D functional activation map following sensory stimulation as well as resting-state functional connectivity are provided as illustrative examples, in anesthetized and awake mice.

Video: Whole-Brain 3D Activation and Functional Connectivity Mapping in Mice using Transcranial Functional Ultrasound Imaging

Functional Mapping with Simultaneous MEG and EEG

We use magnetoencephalography (MEG) and electroencephalography (EEG) to locate and determine the temporal evolution in brain areas involved in the processing of simple sensory stimuli. We will use somatosensory stimuli to locate the hand somatosensory areas, auditory stimuli to locate the auditory cortices, visual stimuli in four quadrants of the visual field to locate the early visual areas. These type of experiments are used for functional mapping in epileptic and brain tumor patients to locate eloquent cortices. In basic neuroscience similar experimental protocols are used to study the orchestration of cortical activity. The acquisition protocol includes quality assurance procedures, subject preparation for the combined MEG/EEG study, and acquisition of evoked-response data with somatosensory, auditory, and visual stimuli. We also demonstrate analysis of the data using the equivalent current dipole model and cortically-constrained minimum-norm estimates. Anatomical MRI data are employed in the analysis for visualization and for deriving boundaries of tissue boundaries for forward modeling and cortical location and orientation constraints for the minimum-norm estimates.

We use magnetoencephalography (MEG) and electroencephalography (EEG) to map brain areas involved in the processing of simple sensory stimuli.

We use magnetoencephalography (MEG) and electroencephalography (EEG) to locate and determine the temporal evolution in brain areas involved in the ...

Assessment of Cerebral Lateralization in Children using Functional Transcranial Doppler Ultrasound (fTCD)

There are many unanswered questions about cerebral lateralization. In particular, it remains unclear which aspects of language and nonverbal ability are lateralized, whether there are any disadvantages associated with atypical patterns of cerebral lateralization, and whether cerebral lateralization develops with age. In the past, researchers interested in these questions tended to use handedness as a proxy measure for cerebral lateralization, but this is unsatisfactory because handedness is only a weak and indirect indicator of laterality of cognitive functions1. Other methods, such as fMRI, are expensive for large-scale studies, and not always feasible with children2.
Here we will describe the use of functional transcranial Doppler ultrasound (fTCD) as a cost-effective, non-invasive and reliable method for assessing cerebral lateralization. The procedure involves measuring blood flow in the middle cerebral artery via an ultrasound probe placed just in front of the ear. Our work builds on work by Rune Aaslid, who co-introduced TCD in 1982, and Stefan Knecht, Michael Deppe and their colleagues at the University of M&uuml;nster, who pioneered the use of simultaneous measurements of left- and right middle cerebral artery blood flow, and devised a method of correcting for heart beat activity. This made it possible to see a clear increase in left-sided blood flow during language generation, with lateralization agreeing well with that obtained using other methods3.
The middle cerebral artery has a very wide vascular territory (see Figure 1) and the method does not provide useful information about localization within a hemisphere. Our experience suggests it is particularly sensitive to tasks that involve explicit or implicit speech production. The 'gold standard' task is a word generation task (e.g. think of as many words as you can that begin with the letter 'B') 4, but this is not suitable for young children and others with limited literacy skills. Compared with other brain imaging methods, fTCD is relatively unaffected by movement artefacts from speaking, and so we are able to get a reliable result from tasks that involve describing pictures aloud5,6. Accordingly, we have developed a child-friendly task that involves looking at video-clips that tell a story, and then describing what was seen.

Assessment of Cerebral Lateralization in Children using Functional Transcranial Doppler Ultrasound fTCD

Functional transcranial Doppler sonography (fTCD) is a simple and non-invasive ultrasound technique which can be used to assess the lateralization of cognitive functions, especially language, and is suitable for use with children.

There are many unanswered questions about cerebral lateralization.  In particular, it remains unclear which aspects of language and nonverbal ability are ...

