We wish to thank Ms. Laura M. Cooper and Dr. Lijun Rong from the University of Illinois at Chicago for providing the pseudovirus samples used in this protocol (SARS-CoV-2, SARS-CoV-1, H5N1), as well as Dr. Alvaro Hernandez and Dr. Chris Wright of the DNA Services facility of the Roy J. Carver Biotechnology Center at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign for their assistance with high-throughput sequencing, and many members of the Lu group who have helped us with in vitro selection and aptamer characterization techniques. This work was supported by a RAPID grant from the National Science Foundation (CBET 20-29215) and a seed grant from the Institute for Sustainability, Energy, and Environment at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign and Illinois-JITRI Institute (JITRI 23965). A.S.P. thanks the PEW Latin American Fellowship for financial support. We also thank the Robert A. Welch Foundation (Grant F-0020) for support of the Lu group research program at the University of Texas at Austin.

The authors have nothing to disclose.

SELEX allows not only the identification of aptamers with high affinity, in the pM-nM range22,43,44,45, but also with high and tunable selectivity. By taking advantage of counter selection, aptamers with challenging selectivity can be obtained. For instance, the Li group has demonstrated the ability to obtain sequences that can differentiate pathogenic bacterial strains from non-pathogenic stra...

Virus infections have enormous economic and societal impacts around the world, as became increasingly apparent from the recent COVID-19 pandemic. Timely and accurate diagnosis is paramount in treating viral infections while preventing the spread of viruses to healthy people. While many virus detection methods have been developed, such as PCR tests1,2 and inmunoassays3, most of the currently used methods are not capable of determining whether the detected virus is actually infectious or not. This is because the presence of components of the virus alone, such as viral nucleic acid or proteins, does not indicate that the intact, infectious virus is present, and levels of these biomarkers have shown poor correlation with infectivity4,5,6. For example, viral RNA, commonly used for the current PCR-based COVID-19 tests, has very low levels in the early stages of infection when the patient is contagious, while the RNA level is often still very high when patients have recovered from the infection and are no longer contagious7,8. The viral protein or antigen biomarkers follow a similar trend, but typically appear even later than the viral RNA and thus are even less predictive of infectability6,9. To address this limitation, some methods that can inform on the infectivity status of the virus have been developed, but are based on cell culture microbiology techniques that require a long time (days or weeks) to obtain results4,10. Thus, developing new sensors that can inform on the infectability of clinical or environmental samples can avoid delays in treatment and further spread of the virus. However, very few methods can obtain sensing molecules that can recognize an intact infectious virion and differentiate it from the same virus that has been rendered non-infectious.
In this context, aptamers are particularly well-suited as a unique biomolecular tool11,12,13,14. Aptamers are short, single-stranded DNA or RNA molecules with a specific nucleotide sequence that allows them to form a specific 3D conformation to recognize a target with high affinity and selectivity15,16. They are obtained by a combinatorial selection process called systematic evolution of ligands by exponential enrichment (SELEX), also known as in vitro selection, that is carried out in test tubes with a large random DNA sampling library of 1014-1015 sequences17,18,19. In each round of this iterative process, the DNA pool is first subjected to a selection pressure through incubation with the target under the desired conditions. Any sequences that are not bound to the target are then removed, leaving behind only those few sequences that are able to bind under the given conditions. Finally, the sequences that have been selected in the previous step are amplified by PCR, enriching the population of the pool with the desired functional sequences for the next round of selection, and the process is repeated. When the activity of the selection pool reaches a plateau (typically after 8-15 rounds), the library is analyzed by DNA sequencing to identify the winning sequences exhibiting the highest affinity.
SELEX has unique advantages that can be exploited to gain increased selectivity against other similar targets20,21, such as for infectivity status of the virus22. First, a wide variety of different types of targets can be used for the selection, from small molecules and proteins to whole pathogens and cells16. Thus, to obtain an aptamer that binds to an infectious virus, an intact virus can be used as the target, instead of a viral surface protein19. Whole virus SELEX allows for the selection of aptamers that bind specifically to the native state of the virus, without the need for disruption of the virus. Second, SELEX can be tailor-made to remove competing targets21,23, such as other similar viruses or non-infectious inactivated viruses, using counter selection steps in each round of selection22. During the counter selection steps, the DNA pool is exposed to targets for which binding is not desired, and any sequences that bind are discarded.
In this work, we provide a protocol that can be generally applied for selecting aptamers that bind to an infectious virus but not to the same virus that has been rendered non-infectious by a particular disinfection method or to another related viruses. This method allows recognition agents to be obtained based on functional differences of the virus surface, which do not need to be known in advance, and so offers an additional advantage for the detection of newly emerged pathogens or for understudied diseases.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>10% Ammonium persulfate (APS)</td>
