This work was supported by intramural NIH/NIDDK grant ZIA DK 0251041-14 to Alan N Schechter, MD.

Animal protocol was approved by NIDDK Animal Care and Use Committee (ASP K049-MMB-20). Animals were handled and treated according the current Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals freely available on AAALAC website.
1. Rat skeletal muscle collection
<ol>
	<li>While a rat is under deep anesthesia (5% isoflurane, confirmed by absent reaction to tail/leg pinch), start perfusion with saline containing heparin by placing a 19 G needle into an apex of the left ventricle and making a nick on the right atrium. Allow saline with heparin to perfuse through the internal organs until at least 1.5 liter/kg have flowed through the tissue. At this point, animals are dead from exsanguination and carcasses are ready to be processed for sample collection. 
	NOTE: Achieving good perfusion is critical, especially for accurate measurements of nitrite, because nitrite is oxidized into nitrate by any remaining hemoglobin.</li>
	<li>Identify target muscle tissues and excise them from the hind legs22 using clean surgical instruments. Remove as much fat and connective tissues from the muscle tissues as possible.</li>
	<li>Place the desired amount of muscle into a microcentrifuge tube and then place on dry ice. Store the tubes filled with tissue in the -80 &#176;C freezer. 
	&#8203;NOTE: In case of human biopsy samples, thoroughly blot them immediately upon collection with clean gauze to remove excess blood.</li>
</ol>
2. Preparation for homogenization
<ol>
	<li>Preparation of nitrite-preserving solution (stop solution)
	<ol>
		<li>Prepare a clear yellow solution containing 890 mM potassium ferricyanide (K3Fe(CN)6) and 118 mM NEM (N-ethylmaleimide) in distilled water, ensuring no crystals. Add non-ionic surfactant (detergent) in a 1:9 ratio (v/v, Table of Materials), and mix gently to avoid foaming.</li>
		<li>Dilute the stop solution in a 1:9 ratio with distilled water. Place the diluted stop solution (1:5 ratio of muscle tissue to diluted stop solution) in the homogenization tube. 
		NOTE: Twenty milligrams of tissue will require 100 &#956;L of stop solution, and 200 mg of tissue will require 1000 &#956;L of stop solution in the tube. Presence of detergent in added solution is critical for disruption of cell membranes. Any non-ionic detergent can be used, but care must be taken to verify that it does not interfere with chemiluminescence method.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Tissue preparation
	<ol>
		<li>Take the tissue out of the -80 &#176;C freezer and slowly thaw in ice. Remove the remaining fat and connective tissue from the skeletal muscle. Cut off pieces of skeletal muscle and blot on gauze to dry.</li>
		<li>Weigh out the amount of tissue (20, 50, and 200 mg). Place the pre-weighed skeletal muscle in the stop-solution in the homogenization tubes or place the pre-weighed tissue in a clean microcentrifuge tube for later use.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
3. Homogenization
<ol>
	<li>Rotary homogenizer (Figure 1)
	<ol>
		<li>Place the M-type tube containing the pre-weighed skeletal muscle and pre-measured stop solution into the machine. Homogenize each sample twice (setting on the most destructive homogenization cycle) and place the tube on ice immediately after each homogenization for 5 min to cool down.</li>
		<li>Centrifuge briefly at 2,000 &#215; g and 4 &#176;C for 5 min. Place the full tube back on ice and add the appropriate volume of methanol (&#8805; 99.9 %, 10x of tissue weight). Vortex thoroughly for 15 s. 
		&#8203;NOTE: For 20 mg of tissue, use 200 &#956;L of methanol. Methanol is used to precipitate proteins from tissue homogenate and does not interfere with chemiluminescence method. If other protein precipitation method is used, test its compatibility with chemiluminescence.</li>
		<li>Homogenize once more and incubate on ice for 30 min. Centrifuge the samples for 35 min at 4 &#176;C and 3,500 &#215; g. Aspirate the supernatant, and measure nitrite/nitrate levels, or store at -80 &#176;C for later use.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Bead homogenizer (Figure 2)
	<ol>
		<li>Place the skeletal muscle tissue in a bead-containing tube (1:5 ratio for tissue:diluted stop solution) and homogenize twice for 45 s at the highest speedavailable on the instrument used. Place the tube on ice immediately after each homogenization for 5 min to cool down.</li>
		<li>Briefly centrifuge using a small desktop centrifuge (2,000 x g) for 5 sec. Place the tube back on ice and add an appropriate volume of methanol (purity &#8805; 99.9 %, 10x of tissue weight). Vortex thoroughly for 15 s. 
		NOTE 1: For 20 mg of tissue, use 200 &#956;L of methanol. 
		NOTE 2: Methanol is used to precipitate proteins from tissue homogenate and does not interfere with chemiluminescence method. If other protein precipitation method is used, test its compatibility with chemiluminescence.</li>
		<li>Homogenize once more for 45 s at the highest speed available on the instrument used. Incubate on ice for 30 min. Centrifuge at 17,000 x g, 4 &#176;C, 30 min. Aspirate the supernatant, and measure nitrite/nitrate levels, or store at -80 &#176;C for later use.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Pulverizer (Figure 3)
	<ol>
		<li>Prepare tubes containing diluted stop solution (5x of tissue weight) and weigh them. Record the weight (tube + stop solution).</li>
		<li>Place the liquid nitrogen pulverizer tool on dry ice and wait for approximately 30 min for it to reach the desired temperature.</li>
		<li>Using tweezers chilled in liquid nitrogen, transfer one sample (tissue weight measured already) to the pulverizer. Add a small spoonful of liquid nitrogen to ensure the tissue is at liquid nitrogen temperature.</li>
		<li>After 95% of the liquid nitrogen has vaporized, place the crushing tool on top of the tissue, and press firmly. You should feel the sample crush. Using the mallet, strike the crushing tool 3-5x.</li>
		<li>Check the sample for any remaining chunks using a spoon cooled in liquid nitrogen. After cooling in liquid nitrogen, use a piece of tissue paper to wipe away any frozen water before touching the tissue. If a chunk is present, move it into the center, and then strike 5-6 more times with the mallet.</li>
		<li>When the whole sample has been pulverized, use the liquid nitrogen-cooled spoon to directly transfer the crushed tissue into the pre-weighed tube containing the diluted stop solution (step 3.3.1). Be sure to perform this step quickly as when the crushed skeletal muscle heats up, it gets sticky and difficult to transfer.</li>
		<li>Vortex for 15 s. Check that no tissue is stuck at the top of the tube by opening the tube. If there is, try to dislodge it and then vortex again.</li>
		<li>Centrifuge the sample for 2-3 s using a small desktop centrifuge. Weigh the tube again. Calculate the tissue weight by deducting the original tube weight (step 3.3.1) from this new weight. Place the tube on ice. 
		NOTE: The exact weights will help determine the exact tissue weight and how much tissue was lost during pulverization.</li>
		<li>Once all samples have been processed up to step 3.3.8, add an appropriate volume of methanol (&#8805; 99.9 %, 10x of tissue weight). Vortex thoroughly for 15 s, and incubate on ice for 30 min. 
		NOTE: For 20 mg of tissue, use 200 &#956;L of methanol. Methanol is used to precipitate proteins from tissue homogenate and does not interfere with chemiluminescence method. If other protein precipitation method is used, test its compatibility with chemiluminescence.</li>
		<li>Centrifuge at 17,000 &#215; g, 4 &#176;C, 30 min. Aspirate the supernatant and measure nitrite/nitrate levels, or store at -80 &#176;C for later use.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
4. Nitrite/nitrate measurement with nitric oxide analyzer (NOA)
<ol>
	<li>Prepare all samples by either of three different homogenization methods described above and inject them into an NOA for nitrate and nitrite measurement. 
	NOTE: Detailed protocols for NOA use were published previously19.</li>
</ol>