Functional Calcium Imaging in Developing Cortical Networks

A hallmark pattern of activity in developing nervous systems is spontaneous, synchronized network activity. Synchronized activity has been observed in intact spinal cord, brainstem, retina, cortex and dissociated neuronal culture preparations. During periods of spontaneous activity, neurons depolarize to fire single or bursts of action potentials, activating many ion channels. Depolarization activates voltage-gated calcium channels on dendrites and spines that mediate calcium influx. Highly synchronized electrical activity has been measured from local neuronal networks using field electrodes. This technique enables high temporal sampling rates but lower spatial resolution due to integrated read-out of multiple neurons at one electrode. Single cell resolution of neuronal activity is possible using patch-clamp electrophysiology on single neurons to measure firing activity. However, the ability to measure from a network is limited to the number of neurons patched simultaneously, and typically is only one or two neurons. The use of calcium-dependent fluorescent indicator dyes has enabled the measurement of synchronized activity across a network of cells. This technique gives both high spatial resolution and sufficient temporal sampling to record spontaneous activity of the developing network.
A key feature of newly-forming cortical and hippocampal networks during pre- and early postnatal development is spontaneous, synchronized neuronal activity (Katz &amp; Shatz, 1996; Khaziphov &amp; Luhmann, 2006). This correlated network activity is believed to be essential for the generation of functional circuits in the developing nervous system (Spitzer, 2006). In both primate and rodent brain, early electrical and calcium network waves are observed pre- and postnatally in vivo and in vitro (Adelsberger et al., 2005; Garaschuk et al., 2000; Lamblin et al., 1999). These early activity patterns, which are known to control several developmental processes including neuronal differentiation, synaptogenesis and plasticity (Rakic &amp; Komuro, 1995; Spitzer et al., 2004) are of critical importance for the correct development and maturation of the cortical circuitry.
In this JoVE video, we demonstrate the methods used to image spontaneous activity in developing cortical networks. Calcium-sensitive indicators, such as Fura 2-AM ester diffuse across the cell membrane where intracellular esterase activity cleaves the AM esters to leave the cell-impermeant form of indicator dye. The impermeant form of indicator has carboxylic acid groups which are able to then detect and bind calcium ions intracellularly.. The fluorescence of the calcium-sensitive dye is transiently altered upon binding to calcium. Single or multi-photon imaging techniques are used to measure the change in photons being emitted from the dye, and thus indicate an alteration in intracellular calcium. Furthermore, these calcium-dependent indicators can be combined with other fluorescent markers to investigate cell types within the active network.

Spontaneous activity of developing neuronal networks can be measured using AM-ester forms of calcium-sensitive indicator dyes. Changes in intracellular calcium, indicating neuronal activation, are detected as transient changes in indicator fluorescence with one- or two-photon imaging. This protocol can be adapted for a range of developmentally-dependent neuronal networks in vitro.

A hallmark pattern of activity in developing nervous systems is spontaneous, synchronized network activity. Synchronized activity has been observed in ...

Recording Human Electrocorticographic (ECoG) Signals for Neuroscientific Research and Real-time Functional Cortical Mapping