			<td>BioRad</td>
			<td>1610700</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>100% Ethanol</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>E7023</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>1x PBS without calcium &#38; magnesium</td>
			<td>Corning</td>
			<td>21-040-CM</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>40% acrylamide/bisacrylamide (29:1) solution</td>
			<td>BioRad</td>
			<td>1610146</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Agencourt AMPure XP Beads</td>
			<td>Beckman Coulter</td>
			<td>A63880</td>
			<td>DNA clean-up beads - Section 7.2.2</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Amicon Ultra-0.5 Centrifugal Filter Unit</td>
			<td>Merck</td>
			<td>UFC501024</td>
			<td>cut-off 10 kDa</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Amicon Ultra-0.5 Centrifugal Filter Unit</td>
			<td>Merck</td>
			<td>UFC510024</td>
			<td>cut-off 100 kDa</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Boric Acid</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>100165</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>C1000 Touch Thermal Cycler with Dual 48/48 Fast Reaction Module</td>
			<td>BioRad</td>
			<td>1851148</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Calcium Chloride</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>C4901</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>CFX Connect Real-Time PCR Detection System</td>
			<td>BioRad</td>
			<td>1855201</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Digital Dry Baths/Block Heaters</td>
			<td>Thermo Scientific</td>
			<td>88870001</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dynabeads MyOne Streptavidin C1</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher</td>
			<td>65001</td>
			<td>streptavidin-modified magnetic beads - Section 4.9</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>EDTA disodium salt</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>324503</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Eppendorf Safe-Lock microcentrifuge tubes</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>T9661</td>
			<td>1.5 mL</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Lenti-X p24 Rapid Titer Kit</td>
			<td>Takara Bio USA, Inc.</td>
			<td>632200</td>
			<td>Lentivirus quantification kit - Section 3.3.2.1</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>MagJET Separation Rack, 12 x 1.5 mL tube</td>
			<td>Thermo Scientific</td>
			<td>MR02</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Magnesium chloride</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>M8266</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microseal &#39;B&#39; PCR Plate Sealing Film, adhesive, optical</td>
			<td>BioRad</td>
			<td>MSB1001</td>
			<td>non-UV absorbing</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Mini-PROTEAN Tetra Cell for Ready Gel Precast Gels</td>
			<td>BioRad</td>
			<td>1658004EDU</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Mini-PROTEAN Short Plates</td>
			<td>BioRad</td>
			<td>1653308</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Mini-PROTEAN Spacer Plates with 0.75 mm Integrated Spacers</td>
			<td>BioRad</td>
			<td>1653310</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Molecular Biology Grade Water</td>
			<td>Lonza</td>
			<td>51200</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Multiplate 96-Well PCR Plates, high profile, unskirted, clear</td>
			<td>BioRad</td>
			<td>MLP9611</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Nanodrop One</td>
			<td>Thermo Scientific</td>
			<td>ND-ONE-W</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>OneTaq DNA Polymerase</td>
			<td>New England BioLab</td>
			<td>M0480S</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ovation Ultralow v2 + UDI</td>
			<td>Tecan</td>
			<td>0344NB-A01</td>
			<td>High-troughput sequencing library preparation kit - Section 7.2.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>PIPETMAN G (100-1000 &#181;L, 20-200 &#181;L, 2-20 &#181;L and 0.2-2 &#181;L)</td>
			<td>Gilson</td>
			<td>F144059M, F144058M, F144056M, F144054M</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Purifier Logic+ Class II, Type A2 Biosafety Cabinets</td>
			<td>Labconco</td>
			<td>4261</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Qubit dsDNA BR Assay Kit</td>
			<td>Invitrogen</td>
			<td>Q32850</td>
			<td>fluorescence-based&#160; dsDNA quantification&#160; kit - Section 7.2.3</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>SHARP Classic Low Retention Pipet Tips (10 uL, 200 uL, 1000 uL)</td>
			<td>Thomas Scientific</td>
			<td>1158U43, 1159M44, 1158U40</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium acetate</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>S2889</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium chloride</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>S7653</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sorvall Legend Micro 17R Microcentrifuge</td>
			<td>Thermo Scientific</td>
			<td>75002440</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>SsoFast EvaGreen Supermix</td>
			<td>BioRad</td>
			<td>1725201</td>
			<td>qPCR mastermix - Section 6.2.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tris(hydroxymethyl)aminomethane</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>T1503</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tubes and Ultra Clear Caps, strips of 8</td>
			<td>USA scientific</td>
			<td>AB1183</td>
			<td>PCR tubes</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Urea</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>U5128</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

