We thank Marco Antonio Rosales Vega and Abel Segura for taking some of the confocal images, Carmen Mu&#241;oz for media preparation and Dr. Arturo Pimentel, M.C. Andr&#233;s Saralegui, and Dr. Chris Wood from the LMNA for advice on the use of the microscopes.
FUNDING: 
This work was supported by the Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnolog&#237;a (CONACyT) (A1-S-8239 to VV-G) and Programa de Apoyo a Proyectos de Investigaci&#243;n e Innovaci&#243;n Tecnol&#243;gica (204915 and 200118 to VV-G)

1. Third instar larvae culture
<ol>
	<li>Prepare 1 liter of standard media by adding 100 g of yeast, 100 g of unrefined whole cane sugar, 16 g of agar, 10 mL of propionic acid and 14 g of gelatin. Dissolve all ingredients except the yeast in 800 mL of tap water and then dissolve the yeast. Autoclave immediately for 30 minutes.
	<ol>
		<li>Afterward, let the media cool down to 60 &#176;C and add propionic acid to a final concentration 0.01%. Let the bottle stand until the gelatin is formed.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>To op...

<ol>
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C., Elgin, S. C. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=HP1a:+A+structural+chromosomal+protein+regulating+transcription.">HP1a: A structural chromosomal protein regulating transcription.</a> Trends in Genetics. 30 (3), 103-110 (2014).</li><li>Lee, Y. C. G., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Pericentromeric+heterochromatin+is+hierarchically+organized+and+spatially+contacts+H3K9me2+islands+in+euchromatin.">Pericentromeric heterochromatin is hierarchically organized and spatially contacts H3K9me2 islands in euchromatin.</a> PLoS Genetics. 16 (3), 1-27 (2020).</li><li>Koryakov, D. 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A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Domains+of+heterochromatin+protein+1+required+for+Drosophila+melanogaster+heterochromatin+spreading.">Domains of heterochromatin protein 1 required for Drosophila melanogaster heterochromatin spreading.</a> Genetics. 182 (4), 967-977 (2009).</li><li>Elgin, S. C. R., Reuter, G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Position-effect+variegation,+heterochromatin+formation,+and+gene+silencing+in+Drosophila.">Position-effect variegation, heterochromatin formation, and gene silencing in Drosophila.</a> Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Biology. 5 (8), 1-26 (2013).</li><li>Eissenberg, J. C., Elgin, S. C. 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P., Bownes, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Staging+the+metamorphosis+of+Drosophila+melanogaster.">Staging the metamorphosis of Drosophila melanogaster.</a> Journal of Embryology and Experimental Morphology. 66 (1967), 57-80 (1981).</li><li>Larson, A. G., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Liquid+droplet+formation+by+HP1&#945;+suggests+a+role+for+phase+separation+in+heterochromatin.">Liquid droplet formation by HP1&#945; suggests a role for phase separation in heterochromatin.</a> Nature. 547 (7662), 236-240 (2017).</li><li>Larson, A. G., Narlikar, G. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+Role+of+Phase+Separation+in+Heterochromatin+Formation,+Function,+and+Regulation.">The Role of Phase Separation in Heterochromatin Formation, Function, and Regulation.</a> Biochemistry. 57 (17), 2540-2548 (2018).</li><li>Keenen, M. M., Larson, A. G., Narlikar, G. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Visualization+and+Quantitation+of+Phase-Separated+Droplet+Formation+by+Human+HP1&#945;.">Visualization and Quantitation of Phase-Separated Droplet Formation by Human HP1&#945;.</a> Methods in Enzymology. , (2018).</li><li>Lu, B. Y., Emtage, P. C., Duyf, B. J., Hilliker, a. J., Eissenberg, J. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Heterochromatin+protein+1+is+required+for+the+normal+expression+of+two+heterochromatin+genes+in+Drosophila.">Heterochromatin protein 1 is required for the normal expression of two heterochromatin genes in Drosophila.</a> Genetics. 155 (2), 699-708 (2000).</li><li>Marsano, R. M., Giordano, E., Messina, G., Dimitri, P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+New+Portrait+of+Constitutive+Heterochromatin:+Lessons+from+Drosophila+melanogaster.">A New Portrait of Constitutive Heterochromatin: Lessons from Drosophila melanogaster.</a> Trends in Genetics. , (2019).</li><li>Strom, A. R., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Phase+separation+drives+heterochromatin+domain+formation.">Phase separation drives heterochromatin domain formation.</a> Nature. 547 (7662), 241-245 (2017).</li><li>Sanulli, S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=HP1+reshapes+nucleosome+core+to+promote+phase+separation+of+heterochromatin.">HP1 reshapes nucleosome core to promote phase separation of heterochromatin.</a> Nature. 575 (7782), 390-394 (2019).</li><li>Dialynas, G., Delabaere, L., Chiolo, I. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Arp2/3+and+Unc45+maintain+heterochromatin+stability+in+Drosophila+polytene+chromosomes.">Arp2/3 and Unc45 maintain heterochromatin stability in Drosophila polytene chromosomes.</a> Experimental Biology and Medicine. 244 (15), 1362-1371 (2019).</li><li>Kolesnikova, T. 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The cellular function of eukaryotic organisms can define the 3D structure within the nucleus, which is supported by interactions between different proteins with chromatin and various molecules including RNA. In the last three years, the biological condensates that have had relevance, including heterochromatin, have taken a fundamental role in the determination of the phase separation promoting the distinct nuclear spatial organization of active and repressive chromatin 16,<sup class="xr...