Neuroimaging studies of human cognitive, sensory, and motor processes are usually based on noninvasive techniques such as electroencephalography (EEG), magnetoencephalography or functional magnetic-resonance imaging. These techniques have either inherently low temporal or low spatial resolution, and suffer from low signal-to-noise ratio and/or poor high-frequency sensitivity. Thus, they are suboptimal for exploring the short-lived spatio-temporal dynamics of many of the underlying brain processes. In contrast, the invasive technique of electrocorticography (ECoG) provides brain signals that have an exceptionally high signal-to-noise ratio, less susceptibility to artifacts than EEG, and a high spatial and temporal resolution (i.e., &lt;1 cm/&lt;1 millisecond, respectively). ECoG involves measurement of electrical brain signals using electrodes that are implanted subdurally on the surface of the brain. Recent studies have shown that ECoG amplitudes in certain frequency bands carry substantial information about task-related activity, such as motor execution and planning1, auditory processing2 and visual-spatial attention3. Most of this information is captured in the high gamma range (around 70-110 Hz). Thus, gamma activity has been proposed as a robust and general indicator of local cortical function1-5. ECoG can also reveal functional connectivity and resolve finer task-related spatial-temporal dynamics, thereby advancing our understanding of large-scale cortical processes. It has especially proven useful for advancing brain-computer interfacing (BCI) technology for decoding a user's intentions to enhance or improve communication6 and control7. Nevertheless, human ECoG data are often hard to obtain because of the risks and limitations of the invasive procedures involved, and the need to record within the constraints of clinical settings. Still, clinical monitoring to localize epileptic foci offers a unique and valuable opportunity to collect human ECoG data. We describe our methods for collecting recording ECoG, and demonstrate how to use these signals for important real-time applications such as clinical mapping and brain-computer interfacing. Our example uses the BCI2000 software platform8,9 and the SIGFRIED10 method, an application for real-time mapping of brain functions. This procedure yields information that clinicians can subsequently use to guide the complex and laborious process of functional mapping by electrical stimulation.
Prerequisites and Planning:
Patients with drug-resistant partial epilepsy may be candidates for resective surgery of an epileptic focus to minimize the frequency of seizures. Prior to resection, the patients undergo monitoring using subdural electrodes for two purposes: first, to localize the epileptic focus, and second, to identify nearby critical brain areas (i.e., eloquent cortex) where resection could result in long-term functional deficits. To implant electrodes, a craniotomy is performed to open the skull. Then, electrode grids and/or strips are placed on the cortex, usually beneath the dura. A typical grid has a set of 8 x 8 platinum-iridium electrodes of 4 mm diameter (2.3 mm exposed surface) embedded in silicon with an inter-electrode distance of 1cm. A strip typically contains 4 or 6 such electrodes in a single line. The locations for these grids/strips are planned by a team of neurologists and neurosurgeons, and are based on previous EEG monitoring, on a structural MRI of the patient's brain, and on relevant factors of the patient's history. Continuous recording over a period of 5-12 days serves to localize epileptic foci, and electrical stimulation via the implanted electrodes allows clinicians to map eloquent cortex. At the end of the monitoring period, explantation of the electrodes and therapeutic resection are performed together in one procedure.
In addition to its primary clinical purpose, invasive monitoring also provides a unique opportunity to acquire human ECoG data for neuroscientific research. The decision to include a prospective patient in the research is based on the planned location of their electrodes, on the patient's performance scores on neuropsychological assessments, and on their informed consent, which is predicated on their understanding that participation in research is optional and is not related to their treatment. As with all research involving human subjects, the research protocol must be approved by the hospital's institutional review board. The decision to perform individual experimental tasks is made day-by-day, and is contingent on the patient's endurance and willingness to participate. Some or all of the experiments may be prevented by problems with the clinical state of the patient, such as post-operative facial swelling, temporary aphasia, frequent seizures, post-ictal fatigue and confusion, and more general pain or discomfort.
At the Epilepsy Monitoring Unit at Albany Medical Center in Albany, New York, clinical monitoring is implemented around the clock using a 192-channel Nihon-Kohden Neurofax monitoring system. Research recordings are made in collaboration with the Wadsworth Center of the New York State Department of Health in Albany. Signals from the ECoG electrodes are fed simultaneously to the research and the clinical systems via splitter connectors. To ensure that the clinical and research systems do not interfere with each other, the two systems typically use separate grounds. In fact, an epidural strip of electrodes is sometimes implanted to provide a ground for the clinical system. Whether research or clinical recording system, the grounding electrode is chosen to be distant from the predicted epileptic focus and from cortical areas of interest for the research. Our research system consists of eight synchronized 16-channel g.USBamp amplifier/digitizer units (g.tec, Graz, Austria). These were chosen because they are safety-rated and FDA-approved for invasive recordings, they have a very low noise-floor in the high-frequency range in which the signals of interest are found, and they come with an SDK that allows them to be integrated with custom-written research software. In order to capture the high-gamma signal accurately, we acquire signals at 1200Hz sampling rate-considerably higher than that of the typical EEG experiment or that of many clinical monitoring systems. A built-in low-pass filter automatically prevents aliasing of signals higher than the digitizer can capture. The patient's eye gaze is tracked using a monitor with a built-in Tobii T-60 eye-tracking system (Tobii Tech., Stockholm, Sweden). Additional accessories such as joystick, bluetooth Wiimote (Nintendo Co.), data-glove (5th Dimension Technologies), keyboard, microphone, headphones, or video camera are connected depending on the requirements of the particular experiment.
Data collection, stimulus presentation, synchronization with the different input/output accessories, and real-time analysis and visualization are accomplished using our BCI2000 software8,9. BCI2000 is a freely available general-purpose software system for real-time biosignal data acquisition, processing and feedback. It includes an array of pre-built modules that can be flexibly configured for many different purposes, and that can be extended by researchers' own code in C++, MATLAB or Python. BCI2000 consists of four modules that communicate with each other via a network-capable protocol: a Source module that handles the acquisition of brain signals from one of 19 different hardware systems from different manufacturers; a Signal Processing module that extracts relevant ECoG features and translates them into output signals; an Application module that delivers stimuli and feedback to the subject; and the Operator module that provides a graphical interface to the investigator.
A number of different experiments may be conducted with any given patient. The priority of experiments will be determined by the location of the particular patient's electrodes. However, we usually begin our experimentation using the SIGFRIED (SIGnal modeling For Realtime Identification and Event Detection) mapping method, which detects and displays significant task-related activity in real time. The resulting functional map allows us to further tailor subsequent experimental protocols and may also prove as a useful starting point for traditional mapping by electrocortical stimulation (ECS).
Although ECS mapping remains the gold standard for predicting the clinical outcome of resection, the process of ECS mapping is time consuming and also has other problems, such as after-discharges or seizures. Thus, a passive functional mapping technique may prove valuable in providing an initial estimate of the locus of eloquent cortex, which may then be confirmed and refined by ECS. The results from our passive SIGFRIED mapping technique have been shown to exhibit substantial concurrence with the results derived using ECS mapping10.
The protocol described in this paper establishes a general methodology for gathering human ECoG data, before proceeding to illustrate how experiments can be initiated using the BCI2000 software platform. Finally, as a specific example, we describe how to perform passive functional mapping using the BCI2000-based SIGFRIED system.

