The Sidoli lab gratefully acknowledges the Leukemia Research Foundation (Hollis Brownstein New Investigator Research Grant), AFAR (Sagol Network GerOmics award), Deerfield (Xseed award), Relay Therapeutics, Merck, and the NIH Office of the Director (1S10OD030286-01).

The authors have no competing financial interests.

The analysis of histone PTMs is fundamentally different from the typical proteomics analysis pipeline. Most histone PTMs still have enigmatic biological functions; as a result, annotations such as Gene Ontology or pathway databases are not available. Several resources exist that associate histone modifications with the enzyme responsible for their catalysis or proteins containing domains that bind these PTMs (e.g., HISTome36). As well, it is possible to speculate on the overall state of the chroma...

Since the late 19th century, cell culture systems have been used as a model to study the growth and development of cells outside of the human body1,2. Their use has also been extended to study how tissues and organs function in both healthy and diseased contexts1,3. Suspension cells (e.g., blood cells) grow in Petri dishes or flasks seamlessly and interchangeably as they do not assemble in three-dimensional (3D) structures in vivo. Cells derived from solid organs can grow in either two-dimensional (2D) or 3D culture systems. In 2D culture, cells are grown in a monolayer that adheres to a flat surface2,4. 2D cell culture systems are characterized by exponential growth and a fast doubling time, typically 24 h to a few days5. Cells in 3D systems grow to form intricate cell-cell interactions modeling tissue-like conglomerates more closely, and they are characterized by their ability to reach a dynamic equilibrium where their doubling time can reach 1 month or longer5.
Presented in this paper is an innovative methodology to grow 3D spheroids in rotating cell culture systems that simulate reduced gravity6. This is a simplified derivative of a cell culture system introduced by NASA in the 1990s7. This approach minimizes shearing forces, which occur in existing methods like spinning flasks, and increases spheroid reproducibility6. In addition, the rotating bioreactor increases active nutrient diffusion, minimizing necrotic formation that occurs in systems like hanging drop cell culture where media exchange is impractical6. This way, cells grow mostly undisturbed, allowing for the formation of structural and physiological characteristics associated with cells growing in tissue. C3A hepatocytes (HepG2/C3A) cultured in this manner not only had ultrastructural organelles, but also produced amounts of ATP, adenylate kinase, urea, and cholesterol comparable to levels observed in vivo1,2. In addition, cells grown in 2D vs. 3D cell culture systems exhibit different gene expression patterns8. Gene expression analysis of C3A hepatocytes grown as 3D spheroids showed that these cells expressed a wide range of liver-specific proteins, as well as genes involved in key pathways that regulate liver function8. Prior publications demonstrated the differences between proteomes of exponentially growing cells in 2D culture vs. cells at dynamic equilibrium in 3D spheroid cultures5. These differences include cellular metabolism, which in turn affects the structure, function, and physiology of the cell5. The proteome of cells grown in 2D culture was more enriched in proteins involved in cell replication, while the proteome of 3D spheroids was more enriched in liver functionality5.
The slower replication rate of cells grown as 3D spheroids more accurately models specific phenomena associated with chromatin state and modifications&#160;(e.g. histone clipping9). Histone clipping is an irreversible histone post-translational modification (PTM) that causes proteolytic cleavage of part of the histone N-terminal tail. While its biological function is still under discussion10,11,12,13, it is clear that its presence in primary cells and liver tissue is modeled by HepG2/C3A cells grown as spheroids, but not as flat cells9. This is critical, as chromatin state and modifications regulate DNA readout mostly by modulating accessibility to genes and thus their expression14. Histone PTMs either influence chromatin state directly by affecting the net charge of the nucleosomes where histones are assembled, or indirectly by recruiting chromatin writers, readers, and erasers14. Hundreds of histone PTMs have been identified to date15, reinforcing the hypothesis that chromatin hosts a &#34;histone code&#34; used by the cell to interpret DNA16. However, the identification of a myriad of PTM combinations15, and the discovery that combinations of histone PTMs frequently have different biological functions from PTMs present in isolation (e.g. Fischle, et al.17), highlights that more work is required to decrypt the &#34;histone code&#34;.
Currently, histone PTM analysis is either based on techniques utilizing antibodies (e.g., western blots, immunofluorescence, or chromatin immunoprecipitation followed by sequencing [ChIP-seq]) or mass spectrometry (MS). Antibody-based techniques have high sensitivity and can provide detailed information about the genome-wide localization of histone marks but are frequently limited in studying rare PTMs or PTMs present in combinations18,19,20. MS is more suitable for high-throughput and unbiased identification and quantification of single and co-existing protein modifications, in particular histone proteins18,19,20. For these reasons, this and several other laboratories have optimized the MS pipeline for the analysis of histone peptides (bottom-up MS), intact histone tails (middle-down MS), and full-length histone proteins (top-down MS)21,22,23.