Since the early studies of Emil Heitz1, heterochromatin has been considered an important regulator of cellular processes such as gene expression, meiotic and mitotic separation of chromosomes, and the maintenance of genome stability2,3,4.
Heterochromatin is mainly divided into two types: constitutive heterochromatin that characteristically defines repetitive sequences, and transposable elements that are present at specific chromosome sites such as the telomeres and centromeres. This type of heterochromatin is mainly defined epigenetically by specific histone marks such as the di or tri-methylation of lysine 9 of histone H3 (H3K9me3) and the binding of the Heterochromatin protein 1a (HP1a)5,6. On the other hand, facultative heterochromatin localizes through the chromosome&#39;s arms and consists mainly of developmentally silenced genes7,8. Immunostaining of heterochromatin blocks in metaphase cells, or the observation of heterochromatin aggregates in interphase cells, has unveiled much light in the understanding of the formation and function of heterochromatic regions9.
The use of Drosophila as a model system has allowed the development of essential tools to study heterochromatin without the use of electron microscopy10. Since the description of position effect variegation and the discovery of heterochromatin-associated proteins, such as HP1a, and histone post-translational modifications, many groups have developed several immunohistochemical techniques that allow visualization of these heterochromatic regions10,11.
These techniques are based on the use of specific antibodies that recognize heterochromatin-associated proteins or histone marks. For every cell type and antibody, the fixation and permeabilization conditions must be determined empirically. Also, conditions may vary if additional mechanical processes such as squashing techniques are used. In this protocol, we describe the use of Drosophila salivary glands to study heterochromatic foci. Salivary glands have polytenized cells that contain more than 1,000 copies of the genome, thus providing an amplified view of most of the chromatin features, with the exception of satellite DNA and some heterochromatic regions which are under replicated. Nevertheless, heterochromatin regions are easily visualized in polytene chromosome preparations, but the squashing techniques may sometimes disrupt characteristic chromatin-bound complexes or the chromatin architecture. Therefore, immunolocalization of proteins in whole salivary gland tissue can surpass these undesired effects. We have used this protocol to detect several chromatin bound proteins, and we have demonstrated that this protocol combined with mutant Drosophila stocks can be used to study heterochromatin disruption12.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>1.5 mL microcentrifuge tubes</td>
			<td>Axygen MCT-150-C</td>
			<td>11351904</td>
			<td>brand not critical</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>16% formaldehyde</td>
			<td>Thermo Scientific</td>
			<td>28908</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>AF1 Citifluor</td>
			<td>Ted pella</td>
			<td>19470</td>
			<td>25 mL</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>BSA, Molecular Biology Grade</td>
			<td>Roche</td>
			<td>10735078001</td>
			<td>brand not critical</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Complete, protease inhibitors Ultra EDTA-free 
			protease inhibitors</td>
			<td>Merck</td>
			<td>5892953001</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Coverslip</td>
			<td>Corning</td>
			<td>CLS285022-200EA</td>
			<td>22x22, brand not critical</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DTT</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>d9779</td>
			<td>brand not critical</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>EDTA</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>E5134</td>
			<td>brand not critical</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>EGTA</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>brand not critical</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glass slide</td>
			<td>Gold seal</td>
			<td>3011</td>
			<td>brand not critical</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>H3BO3</td>
			<td>Baker</td>
			<td>0084-01</td>
			<td>brand not critical</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>H3K9me3</td>
			<td>Abcam</td>
			<td>8889</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>HP1a</td>
			<td>Hybridoma Bank</td>
			<td>C1A9</td>
			<td>Product Form&#160;Concentrate 0.1 mL</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>KCl</td>
			<td>Baker</td>
			<td>3040-01</td>
			<td>brand not critical</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Methanol</td>
			<td>Baker</td>
			<td>9070-03</td>
			<td>brand not critical</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NaCl</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>71376</td>
			<td>brand not critical</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NaOH</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>brand not critical</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>PIPES</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>brand not critical</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Rotator</td>
			<td>Thermo Scientific</td>
			<td>13-687-12Q</td>
			<td>&#160;Labquake Tube Shaker</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Thermo Mixer C</td>
			<td>Eppendorf</td>
			<td>13527550</td>
			<td>SmartBlock 1.5 mL</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tris</td>
			<td>Milipore</td>
			<td>648311</td>
			<td>brand not critical</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Triton X-100</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>T8787</td>
			<td>100 mL, brand not critical</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>&#946;-mercaptoethanol</td>
			<td>Bio-Rad</td>
			<td>1610710</td>
			<td>25 mL, brand not critical</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