in vitro selection of aptamers to differentiate infectious from non-infectious viruses

Virus infections have a major impact on society; most methods of detection have difficulties in determining whether a detected virus is infectious, causing delays in treatment and further spread of the virus. Developing new sensors that can inform on the infectability of clinical or environmental samples will meet this unmet challenge. However, very few methods can obtain sensing molecules that can recognize an intact infectious virus and differentiate it from the same virus that has been rendered non-infectious by disinfection methods. Here, we describe a protocol to select aptamers that can distinguish infectious viruses vs non-infectious viruses using systematic evolution of ligands by exponential enrichment (SELEX). We take advantage of two features of SELEX. First, SELEX can be tailor-made to remove competing targets, such as non-infectious viruses or other similar viruses, using counter selection. Additionally, the whole virus can be used as the target for SELEX, instead of, for example, a viral surface protein. Whole virus SELEX allows for the selection of aptamers that bind specifically to the native state of the virus, without the need to disrupt of the virus. This method thus allows recognition agents to be obtained based on functional differences in the surface of pathogens, which do not need to be known in advance.

Since DNA aptamers can be obtained using SELEX in a test tube15, this SELEX strategy was carefully designed to include both positive selection steps toward the intact, whole infectious virus (i.e., retain the DNA molecules that bind to the infectious virus), as well as counter selection steps for the same virus that has been rendered non-infectious by a particular disinfection method, specifically UV-treatment, by discarding the DNA sequences that can bind to the non-infectious virus. A schematic ...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about In Vitro Selection of Aptamers to Differentiate Infectious from Non-Infectious Viruses at JoVE.com

In Vitro Selection of Aptamers to Differentiate Infectious from Non-Infectious Viruses

We provide a protocol that can be generally applied to select aptamers that bind to infectious viruses only and not to viruses that have been rendered non-infectious by a disinfection method or to any other similar viruses. This opens the possibility of determining infectivity status in portable and rapid tests.

Virus infections have a major impact on society; most methods of detection have difficulties in determining whether a detected virus is infectious, ...

in-vitro-selection-aptamers-to-differentiate-infectious-from-non

Research

JoVE Journal

Bioengineering

1.6K Views.  Universidad de Buenos Aires. We provide a protocol that can be generally applied to select aptamers that bind to infectious viruses only and not to viruses that have been rendered non-infectious by a disinfection method or to any other similar viruses. This opens the possibility of determining infectivity status in portable and rapid tests.