Recording Human Electrocorticographic ECoG Signals for Neuroscientific Research and Real-time Functional Cortical Mapping

We present a method for collecting electrocorticographic signals for research purposes from humans who are undergoing invasive epilepsy monitoring. We show how to use the BCI2000 software platform for data collection, signal processing and stimulus presentation. Specifically, we demonstrate SIGFRIED, a BCI2000-based tool for real-time functional brain mapping.

Neuroimaging studies of human cognitive, sensory, and motor processes are usually based on noninvasive techniques such as electroencephalography (EEG), ...

Functional Neuroimaging Using Ultrasonic Blood-brain Barrier Disruption and Manganese-enhanced MRI

Although mice are the dominant model system for studying the genetic and molecular underpinnings of neuroscience, functional neuroimaging in mice remains technically challenging. One approach, Activation-Induced Manganese-enhanced MRI (AIM MRI), has been used successfully to map neuronal activity in rodents 1-5. In AIM MRI, Mn2+ acts a calcium analog and accumulates in depolarized neurons 6,7. Because Mn2+ shortens the T1 tissue property, regions of elevated neuronal activity will enhance in MRI. Furthermore, Mn2+ clears slowly from the activated regions; therefore, stimulation can be performed outside the magnet prior to imaging, enabling greater experimental flexibility. However, because Mn2+ does not readily cross the blood-brain barrier (BBB), the need to open the BBB has limited the use of AIM MRI, especially in mice.
One tool for opening the BBB is ultrasound. Though potentially damaging, if ultrasound is administered in combination with gas-filled microbubbles (i.e., ultrasound contrast agents), the acoustic pressure required for BBB opening is considerably lower. This combination of ultrasound and microbubbles can be used to reliably open the BBB without causing tissue damage 8-11.
Here, a method is presented for performing AIM MRI by using microbubbles and ultrasound to open the BBB. After an intravenous injection of perflutren microbubbles, an unfocused pulsed ultrasound beam is applied to the shaved mouse head for 3 minutes. For simplicity, we refer to this technique of BBB Opening with Microbubbles and UltraSound as BOMUS 12. Using BOMUS to open the BBB throughout both cerebral hemispheres, manganese is administered to the whole mouse brain. After experimental stimulation of the lightly sedated mice, AIM MRI is used to map the neuronal response.
To demonstrate this approach, herein BOMUS and AIM MRI are used to map unilateral mechanical stimulation of the vibrissae in lightly sedated mice 13. Because BOMUS can open the BBB throughout both hemispheres, the unstimulated side of the brain is used to control for nonspecific background stimulation. The resultant 3D activation map agrees well with published representations of the vibrissae regions of the barrel field cortex 14. The ultrasonic opening of the BBB is fast, noninvasive, and reversible; and thus this approach is suitable for high-throughput and/or longitudinal studies in awake mice.