immunofluorescent staining for visualization of heterochromatin associated proteins in drosophila salivary glands

Visualization of heterochromatin aggregates by immunostaining can be challenging. Many mammalian components of chromatin are conserved in Drosophila melanogaster. Therefore, it is an excellent model to study heterochromatin formation and maintenance. Polytenized cells, such as the ones found in salivary glands of third instar D. melanogaster larvae, provide an excellent tool to observe the chromatin amplified nearly a thousand times and have allowed researchers to study changes in the distribution of heterochromatin in the nucleus. Although the observation of heterochromatin components can be carried out directly in polytene chromosome preparations, the localization of some proteins can be altered by the severity of the treatment. Therefore, the direct visualization of heterochromatin in cells complements this type of study. In this protocol, we describe the immunostaining techniques used for this tissue, the use of secondary fluorescent antibodies, and confocal microscopy to observe these heterochromatin aggregates with greater precision and detail.

Representative results of HP1a immunostaining in Drosophila salivary glands are shown in Figure 1. A positive result is to observe one focal point (Figure 1a) (heterochromatic aggregate or condensate). A negative result is no signal or a dispersed signal. Sometimes a double signal can be observed, that is, with a double point (Figure 1c), but it usually occurs in smaller quantities.
Data analysis...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Immunofluorescent Staining for Visualization of Heterochromatin Associated Proteins in Drosophila Salivary Glands at JoVE.com

Immunofluorescent Staining for Visualization of Heterochromatin Associated Proteins in Drosophila Salivary Glands

This protocol aims to visualize heterochromatin aggregates in Drosophila polytene cells.