Detailed below is a workflow for growing HepG2/C3A spheroids and preparing them for histone peptide analysis (bottom-up MS) via nano-liquid chromatography, coupled online with tandem mass spectrometry (nLC-MS/MS). A 2D cell culture was grown and the cells were harvested and transferred to a bioreactor where they would start to form spheroids (Figure 1). After 18 days in culture, spheroids were treated with sodium butyrate or sodium succinate to increase the relative abundances of histone acetylation and succinylation. Notably, 3D cultures can be treated with genotoxic compounds just as well as their flat culture equivalents; in fact, recent publications highlight that the toxicology response of cells in 3D culture is more similar to primary tissues than those in 2D flat culture24,25. Cells were then collected at specified time points and nuclear isolation was performed. Then, histones were extracted and derivatized with propionic anhydride before and after trypsin digestion according to a protocol first developed by Garcia et al.26. This procedure generates peptides of an appropriate size for online separation with reversed-phase chromatography (C18) and detection with MS. Finally, histone peptides were identified and quantified, and the generated data was represented in multiple ways for a more complete biological interpretation.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>0.05% trypsin-EDTA solution</td>
			<td>Gibco</td>
			<td>25300054</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>0.5-20 &#181;L pipet tips</td>
			<td>BRAND</td>
			<td>13-889-172 (Fisher Scientific)</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>1.5 mL microcentrifuge tubes</td>
			<td>Bio-Rad</td>
			<td>2239480</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>10 &#181;L multi-channel pipette</td>
			<td>BRAND</td>
			<td>BR7059000 (Millipore Sigma)</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>10 mL syringe</td>
			<td>Henke Sass Wolf</td>
			<td>14-817-31 (Fisher Scientific)</td>
			<td>Luer lock tip, graduated to 12 mL</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>10, 20, 200, and 1000 &#181;L single-channel pipettes</td>
			<td>Eppendorf</td>
			<td>14-285-904 (Fisher Scientific)</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>1000 &#181;L pipet tips</td>
			<td>Rainin</td>
			<td>30389164</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>18 G syringe needle</td>
			<td>Air-Tite</td>
			<td>14-817-100 (Fisher Scientific)</td>
			<td>3&#34; length, 0.05&#34; diameter</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>200 &#181;L multi-channel pipette</td>
			<td>Corning</td>
			<td>4082</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>2-200 &#181;L pipet tips</td>
			<td>BRAND</td>
			<td>Z740118 (Millipore Sigma)</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>24-well ultra-low attachment microplate</td>
			<td>Corning</td>
			<td>07-200-602</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>75 cm2&#160; U-shaped cell culture flask</td>
			<td>Corning</td>
			<td>461464U</td>
			<td>Untreated, with vent cap</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>96-well skirted plate</td>
			<td>Axygen</td>
			<td>PCR-96-FS-C (Corning)</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Acetone</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>A949-1</td>
			<td>Acetone should be used cold</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ammonium bicarbonate (NH4HCO3)</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>A6141-25G</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ammonium hydroxide solution</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>AC423300250</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cell culture grade water</td>
			<td>Corning</td>
			<td>25-055-CV</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ClinoReactor</td>
			<td>CelVivo</td>
			<td>10004-12</td>
			<td>Bioreactor for 3D cell culture</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ClinoStar</td>
			<td>CelVivo</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td>Clinostat CO2 incubator for 3D cell culture</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Control unit</td>
			<td>CelVivo</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td>Tablet for ClinoStar settings</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dulbecco&#39;s Modified Eagle&#39;s Medium (DMEM)</td>
			<td>Corning</td>
			<td>17-205-CV</td>
			<td>1X solution with 4.5 g/L glucose and sodium pyruvate, without L-glutamine and phenol red</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fetal bovine serum (FBS)</td>
			<td>Corning</td>
			<td>35-010-CV</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Formic acid</td>
			<td>Thermo Scientific</td>
			<td>28905</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fume hood</td>
			<td>Mott</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td>Model 7121000</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glass Pasteur pipette</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>13-678-8B</td>
