The authors would like to acknowledgeProf. Lyn-Mari Birkholtz and Dr. Janette Reader from the&#160;Department of Biochemistry, Genetics and Microbiology, Institute for Sustainable Malaria Control, at the University of Pretoria, for culturing and supplying the gametocyte culture. The parasite strain was obtained from the latter department (not part of this publication). The Department of Science and Innovation (DSI) and the National Research Foundation (NRF); South African Research Chairs Initiative (UID 64763 to LK and UID 84627 to LMB); the NRF Communities of Practice (UID 110666 to LMB and LK); and the South African Medical Research Council Strategic Health Innovation Partnerships (SHIP) are also acknowledged for funds from the DSI.

Refer to Figure 1 for an illustration of the protocol. Ethical clearance was obtained from the University of Pretoria Health Sciences Ethics Committee (506/2018) for the withdrawal and use of human blood.
1. Gametocyte culture
NOTE: Prior to setting up the SMFA, a gametocyte culture was prepared at the University of Pretoria (see Reader et al.22 for the complete protocol).
<ol>
	<li>Prepare a gametocyte culture that consists of stage V gametocytes from the NF54 parasite strain.</li>
	<li>Ensure that the gametocytemia of the culture is between 1.5% and 2.5%, with a 50% hematocrit in A+ male serum, to which fresh red blood cells are added.</li>
	<li>Separate the culture into different flasks and add 2 &#181;M of each compound for each respective treatment 48 h prior to conducting the SMFA. Leave the control group untreated.</li>
	<li>Assess the gametocyte culture shortly before conducting the SMFA to ensure the exflagellation of male gametes, with the presence of a 3:1 female:male ratio.</li>
</ol>
2. Artificial infection of mosquitoes through the SMFA
NOTE: Biosafety: infected mosquitoes should be housed in a biosafety level 2 (BSL2) facility with restricted access.
<ol>
	<li>Using a mouth aspirator, place 25 unfed female An. gambiae mosquitoes into a 350 mL feeding cup. Do the same for each treatment cup and label the cups clearly according to whether they are to be used as control or treatment groups. Choose the number of cups per treatment according to the number of technical replicates included. 
	NOTE: Colony mosquitoes between 5 and 7 days old are used in a typical transmission-blocking compound evaluation. Starving mosquitoes for 3-4 h or longer prior to blood feeding will facilitate the uptake of blood during SMFA.</li>
	<li>Connect the glass feeder system to the water bath and maintain the temperature at 37 &#176;C. 
	NOTE: The glass feeder consists of two arms, which are connected to the silicone tubing to which the water bath is connected (Figure 2). The hollow structure of the feeder allows water to circulate through and maintenance of the temperature of the blood.</li>
	<li>Prepare cow intestine (or synthetic membrane) by rinsing it in tap water and cut it into pieces that are fitted for each feeder. Cover each feeder and fasten the membrane with an elastic band. 
	NOTE: No ethical clearance was needed for the intestine, as it was bought from a local butchery, where it is sold to the public for food preparation.</li>
	<li>Place the infection cups underneath the feeders, with the membrane laying on top of the net of the cup.</li>
	<li>Add 1 mL of gametocyte-infected blood to the feeders of the control cups and gametocyte-infected blood with added compound to each corresponding compound feeder and cup.</li>
	<li>Leave the mosquitoes to feed for approximately 40 min with the feeders uncovered. 
	NOTE: Feedings take place under insectary conditions (25 &#176;C, 80% relative humidity) in the dark. The diameter of a feeder is approximately 13 mm.</li>
	<li>After feeding, remove the feeders from the cups, rinse the feeders, and treat the excess blood with hypochlorite.</li>
	<li>Remove the unfed mosquitoes from the cup by knocking all the mosquitoes down on ice (for 1-2 min) and separating the unfed mosquitoes from those that have taken a blood meal. Look for swollen and red abdomens (indicating blood) to distinguish the fed, fully engorged mosquitoes from the unfed ones (Figure 3).</li>
	<li>Place the infection cups in the biosafety chamber (Supplemental Figure S1) and provide each cup with a 10% sugar water pad, replacing the sugar water on alternate days for 8-10 days.</li>
</ol>
3. Preparation of infected mosquitoes
NOTE: This part of the protocol takes place within the BSL2 infection room. Only authorized, trained staff are permitted to enter the infection room where infected mosquitoes are housed. Mosquitoes are kept in modified cups that contain only one entry point, which automatically seals when the mouth aspirator is removed. These cups are placed inside a transparent, thermoplastic container to prevent escape. The container is located in the infection room behind a double-door system. All necessary protocols must be in place for accidental exposure to infected mosquitoes (Supplemental File S1). The protocols are country-specific and depend on the requirements of the institution.
<ol>
	<li>On days 8-10 post infection-feeding, knock the infected mosquitoes down by placing them on ice and transferring them to labeled tubes with 70% ethanol (keeping the mosquitoes of each control and treatment group separate).</li>
	<li>Ensure that all mosquitoes are dead before leaving the infection room.</li>
</ol>
4. Dissections of infected mosquitoes
NOTE: This part of the protocol is conducted in the laboratory.
<ol>
	<li>Transfer the mosquitoes to labeled Petri dishes lined with filter paper, keeping the control and test groups separate.</li>
	<li>Place a droplet of phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) on a microscope slide (marked according to the control/test group) and transfer an individual mosquito from the filter paper to the PBS.</li>
	<li>Remove the midgut from the immobilized, infected specimen by pinning the thorax of the mosquito with the dissecting needle whilst pulling the 7th abdominal segment with the forceps.</li>
	<li>With the gut being exposed and visible, look for the Malpighian tubules (Figure 4A,B) to distinguish the gut from the ovaries. Remove it from the PBS, transfer it to a droplet of 0.1% mercurochrome on a new microscope slide, and leave the gut to stain for 8-10 min.</li>
	<li>After staining, place a coverslip on the stained gut and view the gut under brightfield illumination at 20x-40x magnification (Figure 4C,D).</li>
	<li>Record the presence of and the number of oocysts per midgut for each control and treatment group (Supplemental File S2).</li>
	<li>Calculate the transmission-blocking activity using Equation (1): 
	%TBA &#160;<img alt="Equation 1" src="/files/ftp_upload/63546/63546eq01.jpg" style="margin: auto;" />&#160; &#160; (1) 
	where TBA = transmission-blocking activity (reduction in oocyst prevalence); p = oocyst prevalence; C = control; and T = treatment.</li>
	<li>Calculate the transmission-reducing activity using Equation (2): 
	%TRA = <img alt="Equation 2" src="/files/ftp_upload/63546/63546eq02.jpg" style="margin: auto;" />&#160; &#160; (2) 
	where TRA = transmission-reducing activity (reduction in oocyst intensity); I = oocyst intensity; C = control; and T = treatment. 
	NOTE: The TBA might not be significantly reduced, but a significant difference might be observed in the TRA and vice versa. This is dependent on the chemical material being evaluated.</li>
	<li>Perform statistical analysis using the non-parametric t-test (Mann-Whitney).</li>
</ol>