Immunofluorescent Staining for Visualization of Heterochromatin Associated Proteins in Drosophila Salivary Glands

Visualization of heterochromatin aggregates by immunostaining can be challenging. Many mammalian components of chromatin are conserved in Drosophila ...

The aim of this protocol is to visualize heterochromatin aggregates in Drosophila cells. To achieve this, we use polytene cells which are found in the salivary glands of third instar larvae The genome of these cells is amplified nearly a thousand times, and the chromosomes conserve the features of interface cells. They have well-defined telomeres, and bridges called chromocenter in which all the centromeres aggregates, and it's mainly heterochromatic.Using the third instar larvae tissue, also allow us to evaluate change in the heterochromatic aggregates in different genetic mutants'background. To optimize the third instar larvae culture, you will need first to collect 5 to 10 days old adults, and put around 50 in a broad neck bottle of a standard media. 25 male and 25 female.Place the bottle in a controlled temperature incubator at 25 Celsius degrees for 12 hours. After the incubation time is over, remove the adults and transfer them to a new bottle to repeat the procedure. Let the embryos grow at 18 degrees Celsius for 22 hours.For larvae collection, make sure you choose the wandering larvae, which do not have overt sphericals. Dissect 15 pairs of salivary glands, or as much as you can in 30 minutes period in cold PBS with protest inhibitors under the microscope. Transfer the salivary glands to another tube with ice cold PBS.Wash once with cold PBS plus protests inhibitors. Remember, always wait for the tissue to reach the bottom of the tube. After removing the PBS from the last step, add directly 0.5 milliliters of one X group gum fixation buffer and 50%methanol plus 2%formaldehyde.Incubate for two hours at four Celsius degree with mild rotation. Carry out one five minute rotation wash with Tris-Triton buffer, adding one milliliter. Always wait for the tissue to reach the bottom of the tube.Note:wait for the tissue to reach the bottom of the tube. Incubate the salivary glands with Tris-Triton, the same as above, plus 1%of beta mercaptoethanol for two hours at 37 degrees Celsius with mild shaking. Wash with BO3 buffer, and incubate with BO3 plus 10 millimolar DTT at 37 degrees Celsius with mild shaking for 15 minutes.At the end of the incubation period, perform a wash with one milliliter of BO3 buffer alone. Incubate the salivary glands in one milliliter of buffer B for two hours at room temperature with rotation. Remove all buffer B and add buffer A plus antibody of interest.In this case, we use HP one, A C 1 8 9 from Iridium bank. 1 in 3, 000 over night at four degrees with rotation. At this point is important that the shaking does not raise bubbles, which might damage the antibody.Give treat by 15 minutes washes with buffer B, under stirring at room temperature using one millimeter each time. The glands are transferred to buffer B together with the secondary antibiotic couple to a floor refer for two hours, under rotation at four degrees. At this step, it's important to cover the tube with aluminum paper foil to protect the secondary antibody from the light.Carry out 2x15 minute washers at room temperature, while rotation with one milliliter of buffer B.Incubate with a DNA marker such as Sydox or OH, and dissolve in one milliliter of buffer B for 10 minutes at room temperature with rotation. Carry out one wash with buffer B and once with PBS, each wash lasting 10 minutes, while rotating at room temperature. Finally, mount the salivary glands on a slide, making a pool with a cover slip.Put the salivary glands in the middle of the pool and cover with Sidiflor. To avoid deformation of bubble, extending the viscous liquid all over the place. Then, seal all the slides with clear nail polish.Observe under a fluorescence or confocal microscope. If the sample is not going to be observed on the same day, then store from the light at four degrees. Representative results of HB1 monostaining in Drosophila salivary glands are shown in figure one.A positive result is to observe one focal point like in A, athero chromatic aggregate or condensate. A negative result is no signal or a dispersed signal. Sometimes, a double signal can be observed like a double point in C, but usually occurs in smaller quantities.To analyze the data they can be represent as a bar graph, comparing the distribution of HP1 with different mutant backgrounds. For example, in figure two, we can see that 98%of nuclei present a distribution of one point. And 2%of two foci in wild type.In the mutant, the proportion changed, and the presence of two foci increased to 40%Figure three shows representative trimethylation lysine 9H3 in monostaining. Result in Drosophila salivary glands observing one focal point in B, it's a favorable result at the chromatic aggregate or condensate, a double or triple signal in C can seen on rare occasion, but in a small quantities. At the end of this protocol, you will be able to see a diachromatic condensates of HP1 protein despite state limitations, it will be a good first approach.