			<td>9&#34;, cotton-plugged, borosilicate glass, non-sterile</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glutagro supplement</td>
			<td>Corning</td>
			<td>25-015-CI</td>
			<td>200 mM L-ananyl-L-glutamine</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hank&#8217;s Balanced Salt Solution (HBSS)</td>
			<td>Corning</td>
			<td>21-022-CV</td>
			<td>1X solution without calcium, magnesium, and phenol red</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>HPLC grade acetonitrile</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>A955-4</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>HPLC grade water</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>W6-1</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hydrochloric acid (HCl)</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>A481-212</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ice</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>MEM non-essential amino acids</td>
			<td>Corning</td>
			<td>25-025-CI</td>
			<td>100X solution</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Oasis HLB resin</td>
			<td>Waters</td>
			<td>186007549</td>
			<td>Hydrophilic-Lipophilic-Balanced (HLB) Resin with 30&#181;m particle size</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Orbitrap Fusion Lumos Tribrid mass spectrometer</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>IQLAAEGAAPFADBMBHQ</td>
			<td>High resolution mass spectrometer</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Oro-Flex I polypropylene filter plate</td>
			<td>Orochem</td>
			<td>OF1100</td>
			<td>96-well polypropylene filter plate w/ 10 &#181;M PE frit</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Penicillin-Streptomycin</td>
			<td>Corning</td>
			<td>30-002-CI</td>
			<td>100X solution</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>pH paper</td>
			<td>Hydrion</td>
			<td>Z111848 (Sigma-Aldrich)</td>
			<td>0-13 pH test paper</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Pipette gun</td>
			<td>Eppendorf</td>
			<td>Z666467 (Millipore Sigma)</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Polymicro capillary</td>
			<td>Molex</td>
			<td>50-110-7740 (Fisher Scientific)</td>
			<td>Flexible fused silica capillary tubing with polymide coating, 75 &#181;M ID x 363 &#181;M OD</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Polystyrene 10 mL serological pipets, sterile</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>1367549</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Propionic anhydride</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>240311-50G</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Refrigerated centrifuge</td>
			<td>Thermo Scientific</td>
			<td>75-217-420</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Reprosil-Pur resin</td>
			<td>MSWIL</td>
			<td>R13.AQ.0003</td>
			<td>120 &#197; pore size, C18-AQ phase, 3 &#181;M bead size</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Rotator</td>
			<td>Clay Adams</td>
			<td>25477 (American Laboratory Trading)</td>
			<td>Nutator Mixer 1105</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sequencing grade modified trypsin</td>
			<td>Promega</td>
			<td>V5111</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium butyrate</td>
			<td>Thermo Scientific</td>
			<td>A11079</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium succinate dibasic</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>14160-100G</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>SpeedVac vacuum concentrator (1.5 mL microcentrifuge tubes)</td>
			<td>Savant</td>
			<td>20249 (American Laboratory Trading)</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>SpeedVac vacuum concentrator (96-well)</td>
			<td>Thermo Scientific</td>
			<td>15308325</td>
			<td>Savant SPD1010</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sterile hood</td>
			<td>Thermo Scientific</td>
			<td>1375</td>
			<td>Class II, Type A2</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sulfuric acid (H2SO4)</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>02-004-375</td>
			<td>Baker Analyzed ACS reagent</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tissue-culture treated 100 mm x 20 mm dish</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>08-772-23</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Trichloroacetic acid (TCA)</td>
			<td>Thermo Scientific</td>
			<td>AC421451000</td>
			<td>Resuspend 100% w/v in HPLC grade water</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Trifluoroacetic acid (TFA)</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>PI28904</td>
			<td>Sequencing grade</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Vacuum manifold 96-well</td>
			<td>Millipore</td>
			<td>MAVM0960R</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Vortex</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>Z258415</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Water bath</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>FSGPD10</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Wide bore pipet tips 1000 &#181;L</td>
			<td>Axygen</td>
			<td>14-222-703 (Fisher Scientific)</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Wide bore pipet tips 200 &#181;L</td>
			<td>Axygen</td>
			<td>14-222-730 (Fisher Scientific)</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