The authors have no conflicts of interest to disclose.

For this protocol to be executed successfully, attention should be given to each step, even though it might be a tedious and laborious process. One of the most important steps is to ensure that the gametocyte culture is of good quality and that it consists of mature gametocytes, with the correct male:female ratio, prior to starting the SMFA23,24. During the SMFA, it is also crucial to maintain the gametocyte culture at the correct temperature to prevent male game...

Malaria, known as one of the most destructive diseases worldwide, still poses a great threat to several countries-especially those within the African region-and contributes toward approximately 95% of cases worldwide1. This disease is caused by a protozoan parasite and, together with its Anopheles mosquito vector, these culprits can cause great harm to the human host2. More specifically, the falciparum species of the Plasmodium parasite genus is responsible for an estimated 99% of malaria cases in sub-Saharan Africa1. In addition to this, several major Anopheles mosquito vectors (including An. gambiae Giles, An. arabiensis Patton, An. coluzzii Coetzee &#38; Wilkerson sp.n., and An. funestus Giles) could be blamed for more than 95% of parasite transmission globally3,4,5,6,7,8. For the ideal parasite-vector companionship to be established, the mosquito vector should be susceptible to the parasite and be able to transmit it9. Furthermore, both the vector and parasite should overcome physical barriers to form the perfect infective combination-the mosquito vector should be able to sustain parasite development, and the parasite should have the ability to overcome the host&#39;s defense mechanisms10,11.
Gametocytes, the sexual stage of the P. falciparum parasite, play a crucial role in connecting the vector and parasite partners12. Sexual development takes place in vivo, and gametocytogenesis describes the process of the differentiation of mature gametocytes into motile male microgametes and female macrogametes13. Another process that takes place within the mosquito is exflagellation-the process during which the male gametocyte transforms into gametes and emerges from the red blood cells taken up during a blood meal11. The exflagellation process is further suggested to be enhanced by a favorable change in the environment of the mosquito midgut14. After exflagellation, a zygote is formed by the fusion of the male and female gametes13. From the zygote, a motile ookinete arises and moves from the blood meal to the epithelium of the mosquito midgut13. Here, the ookinete matures, and an oocyst is formed, which, in turn, produces motile sporozoites13,15. The sporozoites then migrate to the mosquito salivary glands and, as the mosquito takes a blood meal from its host, these sporozoites are injected into the host&#39;s bloodstream15.
Malaria control interventions, combining vector control strategies and the use of effective antimalarial drugs, have become crucial in combatting this disease15. With a rise in parasite and mosquito resistance, the urgency for the identification of novel antimalarial compounds is increasing16. Therefore, the in vivo evaluation of transmission-blocking compounds is important16. After the development of such effective transmission-blocking drugs, the SMFA has been used to assess whether these compounds inhibit the sexual development of P. falciparum in the Anopheles mosquito17,18,19. This assay has gained recognition since the 1970-1980s as the gold standard for evaluating transmission blocking20,21. This assay provides a cheaper alternative than other assays such as RT-qPCR, which requires specialized equipment. Furthermore, no patients are needed to execute the experiments. This assay also involves the provision of gametocyte-induced blood to female mosquitoes, which are then dissected to evaluate whether oocyst development is present21. This allows for gametocyte quantification and the detection of deformed oocysts because of the compounds22. For a compound to be classified as effective, the prevalence (the proportion of mosquitoes that harbor at least one oocyst in the midgut) and the number of oocysts (intensity) in the mosquito midgut must be evaluated to assess infection inhibition17,21,22.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Bovine intestine/</td>
			<td>Butchery</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Compound MMV1581558</td>
			<td>MMV</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Pandemic response box</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dissecting needles</td>
			<td>WRIM</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Custom made</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>falcon tube</td>
			<td>Lasec</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glass feeders</td>
			<td>Glastechniek Peter Coelen B.V.</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Graphpad Prism (8.3.0)</td>
			<td>Graphpad</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Mercurochrome</td>
			<td>Merck (Sigma-Aldrich)</td>
			<td>129-16-8</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microscope slides</td>
			<td>Merch (Sigma-Aldrich)</td>
			<td>S8902</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Parafilm</td>
			<td>Cleansafe</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>PBS tablets</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>BP2944</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Perspex biosafety cabinet</td>
			<td>Wits University</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Made by the contractors at Wits</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Plastic cups (350 mL)</td>
			<td>Plastic Land</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