<ol>
	<li>Ignarro, L. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Nitric+oxide+as+a+unique+signaling+molecule+in+the+vascular+system:+a+historical+overview.">Nitric oxide as a unique signaling molecule in the vascular system: a historical overview.</a> Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology. 53 (4), 503-514 (2002).</li><li>Moncada, S., Higgs, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+L-arginine-nitric+oxide+pathway.">The L-arginine-nitric oxide pathway.</a> New England Journal of Medicine. 329 (27), 2002-2012 (1993).</li><li>Thomas, D. D., Liu, X., Kantrow, S. P., Lancaster, J. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+biological+lifetime+of+nitric+oxide:+implications+for+the+perivascular+dynamics+of+NO+and+O2.">The biological lifetime of nitric oxide: implications for the perivascular dynamics of NO and O2.</a> Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 98 (1), 355-360 (2001).</li><li>Lundberg, J. O., Weitzberg, E., Gladwin, M. T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+nitrate-nitrite-nitric+oxide+pathway+in+physiology+and+therapeutics.">The nitrate-nitrite-nitric oxide pathway in physiology and therapeutics.</a> Nature Reviews Drug Discovery. 7 (2), 156-167 (2008).</li><li>Govoni, M., Jansson, E. A., Weitzberg, E., Lundberg, J. O. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+increase+in+plasma+nitrite+after+a+dietary+nitrate+load+is+markedly+attenuated+by+an+antibacterial+mouthwash.">The increase in plasma nitrite after a dietary nitrate load is markedly attenuated by an antibacterial mouthwash.</a> Nitric Oxide. 19 (4), 333-337 (2008).</li><li>Jansson, E. A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+mammalian+functional+nitrate+reductase+that+regulates+nitrite+and+nitric+oxide+homeostasis.">A mammalian functional nitrate reductase that regulates nitrite and nitric oxide homeostasis.</a> Nature Chemical Biology. 4 (7), 411-417 (2008).</li><li>Piknova, B., Park, J. W., Kwan Jeff Lam, K., Schechter, A. 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O., Weitzberg, E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Effects+of+dietary+nitrate+on+blood+pressure+in+healthy+volunteers.">Effects of dietary nitrate on blood pressure in healthy volunteers.</a> New England Journal of Medicine. 355 (26), 2792-2793 (2006).</li><li>Kapil, V., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Inorganic+nitrate+supplementation+lowers+blood+pressure+in+humans:+role+for+nitrite-derived+NO.">Inorganic nitrate supplementation lowers blood pressure in humans: role for nitrite-derived NO.</a> Hypertension. 56 (2), 274-281 (2010).</li><li>Jones, A. 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J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Human+skeletal+muscle+nitrate+store:+influence+of+dietary+nitrate+supplementation+and+exercise.">Human skeletal muscle nitrate store: influence of dietary nitrate supplementation and exercise.</a> Journal of Physiology. 597 (23), 5565-5576 (2019).</li><li>Piknova, B., Schechter, A. N. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Measurement+of+nitrite+in+blood+samples+using+the+ferricyanide-based+hemoglobin+oxidation+assay.">Measurement of nitrite in blood samples using the ferricyanide-based hemoglobin oxidation assay.</a> Methods in Molecular Biology. 704, 39-56 (2011).</li><li>Piknova, B., Park, J. W., Cassel, K. S., Gilliard, C. N., Schechter, A. 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The authors declare they have no conflicts of interest. Alan N. Schechter is listed as a co-inventor on several patents issued to the National Institutes of Health for the use of nitrite salts for the treatment of cardiovascular diseases. He receives royalties based on NIH licensing of these patents for clinical development but no other compensation. These arrangements do not affect his adherence to JoVE journal policies.