global level quantification of histone post-translational modifications in a 3d cell culture model of hepatic tissue

Flat cultures of mammalian cells are a widely used in vitro approach for understanding cell physiology, but this system is limited in modeling solid tissues due to unnaturally rapid cell replication. This is particularly challenging when modeling mature chromatin, as fast replicating cells are frequently involved in DNA replication and have a heterogeneous polyploid population. Presented below is a workflow for modeling, treating, and analyzing quiescent chromatin modifications using a three-dimensional (3D) cell culture system. Using this protocol, hepatocellular carcinoma cell lines are grown as reproducible 3D spheroids in an incubator providing active nutrient diffusion and low shearing forces. Treatment with sodium butyrate and sodium succinate induced an increase in histone acetylation and succinylation, respectively. Increases in levels of histone acetylation and succinylation are associated with a more open chromatin state. Spheroids are then collected for isolation of cell nuclei, from which histone proteins are extracted for the analysis of their post-translational modifications. Histone analysis is performed via liquid chromatography coupled online with tandem mass spectrometry, followed by an in-house computational pipeline. Finally, examples of data representation to investigate the frequency and occurrence of combinatorial histone marks are shown.

In this protocol, HepG2/C3A spheroids were treated with 20 mM NaBut and 10 mM NaSuc, both of which affected global levels of histone PTMs (Figure 3A). Histone PTMs were then identified and quantified at the single residue level via MS/MS acquisition (Figure 3B).
When samples are run in replicates, statistical analysis can be performed to assess the fold change enrichment of a PTM between samples, as well as the reproducibilit...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Global Level Quantification of Histone Post-Translational Modifications in a 3D Cell Culture Model of Hepatic Tissue at JoVE.com

Global Level Quantification of Histone Post-Translational Modifications in a 3D Cell Culture Model of Hepatic Tissue

This protocol outlines how a three-dimensional cell culture system can be used to model, treat, and analyze chromatin modifications in a near-physiological state.

Flat cultures of mammalian cells are a widely used in vitro approach for understanding cell physiology, but this system is limited in modeling solid ...

global-level-quantification-histone-post-translational-modifications

Research

JoVE Journal

Biology

3.8K Views.  Albert Einstein College of Medicine. This protocol outlines how a three-dimensional cell culture system can be used to model, treat, and analyze chromatin modifications in a near-physiological state.