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Research

JoVE Journal

Biology

Dissection of Midgut and Salivary Glands from Ae. aegypti Mosquitoes

The mosquito midgut and salivary glands are key entry and exit points for pathogens such as Plasmodium parasites and Dengue viruses. This video protocol demonstrates dissection techniques for removal of the midgut and salivary glands from Aedes aegypti mosquitoes. 



The mosquito midgut and salivary glands are key entry and exit points for vector pathogens like Plasmodium falciparum and the dengue virus. This video demonstrates the dissection techniques for removing the midgut and salivary glands from Aedes aegypti mosquitoes.

The mosquito midgut and salivary glands are key entry and exit points for pathogens such as Plasmodium parasites and Dengue viruses. This video protocol ...

Staining Proteins in Gels

Following separation by electrophoretic methods, proteins in a gel can be detected by several staining methods. This unit describes protocols for detecting proteins by four popular methods. Coomassie blue staining is an easy and rapid method. Silver staining, while more time consuming, is considerably more sensitive and can thus be used to detect smaller amounts of protein. Fluorescent staining is a popular alternative to traditional staining procedures, mainly because it is more sensitive than Coomassie staining, and is often as sensitive as silver staining. Staining of proteins with SYPRO Orange and SYPRO Ruby are also demonstrated here.

Following separation by electrophoretic methods, proteins in a gel can be detected by several staining methods. Staining of proteins with Coomassie Blue, Silver Staining, SYPRO Orange, SYPRO Ruby are demonstrated in this video.

Following separation by electrophoretic methods, proteins in a gel can be detected by several staining methods. This unit describes protocols for ...

Fast and Sensitive Colloidal Coomassie G-250 Staining for Proteins in Polyacrylamide Gels

Coomassie Brilliant Blue (CBB) is a dye commonly used for the visualization of proteins separated by SDS-PAGE, offering a simple staining procedure and high quantitation. Furthermore, it is completely compatible with mass spectrometric protein identification. But despite these advantages, CBB is regarded to be less sensitive than silver or fluorescence stainings and therefore rarely used for the detection of proteins in analytical gel-based proteomic approaches.
Several improvements of the original Coomassie protocol1 have been made to increase the sensitivity of CBB. Two major modifications were introduced to enhance the detection of low-abundant proteins by converting the dye molecules into colloidal particles: In 1988, Neuhoff and colleagues applied 20% methanol and higher concentrations of ammonium sulfate into the CBB G-250 based staining solution2, and in 2004 Candiano et al. established Blue Silver using CBB G-250 with phosphoric acid in the presence of ammonium sulfate and methanol3. Nevertheless, all these modifications just allow a detection of approximately 10 ng protein. A widely fameless protocol for colloidal Coomassie staining was published by Kang et al. in 2002 where they modified Neuhoff's colloidal CBB staining protocol regarding the complexing substances. Instead of ammonium sulfate they used aluminum sulfate and methanol was replaced by the less toxic ethanol4. The novel aluminum-based staining in Kang's study showed superior sensitivity that detects as low as 1 ng/band (phosphorylase b) with little sensitivity variation depending on proteins.
Here, we demonstrate application of Kang's protocol for fast and sensitive colloidal Coomassie staining of proteins in analytical purposes. We will illustrate the quick and easy protocol using two-dimensional gels routinely performed in our working group.