To monitor changes in the NO metabolites, nitrate and nitrite, as a function of physiological interventions, it is imperative to measure the levels of these ions in the different organs that are critical in their metabolism. As hemoglobin in blood will react with NO and its metabolites, it is also important to remove blood quickly from tissue samples as much as possible. Thus animals were perfused with saline before collecting skeletal muscle tissues (gluteus, TA, EDL, gastrocnemius muscle), and connective tissue and fat...

Nitric oxide (NO), a small gaseous signaling molecule, plays a critical role in physiological and pathophysiological processes1. NO can be produced from L-arginine by endogenous enzymes of the nitric oxide synthase (NOS) family before undergoing rapid oxidation to nitrate (NO3-) and, possibly, nitrite (NO2-) in blood and tissues2,3. Recently, these anions have been shown to be reduced back to NO in mammalian systems4. Nitrate is converted to nitrite, mainly by commensal bacterial nitrate reductases in the oral cavity acting on ions secreted by the salivary glands and directly ingested 5, and to some extent, by mammalian enzymes such as xanthine oxidoreductase6,7. Nitrite can be further reduced to NO by several mechanisms including deoxyhemoglobin8, deoxymyoglobin9, molybdenum-containing enzymes10, and non-enzymatic reduction in the presence of protons11,12.
This nitrate-nitrite-NO pathway is enhanced under hypoxic conditions wherein NOS activity is diminished because NOS requires oxygen for NO generation4. Many recent studies have reported beneficial effects of dietary nitrate on blood pressure regulation and exercise performance, suggesting that nitrate reduction pathways contribute to the augmentation of NO signaling13,14,15. Previous studies have shown that some skeletal muscles are likely the major nitrate storage places in the body16. Compared to blood or other internal organs such as liver, skeletal muscle (gluteus maximus) contains significantly higher levels of nitrate and has a substantial mass in the mammalian body. Treadmill exercise was shown to enhance nitrate reduction to nitrite and to NO in gluteus in a rat model7. These results imply that some skeletal muscles could be important sources for NO through nitrate reduction pathways in physiological situations. More recent studies suggest that these findings, including changes in muscle nitrate levels during exercise, also occurs in humans17.
Two of the current authors had previously established a method to measure nitrate and nitrite levels in blood and other liquid samples18. However, when the levels of these anions in tissue homogenates were initially analyzed, detailed protocols were not available. To understand the nitrate-nitrite-NO dynamics in several different organs, our goal was to develop an accurate and efficient method to measure nitrate and nitrite levels in mammalian tissues including skeletal muscle. In earlier studies, rodent tissues were used to develop reliable homogenization processes and then analyze nitrate and nitrite contents in those homogenates7,16,19. The usage of this homogenization method was extended to human skeletal muscle biopsy samples, whereby the values were confirmed, and importantly, the values observed for muscle compared to blood/plasma were in similar ranges and ratios to those observed in rodents17. In recent years, other groups also started measuring nitrate and nitrite levels in skeletal muscle homogenates, reporting comparable values to the ones reported by our group20,21.
The aim of this protocol paper is to describe in detail the preparation of skeletal muscle homogenates using three different homogenization methods for subsequent measurement of nitrate and nitrite levels. Additionally, the effects of tissue weight used for homogenization on values of nitrate and nitrite in skeletal muscle samples were examined. We believe that these methods can be easily applied to other types of mammalian tissues. Recently, especially in the field of exercise physiology, attention had been paid to the possible differences in nitrate/nitrite/NO physiology according to muscle groups. We also report the amounts of nitrate and nitrite in four different rodent muscles and find a nonuniform distribution of both ions among these different muscles; an observation which requires further study.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>gentleMACS dissociator</td>
			<td>Miltenyi Biotec</td>
			<td>130-093-235</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>gentle MACS M tube</td>
			<td>Miltenyi Biotec</td>
			<td>130-093-236</td>
			<td>Length: 87 mm; Diameter: 30 mm</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Heparin Sodium</td>
			<td>Hospira</td>
			<td>NDC-0409-7620-13</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Isoflurane</td>
			<td>Baxter</td>
			<td>NDC-10019-360-60</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Methanol</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>646377</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Minilys bead homogenizer</td>
			<td>Bertin Instruments</td>
			<td>P000673-MLYS0-A</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NEM; N-ethylmaleimide</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>4260</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Nitric Oxide analyzer</td>
			<td>GE</td>
			<td>Sievers NOA 280i</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NP-40; 4-Nonylphenylpolyethylene glycol</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>74385</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Potassium ferricyanide; K3Fe(CN)6</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>702587</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Precellys lysing kit</td>
			<td>Bertin Instruments</td>
			<td>P000911-LYSK0-A</td>
			<td>contains 2 mL tubes with 2.8 mm ceramic (zirconium oxide) beads for homogenization</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Pulverizer kit</td>
			<td>Cellcrusher</td>
			<td>Cellcrusher kit</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