Video: In Vitro Selection of Aptamers to Differentiate Infectious from Non-Infectious Viruses

Visualizing Proteins and Macromolecular Complexes by Negative Stain EM: from Grid Preparation to Image Acquisition

Single particle electron microscopy (EM), of both negative stained or frozen hydrated biological samples, has become a versatile tool in structural biology 1. In recent years, this method has achieved great success in studying structures of proteins and macromolecular complexes 2, 3. Compared with electron cryomicroscopy (cryoEM), in which frozen hydrated protein samples are embedded in a thin layer of vitreous ice 4, negative staining is a simpler sample preparation method in which protein samples are embedded in a thin layer of dried heavy metal salt to increase specimen contrast 5. The enhanced contrast of negative stain EM allows examination of relatively small biological samples. In addition to determining three-dimensional (3D) structure of purified proteins or protein complexes 6, this method can be used for much broader purposes. For example, negative stain EM can be easily used to visualize purified protein samples, obtaining information such as homogeneity/heterogeneity of the sample, formation of protein complexes or large assemblies, or simply to evaluate the quality of a protein preparation.
In this video article, we present a complete protocol for using an EM to observe negatively stained protein sample, from preparing carbon coated grids for negative stain EM to acquiring images of negatively stained sample in an electron microscope operated at 120kV accelerating voltage. These protocols have been used in our laboratory routinely and can be easily followed by novice users.

Visualizing protein samples by negative stain electron microscopy (EM) has become a popular structural analysis method. It is useful for quantitative structural analysis, such as calculating a 3D reconstruction of the molecules being studied, and also for qualitative examination of the quality of protein preparations. In this article we present detailed protocols for preparing the EM grids, staining the sample and visualizing the sample in an electron microscope. Novice users can follow these protocols easily and to utilize negative stain EM as a routine assay, in addition to other biochemical assays, for evaluating their protein samples.

Single particle electron microscopy (EM), of both negative stained or frozen hydrated biological samples, has become a versatile tool in structural ...

Design of a Cyclic Pressure Bioreactor for the Ex Vivo Study of Aortic Heart Valves

The aortic valve, located between the left ventricle and the aorta, allows for unidirectional blood flow, preventing backflow into the ventricle. Aortic valve leaflets are composed of interstitial cells suspended within an extracellular matrix (ECM) and are lined with an endothelial cell monolayer. The valve withstands a harsh, dynamic environment and is constantly exposed to shear, flexion, tension, and compression. Research has shown calcific lesions in diseased valves occur in areas of high mechanical stress as a result of endothelial disruption or interstitial matrix damage1-3. Hence, it is not surprising that epidemiological studies have shown high blood pressure to be a leading risk factor in the onset of aortic valve disease4. 
The only treatment option currently available for valve disease is surgical replacement of the diseased valve with a bioprosthetic or mechanical valve5. Improved understanding of valve biology in response to physical stresses would help elucidate the mechanisms of valve pathogenesis. In turn, this could help in the development of non-invasive therapies such as pharmaceutical intervention or prevention. Several bioreactors have been previously developed to study the mechanobiology of native or engineered heart valves6-9. Pulsatile bioreactors have also been developed to study a range of tissues including cartilage10, bone11 and bladder12. The aim of this work was to develop a cyclic pressure system that could be used to elucidate the biological response of aortic valve leaflets to increased pressure loads. 
The system consisted of an acrylic chamber in which to place samples and produce cyclic pressure, viton diaphragm solenoid valves to control the timing of the pressure cycle, and a computer to control electrical devices. The pressure was monitored using a pressure transducer, and the signal was conditioned using a load cell conditioner. A LabVIEW program regulated the pressure using an analog device to pump compressed air into the system at the appropriate rate. The system mimicked the dynamic transvalvular pressure levels associated with the aortic valve; a saw tooth wave produced a gradual increase in pressure, typical of the transvalvular pressure gradient that is present across the valve during diastole, followed by a sharp pressure drop depicting valve opening in systole. The LabVIEW program allowed users to control the magnitude and frequency of cyclic pressure. The system was able to subject tissue samples to physiological and pathological pressure conditions. This device can be used to increase our understanding of how heart valves respond to changes in the local mechanical environment.