This video shall popularize a colloidal Coomassie G-250 staining protocol according to Kang et al. for the detection of average 4 ng protein in gels. The staining is completed within 2 hours and without any effort. We routinely use Kang's protocol for analytical purposes in gel-based proteomics.

Coomassie Brilliant Blue (CBB) is a dye commonly used for the visualization of proteins separated by SDS-PAGE, offering a simple staining procedure and ...

A Novel RFP Reporter to Aid in the Visualization of the Eye Imaginal Disc in Drosophila

The Drosophila eye is a powerful model system for studying areas such as neurogenesis, signal transduction and neurodegeneration. Many of the discoveries made using this system have taken advantage of the spatiotemporal nature of photoreceptor differentiation in the developing eye imaginal disc. To use this system it is first necessary for the researcher to learn to identify and dissect the eye disc. We describe a novel RFP reporter to aid in the identification of the eye disc and the visualization of specific cell types in the developing eye. We detail a methodology for dissection of the eye imaginal disc from third instar larvae and describe how the eye-RFP reporter can aid in this dissection. This eye-RFP reporter is only expressed in the eye and can be visualized using fluorescence microscopy either in live tissue or after fixation without the need for signal amplification. We also show how this reporter can be used to identify specific cells types within the eye disc. This protocol and the use of the eye-RFP reporter will aid researchers using the Drosophila eye to address fundamentally important biological questions.

A Novel RFP Reporter to Aid in the Visualization of the Eye Imaginal Disc in Drosophila

We describe a novel red fluorescent protein (RFP) reporter that is expressed specifically in the Drosophila eye. We detail a methodology for dissection of the eye imaginal disc and how this reporter can be used to aid in the dissection and identification of specific cell types in the developing eye.

The Drosophila eye is a powerful model system for studying areas such as neurogenesis, signal transduction and neurodegeneration. Many of the discoveries ...

Dissection and Staining of Drosophila Larval Ovaries

Many organs depend on stem cells for their development during embryogenesis and for maintenance or repair during adult life. Understanding how stem cells form, and how they interact with their environment is therefore crucial for understanding development, homeostasis and disease. The ovary of the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster has served as an influential model for the interaction of germ line stem cells (GSCs) with their somatic support cells (niche) 1, 2. The known location of the niche and the GSCs, coupled to the ability to genetically manipulate them, has allowed researchers to elucidate a variety of interactions between stem cells and their niches 3-12.
Despite the wealth of information about mechanisms controlling GSC maintenance and differentiation, relatively little is known about how GSCs and their somatic niches form during development. About 18 somatic niches, whose cellular components include terminal filament and cap cells (Figure 1), form during the third larval instar 13-17. GSCs originate from primordial germ cells (PGCs). PGCs proliferate at early larval stages, but following the formation of the niche a subgroup of PGCs becomes GSCs 7, 16, 18, 19. Together, the somatic niche cells and the GSCs make a functional unit that produces eggs throughout the lifetime of the organism.
Many questions regarding the formation of the GSC unit remain unanswered. Processes such as coordination between precursor cells for niches and stem cell precursors, or the generation of asymmetry within PGCs as they become GSCs, can best be studied in the larva. However, a methodical study of larval ovary development is physically challenging. First, larval ovaries are small. Even at late larval stages they are only 100&mu;m across. In addition, the ovaries are transparent and are embedded in a white fat body. Here we describe a step-by-step protocol for isolating ovaries from late third instar (LL3) Drosophila larvae, followed by staining with fluorescent antibodies. We offer some technical solutions to problems such as locating the ovaries, staining and washing tissues that do not sink, and making sure that antibodies penetrate into the tissue. This protocol can be applied to earlier larval stages and to larval testes as well.