preparation of rat skeletal muscle homogenates for nitrate and nitrite measurements

Nitrate ions (NO3-) were once thought to be inert end products of nitric oxide (NO) metabolism. However, previous studies demonstrated that nitrate ions can be converted back to NO in mammals through a two-step reduction mechanism: nitrate being reduced to nitrite (NO2-) mostly by oral commensal bacteria, then nitrite being reduced to NO by several mechanisms including via heme- or molybdenum-containing proteins. This reductive nitrate pathway contributes to enhancing NO-mediated signaling pathways, particularly in the cardiovascular system and during muscular exercise. The levels of nitrate in the body before such utilization are determined by two different sources: endogenous NO oxidation and dietary nitrate intake, principally from plants. To elucidate the complex NO cycle in physiological circumstances, we have examined further the dynamics of its metabolites, nitrate and nitrite ions, which are relatively stable compared to NO. In previous studies skeletal muscle was identified as a major storage organ for nitrate ions in mammals, as well as a direct source of NO during exercise. Therefore, establishing a reliable methodology to measure nitrate and nitrite levels in skeletal muscle is important and should be helpful in extending its application to other tissue samples. This paper explains in detail the preparation of skeletal muscle samples, using three different homogenization methods, for nitrate and nitrite measurements and discusses important issues related to homogenization processes, including the size of the samples. Nitrate and nitrite concentrations have also been compared across four different muscle groups.

To obtain representative results, skeletal muscle tissues from 8 Wistar rats (males and females, weight 250 &#177; 50 g) were used. Rat skeletal muscle homogenates (50 mg of gluteus maximus muscle for each method) were prepared by three different homogenization tools (rotary homogenizer, bead homogenizer, and pulverizer). The nitrate and nitrite contents of these homogenates were then determined using a nitric oxide analyzer (NOA) (Figure 4). Nitrate levels (Figure 4A</s...

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Preparation of Rat Skeletal Muscle Homogenates for Nitrate and Nitrite Measurements

We present protocols for three different methods for the homogenization of four different muscle groups of rat skeletal muscle tissue to measure and compare the levels of nitrate and nitrite. Furthermore, we compare different sample weights to investigate whether tissue sample size affects the results of homogenization.

Nitrate ions (NO3-) were once thought to be inert end products of nitric oxide (NO) metabolism. However, previous studies demonstrated that nitrate ions ...

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2.1K Views.  National Institutes of Health. We present protocols for three different methods for the homogenization of four different muscle groups of rat skeletal muscle tissue to measure and compare the levels of nitrate and nitrite. Furthermore, we compare different sample weights to investigate whether tissue sample size affects the results of homogenization. 