standard membrane feeding assay for the detection of plasmodium falciparum infection in anopheles mosquito vectors

Malaria remains one of the most devastating diseases worldwide and, to date, the African region is still responsible for 94% of all cases worldwide. This parasitic disease requires a protozoan parasite, an Anopheles mosquito vector, and a vertebrate host. The Anopheles genus comprises more than 500 species, of which 60 are known as vectors of the parasite. The Plasmodium parasite genus consists of 250 species, and 48 of these are involved in disease transmission. Furthermore, the Plasmodium falciparum parasite has contributed toward an estimated 99.7% of malaria cases in sub-Saharan Africa in recent years. 
Gametocytes form part of the sexual stage of the parasite and are ingested by the female mosquito upon feeding on an infected human host. Further development of the parasite within the mosquito is enhanced by favorable environmental conditions in the midgut of the mosquito. Here, the fusion of the female and male gametes takes place, and the motile ookinetes originate. The ookinetes enter the midgut epithelium of the mosquito, and mature ookinetes form oocysts, which, in turn, produce motile sporozoites. These sporozoites migrate to the mosquito's salivary glands and are injected as a mosquito takes a blood meal. 
For drug discovery purposes, mosquitoes were artificially infected with gametocyte-infected blood in the standard membrane feeding assay (SMFA). To detect infection within the mosquito and/or to assess the efficacy of antimalarial compounds, the midguts of the female mosquitoes were removed post infection and were stained with mercurochrome. This method was used to enhance the visual detection of oocysts under the microscope for the accurate determination of oocyst prevalence and intensity.

The total number of control specimens dissected was 47, with an average to 89% prevalence and an intensity of 9.5 oocysts per midgut (Table 1, as published previously22). For the compound MMV1581558, the sample size reached a total of 42 specimens, with a 36% oocyst prevalence and an average intensity of 1.5&#160;oocysts. This shows a reduction in oocyst prevalence of 58% and a TRA of 82% across all three biological replicates (Table 1).
<p class="jove_content...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Standard Membrane Feeding Assay for the Detection of Plasmodium falciparum Infection in Anopheles Mosquito Vectors at JoVE.com

Standard Membrane Feeding Assay for the Detection of Plasmodium falciparum Infection in Anopheles Mosquito Vectors

The standard membrane feeding assay (SMFA) is regarded as the gold standard for the assessment and identification of potential antimalarial compounds. This artificial feeding system is used to infect mosquitoes to further evaluate the effects of such compounds on the intensity and prevalence of the Plasmodium falciparum parasite.