Video: Global Level Quantification of Histone Post-Translational Modifications in a 3D Cell Culture Model of Hepatic Tissue

Electrospinning Fibrous Polymer Scaffolds for Tissue Engineering and Cell Culture

As the field of tissue engineering evolves, there is a tremendous demand to produce more suitable materials and processing techniques in order to address the requirements (e.g., mechanics and vascularity) of more intricate organs and tissues. Electrospinning is a popular technique to create fibrous scaffolds that mimic the architecture and size scale of the native extracellular matrix. These fibrous scaffolds are also useful as cell culture substrates since the fibers can be used to direct cellular behavior, including stem cell differentiation (see extensive reviews by Mauck et al. and Sill et al. for more information). In this article, we describe the general process of electrospinning polymers and as an example, electrospin a reactive hyaluronic acid capable of crosslinking with light exposure (see Ifkovits et al. for a review on photocrosslinkable materials). We also introduce further processing capabilities such as photopatterning and multi-polymer scaffold formation. Photopatterning can be used to create scaffolds with channels and multi-scale porosity to increase cellular infiltration and tissue distribution. Multi-polymer scaffolds are useful to better tune the properties (mechanics and degradation) of a scaffold, including tailored porosity for cellular infiltration. Furthermore, these techniques can be extended to include a wide array of polymers and reactive macromers to create complex scaffolds that provide the cues necessary for the development of successful tissue engineered constructs.

The process of electrospinning polymers for tissue engineering and cell culture is addressed in this article. Specifically, the electrospinning of photoreactive macromers with additional processing capabilities of photopatterning and multi-polymer electrospinning is described.

As the field of tissue engineering evolves, there is a tremendous demand to produce more suitable materials and processing techniques in order to address ...

Detection of Post-translational Modifications on Native Intact Nucleosomes by ELISA

The genome of eukaryotes exists as chromatin which contains both DNA and proteins. The fundamental unit of chromatin is the nucleosome, which contains 146 base pairs of DNA associated with two each of histones H2A, H2B, H3, and H41. The N-terminal tails of histones are rich in lysine and arginine and are modified post-transcriptionally by acetylation, methylation, and other post-translational modifications (PTMs). The PTM configuration of nucleosomes can affect the transcriptional activity of associated DNA, thus providing a mode of gene regulation that is epigenetic in nature 2,3. We developed a method called nucleosome ELISA (NU-ELISA) to quantitatively determine global PTM signatures of nucleosomes extracted from cells. NU-ELISA is more sensitive and quantitative than western blotting, and is useful to interrogate the epiproteomic state of specific cell types. This video journal article shows detailed procedures to perform NU-ELISA analysis.

Nucleosome ELISA (NU-ELISA) is a sensitive and quantitative method to detect global patterns of post-translational modifications in preparations of native, intact nucleosomes. These modifications include methylations, acetylations, and phosphorylations at specific histone amino acid residues, and hence NU-ELISA provides a global proteomic assay of the overall chromatin modification states of specific cell types.

The genome of eukaryotes exists as chromatin which contains both DNA and proteins. The fundamental unit of chromatin is the nucleosome, which contains 146 ...

Detection of Histone Modifications in Plant Leaves

Chromatin structure is important for the regulation of gene expression in eukaryotes. In this process, chromatin remodeling, DNA methylation, and covalent modifications on the amino-terminal tails of histones H3 and H4 play essential roles1-2. H3 and H4 histone modifications include methylation of lysine and arginine, acetylation of lysine, and phosphorylation of serine residues1-2. These modifications are associated either with gene activation, repression, or a primed state of gene that supports more rapid and robust activation of expression after perception of appropriate signals (microbe-associated molecular patterns, light, hormones, etc.)3-7. 
Here, we present a method for the reliable and sensitive detection of specific chromatin modifications on selected plant genes. The technique is based on the crosslinking of (modified) histones and DNA with formaldehyde8,9, extraction and sonication of chromatin, chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) with modification-specific antibodies9,10, de-crosslinking of histone-DNA complexes, and gene-specific real-time quantitative PCR. The approach has proven useful for detecting specific histone modifications associated with C4 photosynthesis in maize5,11 and systemic immunity in Arabidopsis3.