Video: Preparation of Rat Skeletal Muscle Homogenates for Nitrate and Nitrite Measurements

Adult and Embryonic Skeletal Muscle Microexplant Culture and Isolation of Skeletal Muscle Stem Cells

Cultured embryonic and adult skeletal muscle cells have a number of different uses. The micro-dissected explants technique described in this chapter is a robust and reliable method for isolating relatively large numbers of proliferative skeletal muscle cells from juvenile, adult or embryonic muscles as a source of skeletal muscle stem cells. The authors have used micro-dissected explant cultures to analyse the growth characteristics of skeletal muscle cells in wild-type and dystrophic muscles. Each of the components of tissue growth, namely cell survival, proliferation, senescence and differentiation can be analysed separately using the methods described here. The net effect of all components of growth can be established by means of measuring explant outgrowth rates. The micro-explant method can be used to establish primary cultures from a wide range of different muscle types and ages and, as described here, has been adapted by the authors to enable the isolation of embryonic skeletal muscle precursors.
Uniquely, micro-explant cultures have been used to derive clonal (single cell origin) skeletal muscle stem cell (SMSc) lines which can be expanded and used for in vivo transplantation. In vivo transplanted SMSc behave as functional, tissue-specific, satellite cells which contribute to skeletal muscle fibre regeneration but which are also retained (in the satellite cell niche) as a small pool of undifferentiated stem cells which can be re-isolated into culture using the micro-explant method.

The micro-dissected explants technique is a robust and reliable method for isolating proliferative skeletal muscle cells from juvenile, adult or embryonic muscles as a source of skeletal muscle stem cells. Uniquely, these cells have been clonally derived to produce skeletal muscle stem cell lines used for in vivo transplantation.

Cultured embryonic and adult skeletal muscle cells have a number of different uses. The micro-dissected explants technique described in this chapter is a ...

Procedures for Rat in situ Skeletal Muscle Contractile Properties

There are many circumstances where it is desirable to obtain the contractile response of skeletal muscle under physiological circumstances: normal circulation, intact whole muscle, at body temperature. This includes the study of contractile responses like posttetanic potentiation, staircase and fatigue. Furthermore, the consequences of disease, disuse, injury, training and drug treatment can be of interest. This video demonstrates appropriate procedures to set up and use this valuable muscle preparation.
To set up this preparation, the animal must be anesthetized, and the medial gastrocnemius muscle is surgically isolated, with the origin intact. Care must be taken to maintain the blood and nerve supplies. A long section of the sciatic nerve is cleared of connective tissue, and severed proximally. All branches of the distal stump that do not innervate the medial gastrocnemius muscle are severed. The distal nerve stump is inserted into a cuff lined with stainless steel stimulating wires. The calcaneus is severed, leaving a small piece of bone still attached to the Achilles tendon. Sonometric crystals and/or electrodes for electromyography can be inserted. Immobilization by metal probes in the femur and tibia prevents movement of the muscle origin. The Achilles tendon is attached to the force transducer and the loosened skin is pulled up at the sides to form a container that is filled with warmed paraffin oil. The oil distributes heat evenly and minimizes evaporative heat loss. A heat lamp is directed on the muscle, and the muscle and rat are allowed to warm up to 37&deg;C. While it is warming, maximal voltage and optimal length can be determined. These are important initial conditions for any experiment on intact whole muscle. The experiment may include determination of standard contractile properties, like the force-frequency relationship, force-length relationship, and force-velocity relationship.
With care in surgical isolation, immobilization of the origin of the muscle and alignment of the muscle-tendon unit with the force transducer, and proper data analysis, high quality measurements can be obtained with this muscle preparation.

Procedures for Rat in situ Skeletal Muscle Contractile Properties

This video demonstrates the surgical preparation and procedures needed to study the contractile responses of the rat medial gastrocnemius muscle preparation in situ. This preparation allows measurement of skeletal muscle contractile properties under physiological conditions. The animal is anesthetized and the muscle is separated from surrounding tissue at its distal end. The Achilles tendon is attached to a force transducer, allowing measurement of the muscle&#x2019;s contractile response at 37 degrees C with an intact circulation.

There are many circumstances where it is desirable to obtain the contractile response of skeletal muscle under physiological circumstances: normal ...

Laser-inflicted Injury of Zebrafish Embryonic Skeletal Muscle

Various experimental approaches have been used in mouse to induce muscle injury with the aim to study muscle regeneration, including myotoxin injections (bupivacaine, cardiotoxin or notexin), muscle transplantations (denervation-devascularization induced regeneration), intensive exercise, but also murine muscular dystrophy models such as the mdx mouse (for a review of these approaches see 1). In zebrafish, genetic approaches include mutants that exhibit muscular dystrophy phenotypes (such as runzel2 or sapje3) and antisense oligonucleotide morpholinos that block the expression of dystrophy-associated genes4. Besides, chemical approaches are also possible, e.g. with Galanthamine, a chemical compound inhibiting acetylcholinesterase, thereby resulting in hypercontraction, which eventually leads to muscular dystrophy5. However, genetic and pharmacological approaches generally affect all muscles within an individual, whereas the extent of physically inflicted injuries are more easily controlled spatially and temporally1. Localized physical injury allows the assessment of contralateral muscle as an internal control. Indeed, we recently used laser-mediated cell ablation to study skeletal muscle regeneration in the zebrafish embryo6, while another group recently reported the use of a two-photon laser (822 nm) to damage very locally the plasma membrane of individual embryonic zebrafish muscle cells7.
Here, we report a method for using the micropoint laser (Andor Technology) for skeletal muscle cell injury in the zebrafish embryo. The micropoint laser is a high energy laser which is suitable for targeted cell ablation at a wavelength of 435 nm. The laser is connected to a microscope (in our setup, an optical microscope from Zeiss) in such a way that the microscope can be used at the same time for focusing the laser light onto the sample and for visualizing the effects of the wounding (brightfield or fluorescence). The parameters for controlling laser pulses include wavelength, intensity, and number of pulses.
Due to its transparency and external embryonic development, the zebrafish embryo is highly amenable for both laser-induced injury and for studying the subsequent recovery. Between 1 and 2 days post-fertilization, somitic skeletal muscle cells progressively undergo maturation from anterior to posterior due to the progression of somitogenesis from the trunk to the tail8, 9. At these stages, embryos spontaneously twitch and initiate swimming. The zebrafish has recently been recognized as an important vertebrate model organism for the study of tissue regeneration, as many types of tissues (cardiac, neuronal, vascular etc.) can be regenerated after injury in the adult zebrafish10, 11.