Standard Membrane Feeding Assay for the Detection of Plasmodium falciparum Infection in Anopheles Mosquito Vectors

Malaria remains one of the most devastating diseases worldwide and, to date, the African region is still responsible for 94% of all cases worldwide. This ...

standard-membrane-feeding-assay-for-detection-plasmodium-falciparum

Research

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Immunology and Infection

2.6K Views.  University of the Witwatersrand. The standard membrane feeding assay (SMFA) is regarded as the gold standard for the assessment and identification of potential antimalarial compounds. This artificial feeding system is used to infect mosquitoes to further evaluate the effects of such compounds on the intensity and prevalence of the Plasmodium falciparum parasite.

Video: Standard Membrane Feeding Assay for the Detection of Plasmodium falciparum Infection in Anopheles Mosquito Vectors

Alphavirus Transducing System:  Tools for Visualizing Infection in Mosquito Vectors

Alphavirus transducing systems (ATSs) are important tools for expressing genes of interest (GOI) during infection. ATSs are derived from cDNA clones of mosquito-borne RNA viruses (genus Alphavirus; family Togaviridae). The Alphavirus genus contains about 30 different mosquito-borne virus species. Alphaviruses are enveloped viruses and contain single-stranded RNA genomes (~11.7 Kb). Alphaviruses transcribe a subgenomic mRNA that encodes the structural proteins of the virus required for encapsidation of the genome and maturation of the virus. Alphaviruses are usually highly lytic in vertebrate cells, but persistently infect susceptible mosquito cells with minimal cytopathology. These attributes make them excellent tools for gene expression in mosquito vectors. The most common ATSs in use are derived from Sindbis virus (SINV). The broad species tropism of SINV allows for infection of insect, avian, and mammalian cells8. However, ATSs have been derived from other alphaviruses as well9,10,20. Foreign gene expression is made possible by the insertion of an additional viral subgenomic RNA initiation site or promoter. ATSs in which an exogenous gene sequence is positioned 5' to the viral structural genes is used for stable protein expression in insects. ATSs, in which a gene sequence is positioned 3' to the structural genes, is used to trigger RNAi and silence expression of that gene in the insect.
ATSs have proven to be valuable tools for understanding vector-pathogen interactions, molecular details of viral replication and maintenance infectious cycles3,4,11,19,21. In particular, the expression of fluorescent and bioluminescent reporters has been instrumental tracking the viral infection in the vector and virus transmission5,14-16,18. Additionally, the vector immune response has been described using two strains of SINV engineered to express GFP2,9.
Here, we present a method for the production of SINV containing a fluorescent reporter (GFP) from the cDNA infectious clone. Infectious, full-length RNA is transcribed from the linearized cDNA clone. Infectious RNA is introduced into permissive target cells by electroporation. Transfected cells generate infectious virus particles expressing the GOI. Harvested virus is used to infect mosquitoes, as described here, or other host species (not shown herein). Vector competence is assessed by detecting fluorescence outside the midgut or by monitoring virus transmission7. Use of a fluorescent reporter as the GOI allows for convenient estimation of virus spread throughout a cell culture, for determination of rate of infection, dissemination in exposed mosquitoes, virus transmission from the mosquito and provides a rapid gauge of vector competence.

Methods for using alphavirus transducing systems to express fluorescent reporters in vitro and in adult mosquitoes are described. This technique may be adapted to express any protein of interest in lieu of or in addition to a reporter.

Alphavirus transducing systems (ATSs) are important tools for expressing genes of interest (GOI) during infection.  ATSs are derived from cDNA clones of ...

Amplifying and Quantifying HIV-1 RNA in HIV Infected Individuals with Viral Loads Below the Limit of Detection by Standard Clinical Assays

Amplifying viral genes and quantifying HIV-1 RNA in HIV-1 infected individuals with viral loads below the limit of detection by standard assays (below 50-75 copies/ml) is necessary to gain insight to viral dynamics and virus host interactions in patients who naturally control the infection and those who are on combination antiretroviral therapy (cART). 
Here we describe how to amplify viral genomes by single genome sequencing (the SGS protocol) 13, 19 and how to accurately quantify HIV-1 RNA in patients with low viral loads (the single-copy assay (SCA) protocol) 12, 20. 
The single-copy assay is a real-time PCR assay with sensitivity depending on the volume of plasma being assayed. If a single virus genome is detected in 7 ml of plasma, then the RNA copy number is reported to be 0.3 copies/ml. The assay has an internal control testing for the efficiency of RNA extraction, and controls for possible amplification from DNA or contamination. Patient samples are measured in triplicate.
The single-genome sequencing assay (SGS), now widely used and considered to be non-labor intensive 3, 7, 12, 14, 15,is a limiting dilution assay, in which endpoint diluted cDNA product is spread over a 96-well plate. According to a Poisson distribution, when less than 1/3 of the wells give product, there is an 80% chance of the PCR product being resultant of amplification from a single cDNA molecule. SGS has the advantage over cloning of not being subjected to resampling and not being biased by PCR-introduced recombination 19. However, the amplification success of SCA and SGS depend on primer design. Both assays were developed for HIV-1 subtype B, but can be adapted for other subtypes and other regions of the genome by changing primers, probes, and standards.