A technique is described for broadly opening the blood-brain barrier in the mouse using microbubbles and ultrasound. Using this technique, manganese can be administered to the mouse brain. Because manganese is an MRI contrast agent that accumulates in depolarized neurons, this approach enables imaging of neuronal activity.

Although mice are the dominant model system for studying the genetic and molecular underpinnings of neuroscience, functional neuroimaging in mice remains ...

Functional Imaging of Auditory Cortex in Adult Cats using High-field fMRI

Current knowledge of sensory processing in the mammalian auditory system is mainly derived from electrophysiological studies in a variety of animal models, including monkeys, ferrets, bats, rodents, and cats. In order to draw suitable parallels between human and animal models of auditory function, it is important to establish a bridge between human functional imaging studies and animal electrophysiological studies. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) is an established, minimally invasive method of measuring broad patterns of hemodynamic activity across different regions of the cerebral cortex. This technique is widely used to probe sensory function in the human brain, is a useful tool in linking studies of auditory processing in both humans and animals and has been successfully used to investigate auditory function in monkeys and rodents. The following protocol describes an experimental procedure for investigating auditory function in anesthetized adult cats by measuring stimulus-evoked hemodynamic changes in auditory cortex using fMRI. This method facilitates comparison of the hemodynamic responses across different models of auditory function thus leading to a better understanding of species-independent features of the mammalian auditory cortex.

Functional studies of the auditory system in mammals have traditionally been conducted using spatially-focused techniques such as electrophysiological recordings. The following protocol describes a method of visualizing large-scale patterns of evoked hemodynamic activity in the cat auditory cortex using functional magnetic resonance imaging.

Current knowledge of sensory processing in the mammalian auditory system is mainly derived from electrophysiological studies in a variety of animal ...

Using Optical Coherence Tomography and Optokinetic Response As Structural and Functional Visual System Readouts in Mice and Rats

Optical coherence tomography (OCT) is a fast, non-invasive, interferometric technique allowing high-resolution retinal imaging. It is an ideal tool for the investigation of processes of neurodegeneration, neuroprotection and neuro-repair involving the visual system, as these often correlate well with retinal changes. As a functional readout, visually evoked compensatory eye and head movements are commonly used in experimental models involving the visual function. Combining both techniques allows a quantitative in vivo investigation of structure and function, which can be used to investigate the pathological conditions or to evaluate the potential of novel therapeutics. A great benefit of the presented techniques is the possibility to perform longitudinal analyses allowing the investigation of dynamic processes, reducing variability and cuts down the number of animals needed for the experiments. The protocol described aims to provide a manual for acquisition and analysis of high quality retinal scans of mice and rats using a low cost customized holder with an option to deliver inhalational anesthesia. Additionally, the proposed guide is intended as an instructional manual for researchers using optokinetic response (OKR) analysis in rodents, which can be adapted to their specific needs and interests.

A detailed protocol for the assessment of structural and visual readouts in rodents by optical coherence tomography and optokinetic response is presented. The results provide valuable insights for ophthalmologic as well as neurologic research.

Optical coherence tomography (OCT) is a fast, non-invasive, interferometric technique allowing high-resolution retinal imaging. It is an ideal tool for ...