The method presented here comprises the precise injury of live zebrafish embryos with high-energy laser pulses and the subsequent analysis of these injuries and their recovery with time. We also show how genetically labeled single or groups of skeletal muscle cells can be tracked during and after laser light induced damage.

Various experimental approaches have been used in mouse to induce muscle injury with the aim to study muscle regeneration, including myotoxin injections ...

Isolation and Culture of Individual Myofibers and their Satellite Cells from Adult Skeletal Muscle

Muscle regeneration in the adult is performed by resident stem cells called satellite cells. Satellite cells are defined by their position between the basal lamina and the sarcolemma of each myofiber. Current knowledge of their behavior heavily relies on the use of the single myofiber isolation protocol. In 1985, Bischoff described a protocol to isolate single live fibers from the Flexor Digitorum Brevis (FDB) of adult rats with the goal to create an in vitro system in which the physical association between the myofiber and its stem cells is preserved 1. In 1995, Rosenblattmodified the Bischoff protocol such that myofibers are singly picked and handled separately after collagenase digestion instead of being isolated by gravity sedimentation 2, 3. The Rosenblatt or Bischoff protocol has since been adapted to different muscles, age or conditions 3-6. The single myofiber isolation technique is an indispensable tool due its unique advantages. First, in the single myofiber protocol, satellite cells are maintained beneath the basal lamina. This is a unique feature of the protocol as other techniques such as Fluorescence Activated Cell Sorting require chemical and mechanical tissue dissociation 7. Although the myofiber culture system cannot substitute for in vivo studies, it does offer an excellent platform to address relevant biological properties of muscle stem cells. Single myofibers can be cultured in standard plating conditions or in floating conditions. Satellite cells on floating myofibers are subjected to virtually no other influence than the myofiber environment. Substrate stiffness and coating have been shown to influence satellite cells' ability to regenerate muscles 8, 9 so being able to control each of these factors independently allows discrimination between niche-dependent and -independent responses. Different concentrations of serum have also been shown to have an effect on the transition from quiescence to activation. To preserve the quiescence state of its associated satellite cells, fibers should be kept in low serum medium 1-3. This is particularly useful when studying genes involved in the quiescence state. In serum rich medium, satellite cells quickly activate, proliferate, migrate and differentiate, thus mimicking the in vivo regenerative process 1-3. The system can be used to perform a variety of assays such as the testing of chemical inhibitors; ectopic expression of genes by virus delivery; oligonucleotide based gene knock-down or live imaging. This video article describes the protocol currently used in our laboratory to isolate single myofibers from the Extensor Digitorum Longus (EDL) muscle of adult mice (6-8 weeks old).

Isolation and culture of myofibers is the gold standard in vitro system to study the transition of satellite cells through quiescence, activation and differentiation. Importantly, the single myofiber culture system preserves the myofiber/stem cell association, which is an essential component of the muscle stem cell niche.

Muscle  regeneration in the adult is performed by resident stem cells called satellite  cells. Satellite cells are defined by  their position between the ...

Tissue Triage and Freezing for Models of Skeletal Muscle Disease

Skeletal muscle is a unique tissue because of its structure and function, which requires specific protocols for tissue collection to obtain optimal results from functional, cellular, molecular, and pathological evaluations. Due to the subtlety of some pathological abnormalities seen in congenital muscle disorders and the potential for fixation to interfere with the recognition of these features, pathological evaluation of frozen muscle is preferable to fixed muscle when evaluating skeletal muscle for congenital muscle disease. Additionally, the potential to produce severe freezing artifacts in muscle requires specific precautions when freezing skeletal muscle for histological examination that are not commonly used when freezing other tissues. This manuscript describes a protocol for rapid freezing of skeletal muscle using isopentane (2-methylbutane) cooled with liquid nitrogen to preserve optimal skeletal muscle morphology. This procedure is also effective for freezing tissue intended for genetic or protein expression studies. Furthermore, we have integrated our freezing protocol into a broader procedure that also describes preferred methods for the short term triage of tissue for (1) single fiber functional studies and (2) myoblast cell culture, with a focus on the minimum effort necessary to collect tissue and transport it to specialized research or reference labs to complete these studies. Overall, this manuscript provides an outline of how fresh tissue can be effectively distributed for a variety of phenotypic studies and thereby provides standard operating procedures (SOPs) for pathological studies related to congenital muscle disease.