Quantifying levels of HIV-1 RNA in plasma and sequencing single HIV-1 genomes from individuals with viral loads below the limit of detection (50-75 copies/ml) is difficult. Here we describe how to extract and quantify plasma viral RNA using a real time PCR assay that reliably measures HIV-1 RNA down to 0.3 copies/ml and how to amplify viral genomes by single genome sequencing, from samples with very low viral loads.

Amplifying viral genes and quantifying HIV-1 RNA in HIV-1 infected individuals with viral loads below the limit of detection by standard assays (below ...

Selection of Plasmodium falciparum Parasites for Cytoadhesion to Human Brain Endothelial Cells

Most human malaria deaths are caused by blood-stage Plasmodium falciparum parasites. Cerebral malaria, the most life-threatening complication of the disease, is characterised by an accumulation of Plasmodium falciparum infected red blood cells (iRBC) at pigmented trophozoite stage in the microvasculature of the brain2-4. This microvessel obstruction (sequestration) leads to acidosis, hypoxia and harmful inflammatory cytokines (reviewed in 5). Sequestration is also found in most microvascular tissues of the human body2, 3. The mechanism by which iRBC attach to the blood vessel walls is still poorly understood.
The immortalized Human Brain microvascular Endothelial Cell line (HBEC-5i) has been used as an in vitro model of the blood-brain barrier6. However, Plasmodium falciparum iRBC attach only poorly to HBEC-5i in vitro, unlike the dense sequestration that occurs in cerebral malaria cases. We therefore developed a panning assay to select (enrich) various P. falciparum strains for adhesion to HBEC-5i in order to obtain populations of high-binding parasites, more representative of what occurs in vivo.
A sample of a parasite culture (mixture of iRBC and uninfected RBC) at the pigmented trophozoite stage is washed and incubated on a layer of HBEC-5i grown on a Petri dish. After incubation, the dish is gently washed free from uRBC and unbound iRBC. Fresh uRBC are added to the few iRBC attached to HBEC-5i and incubated overnight. As schizont stage parasites burst, merozoites reinvade RBC and these ring stage parasites are harvested the following day. Parasites are cultured until enough material is obtained (typically 2 to 4 weeks) and a new round of selection can be performed. Depending on the P. falciparum strain, 4 to 7 rounds of selection are needed in order to get a population where most parasites bind to HBEC-5i. The binding phenotype is progressively lost after a few weeks, indicating a switch in variant surface antigen gene expression, thus regular selection on HBEC-5i is required to maintain the phenotype.
In summary, we developed a selection assay rendering P. falciparum parasites a more "cerebral malaria adhesive" phenotype. We were able to select 3 out of 4 P. falciparum strains on HBEC-5i. This assay has also successfully been used to select parasites for binding to human dermal and pulmonary endothelial cells. Importantly, this method can be used to select tissue-specific parasite populations in order to identify candidate parasite ligands for binding to brain endothelium. Moreover, this assay can be used to screen for putative anti-sequestration drugs7.

Selection of Plasmodium falciparum Parasites for Cytoadhesion to Human Brain Endothelial Cells

An in vitro model for cerebral malaria sequestration is described1. Plasmodium falciparum infected red blood cells are selected for binding to immortalized human brain microvascular endothelial cells. The selected parasites show a distinct phenotype. The selection process can be applied using various P. falciparum strains and endothelial cell lines.

Most human malaria deaths are caused by blood-stage Plasmodium falciparum parasites. Cerebral malaria, the most life-threatening complication of the ...

An In vitro Co-infection Model to Study Plasmodium falciparum-HIV-1 Interactions in Human Primary Monocyte-derived Immune Cells

Plasmodium falciparum, the causative agent of the deadliest form of malaria, and human immunodeficiency virus type-1 (HIV-1) are among the most important health problems worldwide, being responsible for a total of 4 million deaths annually1. Due to their extensive overlap in developing regions, especially Sub-Saharan Africa, co-infections with malaria and HIV-1 are common, but the interplay between the two diseases is poorly understood. Epidemiological reports have suggested that malarial infection transiently enhances HIV-1 replication and increases HIV-1 viral load in co-infected individuals2,3. Because this viremia stays high for several weeks after treatment with antimalarials, this phenomenon could have an impact on disease progression and transmission.
The cellular immunological mechanisms behind these observations have been studied only scarcely. The few in vitro studies investigating the impact of malaria on HIV-1 have demonstrated that exposure to soluble malarial antigens can increase HIV-1 infection and reactivation in immune cells. However, these studies used whole cell extracts of P. falciparum schizont stage parasites and peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC), making it hard to decipher which malarial component(s) was responsible for the observed effects and what the target host cells were4,5. Recent work has demonstrated that exposure of immature monocyte-derived dendritic cells to the malarial pigment hemozoin increased their ability to transfer HIV-1 to CD4+ T cells6,7, but that it decreased HIV-1 infection of macrophages8. To shed light on this complex process, a systematic analysis of the interactions between the malaria parasite and HIV-1 in different relevant human primary cell populations is critically needed.
Several techniques for investigating the impact of HIV-1 on the phagocytosis of micro-organisms and the effect of such pathogens on HIV-1 replication have been described. We here present a method to investigate the effects of P. falciparum-infected erythrocytes on the replication of HIV-1 in human primary monocyte-derived macrophages. The impact of parasite exposure on HIV-1 transcriptional/translational events is monitored by using single cycle pseudotyped viruses in which a luciferase reporter gene has replaced the Env gene while the effect on the quantity of virus released by the infected macrophages is determined by measuring the HIV-1 capsid protein p24 by ELISA in cell supernatants.