A reliable and useful approach to detect histone modifications on specific plant genes is described. The approach combines chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) and real-time quantitative PCR. It allows detection of histone modifications on specific genes with a role in diverse physiological processes.

Chromatin structure is important for the regulation of gene expression in eukaryotes. In this process, chromatin remodeling, DNA methylation, and covalent ...

Isolation and Primary Culture of Rat Hepatic Cells

Primary hepatocyte culture is a valuable tool that has been extensively used in basic research of liver function, disease, pathophysiology, pharmacology and other related subjects. The method based on two-step collagenase perfusion for isolation of intact hepatocytes was first introduced by Berry and Friend in 1969 1 and, since then, has undergone many modifications. The most commonly used technique was described by Seglenin 1976 2. Essentially, hepatocytes are dissociated from anesthetized adult rats by a non-recirculating collagenase perfusion through the portal vein. The isolated cells are then filtered through a 100 &mu;m pore size mesh nylon filter, and cultured onto plates. After 4-hour culture, the medium is replaced with serum-containing or serum-free medium, e.g. HepatoZYME-SFM, for additional time to culture. These procedures require surgical and sterile culture steps that can be better demonstrated by video than by text. Here, we document the detailed steps for these procedures by both video and written protocol, which allow consistently in the generation of viable hepatocytes in large numbers.

Primary hepatocytes provide a valuable tool to evaluate biochemical, molecular, and metabolic functions in a physiologically relevant experimental system. We describe a reliable protocol for rat in situ liver perfusion, which consistently generates viable hepatocytes up to 1.0 &times; 108 cells per preparation with cell viability between 88 ~ 96%.

Primary hepatocyte culture is a valuable tool that has been extensively used in basic research of liver function, disease, pathophysiology, pharmacology ...

Budding Yeast Protein Extraction and Purification for the Study of Function, Interactions, and Post-translational Modifications

Homogenization by bead beating is a fast and efficient way to release DNA, RNA, proteins, and metabolites from budding yeast cells, which are notoriously hard to disrupt. Here we describe the use of a bead mill homogenizer for the extraction of proteins into buffers optimized to maintain the functions, interactions and post-translational modifications of proteins. Logarithmically growing cells expressing the protein of interest are grown in a liquid growth media of choice. The growth media may be supplemented with reagents to induce protein expression from inducible promoters (e.g. galactose), synchronize cell cycle stage (e.g. nocodazole), or inhibit proteasome function (e.g. MG132). Cells are then pelleted and resuspended in a suitable buffer containing protease and/or phosphatase inhibitors and are either processed immediately or frozen in liquid nitrogen for later use. Homogenization is accomplished by six cycles of 20 sec&#160;bead-beating (5.5 m/sec), each followed by one minute incubation on ice. The resulting homogenate is cleared by centrifugation and small particulates can be removed by filtration. The resulting cleared whole cell extract (WCE) is precipitated using 20% TCA for direct analysis of total proteins by SDS-PAGE followed by Western blotting. Extracts are also suitable for affinity purification of specific proteins, the detection of post-translational modifications, or the analysis of co-purifying proteins. As is the case for most protein purification protocols, some enzymes and proteins may require unique conditions or buffer compositions for their purification and others may be unstable or insoluble under the conditions stated. In the latter case, the protocol presented may provide a useful starting point to empirically determine the best bead-beating strategy for protein extraction and purification. We show the extraction and purification of an epitope-tagged SUMO E3 ligase, Siz1, a cell cycle regulated protein that becomes both sumoylated and phosphorylated, as well as a SUMO-targeted ubiquitin ligase subunit, Slx5.

The preparation of high quality yeast cell extracts is a necessary first step in the analysis of individual proteins or entire proteomes. Here we describe a fast, efficient, and reliable homogenization protocol for budding yeast cells that has been optimized to preserve protein functions, interactions, and post-translational modifications.

Homogenization by bead beating is a fast and efficient way to release DNA, RNA, proteins, and metabolites from budding yeast cells, which are notoriously ...