The analysis of skeletal muscle tissues to determine structural, functional, and biochemical properties is greatly facilitated by appropriate preparation. This protocol describes appropriate methods to prepare skeletal muscle tissue for a broad range of phenotyping studies.

Skeletal muscle is a unique tissue because of its structure and function, which requires specific protocols for tissue collection to obtain optimal ...

Isolation of Mitochondria from Minimal Quantities of Mouse Skeletal Muscle for High Throughput Microplate Respiratory Measurements

Dysfunctional skeletal muscle mitochondria play a role in altered metabolism observed with aging, obesity and Type II diabetes. Mitochondrial respirometric assays from isolated mitochondrial preparations allow for the assessment of mitochondrial function, as well as determination of the mechanism(s) of action of drugs and proteins that modulate metabolism. Current isolation procedures often require large quantities of tissue to yield high quality mitochondria necessary for respirometric assays. The methods presented herein describe how high quality purified mitochondria (~ 450 &#181;g) can be isolated from minimal quantities (~75-100 mg) of mouse skeletal muscle for use in high throughput respiratory measurements. We determined that our isolation method yields 92.5&#177; 2.0% intact mitochondria by measuring citrate synthase activity spectrophotometrically. In addition, Western blot analysis in isolated mitochondria resulted in the faint expression of the cytosolic protein, GAPDH, and the robust expression of the mitochondrial protein, COXIV. The absence of a prominent GAPDH band in the isolated mitochondria is indicative of little contamination from non-mitochondrial sources during the isolation procedure. Most importantly, the measurement of O2 consumption rate with micro-plate based technology and determining the respiratory control ratio (RCR) for coupled respirometric assays shows highly coupled (RCR; &#62;6 for all assays) and functional mitochondria. In conclusion, the addition of a separate mincing step and significantly reducing motor driven homogenization speed of a previously reported method has allowed the isolation of high quality and purified mitochondria from smaller quantities of mouse skeletal muscle that results in highly coupled mitochondria that respire with high function during microplate based respirometirc assays.

Here, we present a modification of a previously reported method that allows for the isolation of high quality and purified mitochondria from smaller quantities of mouse skeletal muscle. This procedure results in highly coupled mitochondria that respire with high function during microplate based respirometirc assays.

Dysfunctional skeletal muscle mitochondria play a role in altered metabolism observed with aging, obesity and Type II diabetes. Mitochondrial ...

Measuring Nitrite and Nitrate, Metabolites in the Nitric Oxide Pathway, in Biological Materials using the Chemiluminescence Method

Nitric oxide (NO) is one of the main regulator molecules in vascular homeostasis and also a neurotransmitter. Enzymatically produced NO is oxidized into nitrite and nitrate by interactions with various oxy-heme proteins and other still not well known pathways. The reverse process, reduction of nitrite and nitrate into NO had been discovered in mammals in the last decade and it is gaining attention as one of the possible pathways to either prevent or ease a whole range of cardiovascular, metabolic and muscular disorders that are thought to be associated with decreased levels of NO. It is therefore important to estimate the amount of NO and its metabolites in different body compartments &#8212; blood, body fluids and the various tissues. Blood, due to its easy accessibility, is the preferred compartment used for estimation of NO metabolites. Due to its short lifetime (few milliseconds) and low sub-nanomolar concentration, direct reliable measurements of blood NO in vivo present great technical difficulties. Thus NO availability is usually estimated based on the amount of its oxidation products, nitrite and nitrate. These two metabolites are always measured separately. There are several well established methods to determine their concentrations in biological fluids and tissues. Here we present a protocol for chemiluminescence method (CL), based on spectrophotometrical detection of NO after nitrite or nitrate reduction by tri-iodide or vanadium(III) chloride solutions, respectively. The sensitivity for nitrite and nitrate detection is in low nanomolar range, which sets CL as the most sensitive method currently available to determine changes in NO metabolic pathways. We explain in detail how to prepare samples from biological fluids and tissues in order to preserve original amounts of nitrite and nitrate present at the time of collection and how to determine their respective amounts in samples. Limitations of the CL technique are also explained.

Nitric oxide (NO) is an important signaling molecule in vascular homeostasis. NO production in vivo is too low for direct measurement. Chemiluminescence provides useful insight into NO cycle via measuring its precursors and oxidation products, nitrite and nitrate. Nitrite / nitrate determination in body tissues and fluids is explained.

Nitric oxide (NO) is one of the main regulator molecules in vascular homeostasis and also a neurotransmitter. Enzymatically produced NO is oxidized into ...