An In vitro Co-infection Model to Study Plasmodium falciparum-HIV-1 Interactions in Human Primary Monocyte-derived Immune Cells

We have developed an in vitro malaria-HIV-1 co-infection model to study the impact of Plasmodium falciparum on the HIV-1 replicative cycle in human primary monocyte-derived macrophages. This versatile system can easily be adapted to other primary cell types susceptible to HIV-1 infection.

Plasmodium falciparum, the causative agent  of the deadliest form of malaria, and human immunodeficiency virus type-1 (HIV-1) are among the most important ...

A Simple Protocol for Platelet-mediated Clumping of Plasmodium falciparum-infected Erythrocytes in a Resource Poor Setting

P. falciparum causes the majority of severe malarial infections. The pathophysiological mechanisms underlying cerebral malaria (CM) are not fully understood and several hypotheses have been put forward, including mechanical obstruction of microvessels by P. falciparum-parasitized red blood cells (pRBC). Indeed, during the intra-erythrocytic stage of its life cycle, P. falciparum has the unique ability to modify the surface of the infected erythrocyte by exporting surface antigens with varying adhesive properties onto the RBC membrane. This allows the sequestration of pRBC in multiple tissues and organs by adhesion to endothelial cells lining the microvasculature of post-capillary venules 1. By doing so, the mature forms of the parasite avoid splenic clearance of the deformed infected erythrocytes 2 and restrict their environment to a more favorable low oxygen pressure 3. As a consequence of this sequestration, it is only immature asexual parasites and gametocytes that can be detected in peripheral blood.
Cytoadherence and sequestration of mature pRBC to the numerous host receptors expressed on microvascular beds occurs in severe and uncomplicated disease. However, several lines of evidence suggest that only specific adhesive phenotypes are likely to be associated with severe pathological outcomes of malaria. One example of such specific host-parasite interactions has been demonstrated in vitro, where the ability of intercellular adhesion molecule-1 to support binding of pRBC with particular adhesive properties has been linked to development of cerebral malaria 4,5. The placenta has also been recognized as a site of preferential pRBC accumulation in malaria-infected pregnant women, with chondrotin sulphate A expressed on syncytiotrophoblasts that line the placental intervillous space as the main receptor 6. Rosetting of pRBC to uninfected erythrocytes via the complement receptor 1 (CD35)7,8 has also been associated with severe disease 9.
One of the most recently described P. falciparum cytoadherence phenotypes is the ability of the pRBC to form platelet-mediated clumps in vitro. The formation of such pRBC clumps requires CD36, a glycoprotein expressed on the surface of platelets. Another human receptor, gC1qR/HABP1/p32, expressed on diverse cell types including endothelial cells and platelets, has also been shown to facilitate pRBC adhesion on platelets to form clumps 10. Whether clumping occurs in vivo remains unclear, but it may account for the significant accumulation of platelets described in brain microvasculature of Malawian children who died from CM 11. In addition, the ability of clinical isolate cultures to clump in vitro was directly linked to the severity of disease in Malawian 12 and Mozambican patients 13, (although not in Malian 14).
With several aspects of the pRBC clumping phenotype poorly characterized, current studies on this subject have not followed a standardized procedure. This is an important issue because of the known high variability inherent in the assay 15. Here, we present a method for in vitro platelet-mediated clumping of P. falciparum with hopes that it will provide a platform for a consistent method for other groups and raise awareness of the limitations in investigating this phenotype in future studies. Being based in Malawi, we provide a protocol specifically designed for a limited resource setting, with the advantage that freshly collected clinical isolates can be examined for phenotype without need for cryopreservation.

A Simple Protocol for Platelet-mediated Clumping of Plasmodium falciparum-infected Erythrocytes in a Resource Poor Setting

This method investigates the platelet-mediated clumping phenotype of Plasmodium falciparum-infected erythrocytes (pRBC) in clinical isolates. This is performed by isolating and co-incubating platelet-rich plasma and a suspension of pRBC.