Identification of Post-translational Modifications of Plant Protein Complexes

Plants adapt quickly to changing environments due to elaborate perception and signaling systems. During pathogen attack, plants rapidly respond to infection via the recruitment and activation of immune complexes. Activation of immune complexes is associated with post-translational modifications (PTMs) of proteins, such as phosphorylation, glycosylation, or ubiquitination. Understanding how these PTMs are choreographed will lead to a better understanding of how resistance is achieved.
Here we describe a protein purification method for nucleotide-binding leucine-rich repeat (NB-LRR)-interacting proteins and the subsequent identification of their post-translational modifications (PTMs). With small modifications, the protocol can be applied for the purification of other plant protein complexes. The method is based on the expression of an epitope-tagged version of the protein of interest, which is subsequently partially purified by immunoprecipitation and subjected to mass spectrometry for identification of interacting proteins and PTMs.
This protocol demonstrates that: i). Dynamic changes in PTMs such as phosphorylation can be detected by mass spectrometry; ii). It is important to have sufficient quantities of the protein of interest, and this can compensate for the lack of purity of the immunoprecipitate; iii). In order to detect PTMs of a protein of interest, this protein has to be immunoprecipitated to get a sufficient quantity of protein.

We describe here a protocol for the purification and characterization of plant protein complexes. We demonstrate that by immunoprecipitating a single protein within a complex, so we can identify its post-translational modifications and its interacting partners.

Plants adapt quickly to changing environments due to elaborate perception and signaling systems. During pathogen attack, plants rapidly respond to ...

Analysis of Global RNA Synthesis at the Single Cell Level following Hypoxia

Hypoxia or lowering of the oxygen availability is involved in many physiological and pathological processes. At the molecular level, cells initiate a particular transcriptional program in order to mount an appropriate and coordinated cellular response. The cell possesses several oxygen sensor enzymes that require molecular oxygen as cofactor for their activity. These range from prolyl-hydroxylases to histone demethylases. The majority of studies analyzing cellular responses to hypoxia are based on cellular populations and average studies, and as such single cell analysis of hypoxic cells are seldom performed. Here we describe a method of analysis of global RNA synthesis at the single cell level in hypoxia by using Click-iT RNA imaging kits in an oxygen controlled workstation, followed by microscopy analysis and quantification.&nbsp; Using cancer cells exposed to hypoxia for different lengths of time, RNA is labeled and measured in each cell. This analysis allows the visualization of temporal and cell-to-cell changes in global RNA synthesis following hypoxic stress.

We describe a technique for analysis of global RNA synthesis in hypoxia using imaging. Click-chemistry labeling of RNA has not previously been performed under hypoxia and allows visualization of global RNA changes at the single cell level. This approach complements the existing averaged RNA techniques, allowing direct visualization of cell-to-cell changes in global RNA synthesis.

Hypoxia or lowering of the oxygen availability is involved in many physiological and pathological processes. At the molecular level, cells initiate a ...

High Resolution Quantification of Crystalline Cellulose Accumulation in Arabidopsis Roots to Monitor Tissue-specific Cell Wall Modifications

Plant cells are surrounded by a cell wall, the composition of which determines their final size and shape. The cell wall is composed of a complex matrix containing polysaccharides that include cellulose microfibrils that form both crystalline structures and cellulose chains of amorphous organization. The orientation of the cellulose fibers and their concentrations dictate the mechanical properties of the cell. Several methods are used to determine the levels of crystalline cellulose, each bringing both advantages and limitations. Some can distinguish the proportion of crystalline regions within the total cellulose. However, they are limited to whole-organ analyses that are deficient in spatiotemporal information. Others relying on live imaging, are limited by the use of imprecise dyes. Here, we report a sensitive polarized light-based system for specific quantification of relative light retardance, representing crystalline cellulose accumulation in cross sections of Arabidopsis thaliana roots. In this method, the cellular resolution and anatomical data are maintained, enabling direct comparisons between the different tissues composing the growing root. This approach opens a new analytical dimension, shedding light on the link between cell wall composition, cellular behavior and whole-organ growth.