Isolation of Intact Mitochondria from Skeletal Muscle by Differential Centrifugation for High-resolution Respirometry Measurements

Mitochondria are involved in cellular energy metabolism and use oxygen to produce energy in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Differential centrifugation at low- and high-speed is commonly used to isolate mitochondria from tissues and cultured cells. Crude mitochondrial fractions obtained by differential centrifugation are used for respirometry measurements. The differential centrifugation technique is based on the separation of organelles according to their size and sedimentation velocity. The isolation of mitochondria is performed immediately after tissue harvesting. The tissue is immersed in an ice-cold homogenization medium, minced using scissors and homogenized in a glass homogenizer with a loose-fitting pestle. The differential centrifugation technique is efficient, fast and inexpensive and the mitochondria obtained by differential centrifugation are pure enough for respirometry assays. Some of the limitations and disadvantages of isolated mitochondria, based on differential centrifugation, are that the mitochondria can be damaged during the homogenization and isolation procedure and that large amounts of the tissue biopsy or cultured cells are required for the mitochondrial isolation.

Here, a quadriceps muscle specimen is taken from an anaesthetized pig and mitochondria are isolated by differential centrifugation. Then, the respiratory rates of mitochondrial respiratory chain complexes I, II and IV are determined using high-resolution respirometry.

Mitochondria are involved in cellular energy metabolism and use oxygen to produce energy in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Differential ...

Identification, Isolation, and Characterization of Fibro-Adipogenic Progenitors (FAPs) and Myogenic Progenitors (MPs) in Skeletal Muscle in the Rat

Fibro-adipogenic Progenitors (FAPs) are resident interstitial cells in skeletal muscle that, together with myogenic progenitors (MPs), play a key role in muscle homeostasis, injury, and repair. Current protocols for FAPs identification and isolation use flow cytometry/fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS) and studies evaluating their function in vivo to date have been undertaken exclusively in mice. The larger inherent size of the rat allows for a more comprehensive analysis of FAPs in skeletal muscle injury models, especially in severely atrophic muscle or when investigators require substantial tissue mass to conduct multiple downstream assays. The rat additionally provides a larger selection of muscle functional assays that do not require animal sedation or sacrifice, thus minimizing morbidity and animal use by enabling serial assessments. The flow cytometry/FACS protocols optimized for mice are species specific, notably restricted by the characteristics of commercially available antibodies. They have not been optimized for separating FAPs from rat or highly fibrotic muscle. A flow cytometry/FACS protocol for the identification and isolation of FAPs and MPs from both healthy and denervated rat skeletal muscle was developed, relying on the differential expression of surface markers CD31, CD45, Sca-1, and VCAM-1. As rat-specific, flow cytometry-validated primary antibodies are severely limited, in-house conjugation of the antibody targeting Sca-1 was performed. Using this protocol, successful Sca-1 conjugation was confirmed, and flow cytometric identification of FAPs and MPs was validated by cell culture and immunostaining of FACS-isolated FAPs and MPs. Finally, we report a novel FAPs time-course in a prolonged (14 week) rat denervation model. This method provides the investigators the ability to study FAPs in a novel animal model.

Identification, Isolation, and Characterization of Fibro-Adipogenic Progenitors FAPs and Myogenic Progenitors MPs in Skeletal Muscle in the Rat

This protocol outlines a method to isolate Fibro-adipogenic progenitors (FAPs) and myogenic progenitors (MPs) from rat skeletal muscle. Utilization of the rat in muscle injury models provides increased tissue availability from atrophic muscle for the analysis and a larger repertoire of validated methods to assess muscle strength and gait in free-moving animals.

Fibro-adipogenic Progenitors (FAPs) are resident interstitial cells in skeletal muscle that, together with myogenic progenitors (MPs), play a key role in ...

Electroporation of Plasmid DNA into Mouse Skeletal Muscle

Transient gene expression modulation in murine skeletal muscle by plasmid electroporation is a useful tool for assessing normal and pathological physiology. Overexpression or knockdown of target genes enables investigators to manipulate individual molecular events and, thus, better understand the mechanisms that impact muscle mass, muscle metabolism, and contractility. In addition, electroporation of DNA plasmids that encode fluorescent tags allows investigators to measure changes in subcellular localization of proteins in skeletal muscle in vivo. A key functional assessment of skeletal muscle includes the measurement of muscle contractility. In this protocol, we demonstrate that whole muscle contractility studies are still possible after plasmid DNA injection, electroporation, and gene expression modulation. The goal of this instructional procedure is to demonstrate the step-by-step method of DNA plasmid electroporation into mouse skeletal muscle to facilitate uptake and expression in the myofibers of the tibialis anterior and extensor digitorum longus muscles, as well as to demonstrate that skeletal muscle contractility is not compromised by injection and electroporation.

Electroporation of plasmid DNA into skeletal muscle is a viable method to modulate gene expression without compromising muscle contractility in mice.