Presynapse Formation Assay Using Presynapse Organizer Beads and &ldquo;Neuron Ball&rdquo; Culture

During neuronal development, synapse formation is an important step to establish neural circuits. To form synapses, synaptic proteins must be supplied in appropriate order by transport from cell bodies and/or local translation in immature synapses. However, it is not fully understood how synaptic proteins accumulate in synapses in proper order. Here, we present a novel method to analyze presynaptic formation by using the combination of neuron ball culture with beads to induce presynapse formation. Neuron balls that is neuronal cell aggregates provide axonal sheets far from cell bodies and dendrites, so that weak fluorescent signals of presynapses can be detected by avoiding overwhelming signals of cell bodies. As beads to trigger presynapse formation, we use beads conjugated with leucine-rich repeat transmembrane neuronal 2 (LRRTM2), an excitatory presynaptic organizer. Using this method, we demonstrated that vesicular glutamate transporter 1 (vGlut1), a synaptic vesicle protein, accumulated in presynapses faster than Munc18-1, an active zone protein. Munc18-1 accumulated translation-dependently in presynapse even after removing cell bodies. This finding indicates the Munc18-1 accumulation by local translation in axons, not transport from cell bodies. In conclusion, this method is suitable to analyze accumulation of synaptic proteins in presynapses and source of synaptic proteins. As neuron ball culture is simple and it is not necessary to use special apparatus, this method could be applicable to other experimental platforms.

Presynapse formation is a dynamic process including accumulation of synaptic proteins in proper order. In this method, presynapse formation is triggered by beads conjugated with a presynapse organizer protein on axonal sheets of &#8220;neuron ball&#8221; culture, so that accumulation of synaptic proteins is easy to be analyzed during presynapse formation.

During neuronal development, synapse formation is an important step to establish neural circuits. To form synapses, synaptic proteins must be supplied in ...

&#181;Tongue: A Microfluidics-Based Functional Imaging Platform for the Tongue In Vivo

Intravital fluorescence microscopy is a tool used widely to study multicellular dynamics in a live animal. However, it has not been successfully used in the taste sensory organ. By integrating microfluidics into the intravital tongue imaging window, the &#181;Tongue provides reliable functional images of taste cells in vivo under controlled exposure to multiple tastants. In this paper, a detailed step-by-step procedure to utilize the &#181;Tongue system is presented. There are five subsections: preparing of tastant solutions, setting up of a microfluidic module, sample mounting, acquiring functional image data, and data analysis. Some tips and techniques to solve the practical issues that may arise when using the &#181;Tongue are also presented.

 &#181;Tongue: A Microfluidics-Based Functional Imaging Platform for the Tongue In Vivo

The article introduces the &#181;Tongue (microfluidics-on-a-tongue) device for functional taste cell imaging in vivo by integrating microfluidics into an intravital imaging window on the tongue.

Intravital fluorescence microscopy is a tool used widely to study multicellular dynamics in a live animal. However, it has not been successfully used in ...

In Vivo Whole-Brain Imaging of Zebrafish Larvae

In Vivo Whole-Brain Imaging of Zebrafish Larvae Using Three-Dimensional Fluorescence Microscopy

As a vertebrate model animal, larval zebrafish are widely used in neuroscience and provide a unique opportunity to monitor whole-brain activity at the cellular resolution. Here, we provide an optimized protocol for performing whole-brain imaging of larval zebrafish using three-dimensional fluorescence microscopy, including sample preparation and immobilization, sample embedding, image acquisition, and visualization after imaging. The current protocol enables in vivo imaging of the structure and neuronal activity of a larval zebrafish brain at a cellular resolution for over 1 h using confocal microscopy and custom-designed fluorescence microscopy. The critical steps in the protocol are also discussed, including sample mounting and positioning, preventing bubble formation and dust in the agarose gel, and avoiding motion in images caused by incomplete solidification of the agarose gel and paralyzation of the fish. The protocol has been validated and confirmed in multiple settings. This protocol can be easily adapted for imaging other organs of a larval zebrafish.

Author Spotlight: In Vivo Whole-Brain Imaging of Zebrafish Larvae Using Three-Dimensional Fluorescence Microscopy  

Presented here is a protocol for in vivo whole-brain imaging of larval zebrafish using three-dimensional fluorescence microscopy. The experimental procedure includes sample preparation, image acquisition, and visualization.

As a vertebrate model animal, larval zebrafish are widely used in neuroscience and provide a unique opportunity to monitor whole-brain activity at the ...