Dissection and Staining of Drosophila Larval Ovaries

How niches and stem cells form during development is an important question with practical implications. In the Drosophila ovary, germ line stem cells and their somatic niches form during larval development. This video demonstrates how to dissect, stain and mount female gonads from late third instar (LL3) Drosophila larvae.

Many organs depend on stem cells for their development during embryogenesis and for maintenance or repair during adult life. Understanding how stem cells ...

Live Imaging of GFP-labeled Proteins in Drosophila Oocytes

The Drosophila oocyte has been established as a versatile system for investigating fundamental questions such as cytoskeletal function, cell organization, and organelle structure and function. The availability of various GFP-tagged proteins means that many cellular processes can be monitored in living cells over the course of minutes or hours, and using this technique, processes such as RNP transport, epithelial morphogenesis, and tissue remodeling have been described in great detail in Drosophila oocytes1,2.
The ability to perform video imaging combined with a rich repertoire of mutants allows an enormous variety of genes and processes to be examined in incredible detail. One such example is the process of ooplasmic streaming, which initiates at mid-oogenesis3,4. This vigorous movement of cytoplasmic vesicles is microtubule and kinesin-dependent5 and provides a useful system for investigating cytoskeleton function at these stages.
Here I present a protocol for time lapse imaging of living oocytes using virtually any confocal microscopy setup.

Live Imaging of GFP-labeled Proteins in Drosophila Oocytes

A protocol for live imaging of GFP-tagged proteins or autofluorescent structures in individual Drosophila oocytes is described.

The  Drosophila oocyte has been established as a versatile system for investigating  fundamental questions such as cytoskeletal function, cell ...

In Situ Immunofluorescent Staining of Autophagy in Muscle Stem Cells

Increasing evidence points to autophagy as a crucial regulatory process to preserve tissue homeostasis. It is known that autophagy is involved in skeletal muscle development and regeneration, and the autophagic process has been described in several muscular pathologies and age-related muscle disorders. A recently described block of the autophagic process that correlates with the functional exhaustion of satellite cells during muscle repair supports the notion that active autophagy is coupled with productive muscle regeneration. These data uncover the crucial role of autophagy in satellite cell activation during muscle regeneration in both normal and pathological conditions, such as muscular dystrophies. Here, we provide a protocol to monitor the autophagic process in the adult Muscle Stem Cell (MuSC) compartment during muscle regenerative conditions. This protocol describes the setup methodology to perform in situ immunofluorescence imaging of LC3, an autophagy marker, and MyoD, a myogenic lineage marker, in muscle tissue sections from control and injured mice. The methodology reported allows for monitoring the autophagic process in one specific cell compartment, the MuSC compartment, which plays a central role in orchestrating muscle regeneration.

In Situ Immunofluorescent Staining of Autophagy in Muscle Stem Cells

Active autophagy is associated with productive muscle regeneration, which is essential for Muscle Stem Cell (MuSC) activation. Here, we provide a protocol for the in situ detection of LC3, an autophagy marker in MyoD-positive MuSCs of muscle tissue sections from control and injured mice.

Increasing evidence points to autophagy as a crucial regulatory process to preserve tissue homeostasis. It is known that autophagy is involved in skeletal ...

Determination of Plasma Membrane Partitioning for Peripherally-associated Proteins

This method provides a fast approach for the determination of plasma membrane partitioning of any fluorescently-tagged peripherally-associated protein using the profiles of fluorescence intensity across the plasma membrane. Measured fluorescence profiles are fitted by a model for membrane and cytoplasm fluorescence distribution along a line applied perpendicularly to the cell periphery. This model is constructed from the fluorescence intensity values in reference cells expressing a fluorescently-tagged marker for cytoplasm and with FM 4-64-labeled plasma membrane. The method can be applied to various cell types and organisms; however, only plasma membranes of non-neighboring cells can be evaluated. This fast microscopy-based method is suitable for experiments, where subtle and dynamic changes of plasma membrane-associated markers are expected and need to be quantified, e.g., in the analysis of mutant versions of proteins, inhibitor treatments, and signal transduction observations. The method is implemented in a multi-platform R package that is coupled with an ImageJ macro that serves as a user-friendly interface.