High Resolution Quantification of Crystalline Cellulose Accumulation in Arabidopsis Roots to Monitor Tissue-specific Cell Wall Modifications

Crystalline cellulose is an important constituent of the plant cell wall. However, its quantification at a cellular resolution is technically challenging. Here, we report the use of polarized light technology and root cross sections to obtain information of cell wall composition at a spatiotemporal resolution.

Plant cells are surrounded by a cell wall, the composition of which determines their final size and shape. The cell wall is composed of a complex matrix ...

Complete Workflow for Analysis of Histone Post-translational Modifications Using Bottom-up Mass Spectrometry: From Histone Extraction to Data Analysis

Nucleosomes are the smallest structural unit of chromatin, composed of 147 base pairs of DNA wrapped around an octamer of histone proteins. Histone function is mediated by extensive post-translational modification by a myriad of nuclear proteins. These modifications are critical for nuclear integrity as they regulate chromatin structure and recruit enzymes involved in gene regulation, DNA repair and chromosome condensation. Even though a large part of the scientific community adopts antibody-based techniques to characterize histone PTM abundance, these approaches are low throughput and biased against hypermodified proteins, as the epitope might be obstructed by nearby modifications. This protocol describes the use of nano liquid chromatography (nLC) and mass spectrometry (MS) for accurate quantification of histone modifications. This method is designed to characterize a large variety of histone PTMs and the relative abundance of several histone variants within single analyses. In this protocol, histones are derivatized with propionic anhydride followed by digestion with trypsin to generate peptides of 5 - 20 aa in length. After digestion, the newly exposed N-termini of the histone peptides are derivatized to improve chromatographic retention during nLC-MS. This method allows for the relative quantification of histone PTMs spanning four orders of magnitude.

This protocol outlines a fully integrated workflow for characterizing histone post-translational modifications using mass spectrometry (MS). The workflow includes histone purification from cell cultures or tissues, histone derivatization and digestion, MS analysis using nano-flow liquid chromatography and instructions for data analysis. The protocol is designed for completion within 2 - 3 days.

Nucleosomes are the smallest structural unit of chromatin, composed of 147 base pairs of DNA wrapped around an octamer of histone proteins. Histone ...

A Tissue Culture Model of Estrogen-producing Primary Bovine Granulosa Cells

Ovarian granulosa cells (GC) are the major source of estradiol synthesis. Induced by the preovulatory luteinizing hormone (LH) surge, cells of the theca and, in particular, of the granulosa cell layer profoundly change their morphological, physiological, and molecular characteristics and form the progesterone-producing corpus luteum that is responsible for maintaining pregnancy. Cell culture models are essential tools to study the underlying regulatory mechanisms involved in the folliculo-luteal transformation. The presented protocol focuses on the isolation procedure and cryopreservation of bovine GC from small- to medium-sized follicles (&#60; 6 mm). With this technique, a nearly pure population of GC can be obtained. The cryopreservation procedure greatly facilitates time management of the cell culture work independent of a direct primary tissue (ovaries) supply. This protocol describes a serum-free cell culture model that mimics the estradiol-active status of bovine GC. Important conditions that are essential for a successful steroid-active cell culture are discussed throughout the protocol. It is demonstrated that increasing the plating density of the cells induces a specific response as indicated by an altered gene expression profile and hormone production. Furthermore, this model provides a basis for further studies on GC differentiation and other applications.

A long-term culture model of bovine granulosa cells under serum-free conditions is described. This model allows researchers to study the effects of diverse factors and conditions as different plating densities on the characteristics of estrogen-producing bovine granulosa cells.

Ovarian granulosa cells (GC) are the major source of estradiol synthesis. Induced by the preovulatory luteinizing hormone (LH) surge, cells of the theca ...