P. falciparum causes the majority of severe malarial infections. The pathophysiological mechanisms underlying cerebral malaria (CM) are not fully ...

Separation of Plasmodium falciparum Late Stage-infected Erythrocytes by Magnetic Means

Unlike other Plasmodium species, P. falciparum can be cultured in the lab, which facilitates its study 1. While the parasitemia achieved can reach the &asymp;40% limit, the investigator usually keeps the percentage at around 10%. In many cases it is necessary to isolate the parasite-containing red blood cells (RBCs) from the uninfected ones, to enrich the culture and proceed with a given experiment. 
When P. falciparum infects the erythrocyte, the parasite degrades and feeds from haemoglobin 2, 3. However, the parasite must deal with a very toxic iron-containing haem moiety 4, 5. The parasite eludes its toxicity by transforming the haem into an inert crystal polymer called haemozoin 6, 7. This iron-containing molecule is stored in its food vacuole and the metal in it has an oxidative state which differs from the one in haem 8. The ferric state of iron in the haemozoin confers on it a paramagnetic property absent in uninfected erythrocytes. As the invading parasite reaches maturity, the content of haemozoin also increases 9, which bestows even more paramagnetism on the latest stages of P. falciparum inside the erythrocyte.
Based on this paramagnetic property, the latest stages of P. falciparum infected-red blood cells can be separated by passing the culture through a column containing magnetic beads. These beads become magnetic when the columns containing them are placed on a magnet holder. Infected RBCs, due to their paramagnetism, will then be trapped inside the column, while the flow-through will contain, for the most part, uninfected erythrocytes and those containing early stages of the parasite.
Here, we describe the methodology to enrich the population of late stage parasites with magnetic columns, which maintains good parasite viability 10. After performing this procedure, the unattached culture can be returned to an incubator to allow the remaining parasites to continue growing.

Separation of Plasmodium falciparum Late Stage-infected Erythrocytes by Magnetic Means

The paramagnetic properties of hemozoin are used to isolate late stages of Plasmodium falciparum-infected red blood cells growing in culture. The method is simple and fast and does not affect the subsequent invasive capabilities of the parasites.

Unlike other Plasmodium species, P. falciparum can be cultured in the lab, which facilitates its study 1. While the parasitemia achieved can reach the ...

High Yield Purification of Plasmodium falciparum Merozoites For Use in Opsonizing Antibody Assays

Plasmodium falciparum merozoite antigens are under development as potential malaria vaccines. One aspect of immunity against malaria is the removal of free merozoites from the blood by phagocytic cells. However assessing the functional efficacy of merozoite specific opsonizing antibodies is challenging due to the short half-life of merozoites and the variability of primary phagocytic cells. Described in detail herein is a method for generating viable merozoites using the E64 protease inhibitor, and an assay of merozoite opsonin-dependent phagocytosis using the pro-monocytic cell line THP-1. E64 prevents schizont rupture while allowing the development of merozoites which are released by filtration of treated schizonts. &#160;Ethidium bromide labelled merozoites are opsonized with human plasma samples and added to THP-1 cells. Phagocytosis is assessed by a standardized high throughput protocol. Viable merozoites are a valuable resource for assessing numerous aspects of P. falciparum biology, including assessment of immune function. Antibody levels measured by this assay are associated with clinical immunity to malaria in naturally exposed individuals. The assay may also be of use for assessing vaccine induced antibodies. &#160;

High Yield Purification of Plasmodium falciparum Merozoites For Use in Opsonizing Antibody Assays

Measuring antibody function is key to understanding immunity to Plasmodium falciparum malaria. This method describes the purification of viable merozoites, and measurement of opsonization-dependent phagocytosis by flow cytometry.

Plasmodium falciparum merozoite antigens are under development as potential malaria vaccines. One aspect of immunity against malaria is the removal of ...

Methods to Investigate the Regulatory Role of Small RNAs and Ribosomal Occupancy of Plasmodium falciparum

The genetic variation responsible for the sickle cell allele (HbS) enables erythrocytes to resist infection by the malaria parasite, P. falciparum. The molecular basis of this resistance, which is known to be multifactorial, remains incompletely understood. Recent studies found that the differential expression of erythrocyte microRNAs, once translocated into malaria parasites, affect both gene regulation and parasite growth. These miRNAs were later shown to inhibit mRNA translation by forming a chimeric RNA transcript via 5&#39; RNA fusion with discreet subsets of parasite mRNAs. Here, the techniques that were used to study the functional role and putative mechanism underlying erythrocyte microRNAs on the gene regulation and translational potential of P. falciparum, including the transfection of modified synthetic microRNAs into host erythrocytes, will be detailed.&#160; Finally, a polysome gradient method is used to determine the extent of translation of these transcripts. Together, these techniques allowed us to demonstrate that the dysregulated levels of erythrocyte microRNAs contribute to cell-intrinsic malaria resistance of sickle erythrocytes.