Here, we present a protocol to perform a quantitative analysis of the level of plasma-membrane association for fluorescently-tagged peripherally-associated protein. The method is based on the computational decomposition of membrane and cytoplasmic component of signal observed in cells labeled with plasma membrane fluorescent marker.

This method provides a fast approach for the determination of plasma membrane partitioning of any fluorescently-tagged peripherally-associated protein ...

Visualization of 3D White Adipose Tissue Structure Using Whole-mount Staining

Adipose tissue is an important metabolic organ with high plasticity and is responsive to environmental stimuli and nutrient status. As such, various techniques have been developed to study the morphology and biology of adipose tissue. However, conventional visualization methods are limited to studying the tissue in 2D sections, failing to capture the 3D architecture of the whole organ. Here we present whole-mount staining, an immunohistochemistry method that preserves intact adipose tissue morphology with minimal processing steps. Hence, the structures of adipocytes and other cellular components are maintained without distortion, achieving the most representative 3D visualization of the tissue. In addition, whole-mount staining can be combined with lineage tracing methods to determine cell fate decisions. However, this technique has some limitations to providing accurate information regarding deeper parts of adipose tissue. To overcome this limitation, whole-mount staining can be further combined with tissue clearing techniques to remove the opaqueness of tissue and allow for complete visualization of entire adipose tissue anatomy using light-sheet fluorescent microscopy. Therefore, a higher resolution and more accurate representation of adipose tissue structures can be captured with the combination of these techniques.

The focus of the present study is to demonstrate the whole-mount immunostaining and visualization technique as an ideal method for 3D imaging of adipose tissue architecture and cellular component.

Adipose tissue is an important metabolic organ with high plasticity and is responsive to environmental stimuli and nutrient status. As such, various ...

Dissection and Lipid Droplet Staining of Oenocytes in Drosophila Larvae

Lipids are essential for animal development and physiological homeostasis. Dysregulation of lipid metabolism results in various developmental defects and diseases, such as obesity and fatty liver. Usually, lipids are stored in lipid droplets, which are the multifunctional lipid storage organelles in cells. Lipid droplets vary in size and number in different tissues and under different conditions. It has been reported that lipid droplets are tightly controlled through regulation of its biogenesis and degradation. In Drosophila melanogaster, the oenocyte is an important tissue for lipid metabolism and has been recently identified as a human liver analogue regarding lipid mobilization in response to stress. However, the mechanisms underlying the regulation of lipid droplet metabolism in oenocytes remain elusive. To solve this problem, it is of utmost importance to develop a reliable and sensitive method to directly visualize lipid droplet dynamic changes in oenocytes during development and under stressful conditions. Taking advantage of the lipophilic BODIPY 493/503, a lipid droplet-specific fluorescent dye, described here is a detailed protocol for the dissection and subsequent lipid droplet staining in the oenocytes of Drosophila larvae in response to starvation. This allows for qualitative analysis of lipid droplet dynamics under various conditions by confocal microscopy. Furthermore, this rapid and highly reproducible method can also be used in genetic screens for indentifying novel genetic factors involving lipid droplet metabolism in oenocytes and other tissues.

Dissection and Lipid Droplet Staining of Oenocytes in Drosophila Larvae

Presented here are detailed methods for the dissection and lipid droplet staining of oenocytes in Drosophila larvae using BODIPY 493/503, a lipid droplet-specific fluorescent dye.

Lipids are essential for animal development and physiological homeostasis. Dysregulation of lipid metabolism results in various developmental defects and ...