Methods to Investigate the Regulatory Role of Small RNAs and Ribosomal Occupancy of Plasmodium falciparum

Human microRNAs translocate from host erythrocytes to Plasmodium falciparum parasites. Here, the techniques used to transfect synthetic microRNAs into host erythrocytes and isolate all RNAs from P. falciparum are described. In addition, this paper will detail a method of polysome isolation in P. falciparum to determine the ribosomal occupancy and translational potential of parasite transcripts.

The genetic variation responsible for the sickle cell allele (HbS) enables erythrocytes to resist infection by the malaria parasite, P. falciparum. The ...

Measuring Naturally Acquired Phagocytosis-Inducing Antibodies to Plasmodium falciparum Parasites by a Flow Cytometry-Based Assay

The protocol describes how to set up and run a flow cytometry-based phagocytosis assay of Plasmodium falciparum-infected erythrocytes (IEs) opsonized by naturally acquired IgG antibodies specific for VAR2CSA. VAR2CSA is the parasite antigen that mediates the selective sequestration of IEs in the placenta that can cause a severe form of malaria in pregnant women, called placental malaria (PM). Protection from PM is mediated by VAR2CSA-specific antibodies that are believed to function by inhibiting placental sequestration and/or by opsonizing IEs for phagocytosis. The assay employs late-stage-synchronized IEs that have been selected in vitro to express VAR2CSA, plasma/serum-antibodies from women with naturally acquired PM-specific immunity, and the phagocytic cell line THP-1. However, the protocol can easily be modified to assay the functionality of antibodies to any parasite antigen present on the IE surface, whether induced by natural exposure or by vaccination. The assay offers simple and high-throughput evaluation, with good reproducibility, of an important functional aspect of antibody-mediated immunity in malaria. It is, therefore, useful when evaluating clinical immunity to P. falciparum malaria, a major cause of morbidity and mortality in the tropics, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa.

Measuring Naturally Acquired Phagocytosis-Inducing Antibodies to Plasmodium falciparum Parasites by a Flow Cytometry-Based Assay

The overall goal of this protocol is to provide instruction on how to measure the capacity of antibodies present in sera or plasma of individuals, naturally exposed to Plasmodium falciparum infection, to opsonize and induce phagocytosis of the parasite-infected erythrocytes (IEs).

The protocol describes how to set up and run a flow cytometry-based phagocytosis assay of Plasmodium falciparum-infected erythrocytes (IEs) opsonized by ...

In Vitro Assay of Plasmodium-Infected Red Blood Cell Killing by Cytotoxic Lymphocytes

Malaria is a major public health concern, presenting more than 200 million cases per year worldwide. Despite years of scientific efforts, protective immunity to malaria is still poorly understood, mainly due to methodological limitations of long-term Plasmodium culture, especially for Plasmodium vivax. Most studies have focused on adaptive immunity protection against malaria by antibodies, which play a key role in controlling malaria. However, the sterile protection induced by attenuated Plasmodium sporozoites vaccines is related to cellular response, mainly to cytotoxic T lymphocytes, such as CD8+ and gamma delta T cells (&#947;&#948; T). Hence, new methodologies must be developed to better comprehend the functions of the cellular immune response and thus support future therapy and vaccine development. To find a new strategy to analyze this cell-mediated immunity to Plasmodium blood-stage infection, our group established an in vitro assay that measures infected red blood cell (iRBC) killing by cytotoxic lymphocytes. This assay can be used to study cellular immune response mechanisms against different Plasmodium spp. in the blood stage. Innate and adaptative cytotoxic immune cells can directly eliminate iRBCs and the intracellular parasite in an effector:target mechanism. Target iRBCs are labeled to evaluate cell viability, and cocultured with effector cells (CD8+ T, &#947;&#948; T, NK cells, etc.). The lysis percentage is calculated based on tested conditions, compared to a spontaneous lysis control in a flow cytometry-based assay. Ultimately, this killing assay methodology is a major advance in understanding cell-mediated immunity to blood-stage malaria, helping uncover new potential therapeutic targets and accelerate the development of malaria vaccines.

In Vitro Assay of Plasmodium-Infected Red Blood Cell Killing by Cytotoxic Lymphocytes

Here we describe a new method to help elucidate the mechanisms of cellular immunity to Plasmodium during the blood stage of infection. This is an in vitro assay that measures infected red blood cell killing by cytotoxic lymphocytes.&#160;

Malaria is a major public health concern, presenting more than 200 million cases per year worldwide. Despite years of scientific efforts, protective ...