Design of a Cyclic Pressure Bioreactor for the Ex Vivo Study of Aortic Heart Valves

A cyclic pressure bioreactor capable of subjecting heart valve tissue to physiological and pathological pressure conditions has been designed. A LabVIEW program allows users to control pressure magnitude, amplitude and frequency. This device can be used to study the mechanobiology of heart valve tissue or isolated cells.

The aortic valve, located between the left ventricle and the aorta, allows for unidirectional blood flow, preventing backflow into the ventricle. Aortic ...

Eye Irritation Test (EIT) for Hazard Identification of Eye Irritating Chemicals using Reconstructed Human Cornea-like Epithelial (RhCE) Tissue Model

To comply with the Seventh Amendment to the EU Cosmetics Directive and EU REACH legislation, validated non-animal alternative methods for reliable and accurate assessment of ocular toxicity in man are needed. To address this need, we have developed an eye irritation test (EIT) which utilizes a three dimensional reconstructed human cornea-like epithelial (RhCE) tissue model that is based on normal human cells. The EIT is able to separate ocular&#160;irritants and corrosives (GHS Categories 1 and 2 combined) and those that do not require labeling (GHS No Category). The test utilizes two separate protocols, one designed for liquid chemicals and a second, similar protocol for solid test articles. The EIT prediction model uses a single exposure period (30 min for liquids, 6 hr for solids) and a single tissue viability cut-off (60.0% as determined by the MTT assay). Based on the results for 83 chemicals (44 liquids and 39 solids) EIT achieved 95.5/68.2/ and 81.8% sensitivity/specificity and accuracy (SS&#38;A) for liquids, 100.0/68.4/ and 84.6% SS&#38;A for solids, and 97.6/68.3/ and 83.1% for overall SS&#38;A. The EIT will contribute significantly to classifying the ocular irritation potential of a wide range of liquid and solid chemicals without the use of animals to meet regulatory testing requirements. The EpiOcular EIT method was implemented in 2015 into the OECD Test Guidelines as TG 492.

Eye Irritation Test EIT for Hazard Identification of Eye Irritating Chemicals using Reconstructed Human Cornea-like Epithelial RhCE Tissue Model

We have developed an eye irritation test which utilizes a three dimensional reconstructed human cornea-like epithelial (RhCE) tissue model. The test is able to discriminate between ocular irritant and corrosive materials (GHS Categories 1 and 2 combined) and those that do not require labeling (GHS No Category).

To comply with the Seventh Amendment to the EU Cosmetics Directive and EU REACH legislation, validated non-animal alternative methods for reliable and ...

Development of an In Vitro Ocular Platform to Test Contact Lenses

Currently, in vitro evaluations of contact lenses (CLs) for drug delivery are typically performed in large volume vials,1-6 which fail to mimic physiological tear volumes.7 The traditional model also lacks the natural tear flow component and the blinking reflex, both of which are defining factors of the ocular environment. The development of a novel model is described in this study, which consists of a unique 2-piece design, eyeball and eyelid piece, capable of mimicking physiological tear volume. The models are created from 3-D printed molds (Polytetrafluoroethylene or Teflon molds), which can be used to generate eye models from various polymers, such as polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) and agar. Further modifications to the eye pieces, such as the integration of an explanted human or animal cornea or human corneal construct, will permit for more complex in vitro ocular studies. A commercial microfluidic syringe pump is integrated with the platform to emulate physiological tear secretion. Air exposure and mechanical wear are achieved using two mechanical actuators, of which one moves the eyelid piece laterally, and the other moves the eyeballeyepiece circularly. The model has been used to evaluate CLs for drug delivery and deposition of tear components on CLs.

Development of an In Vitro Ocular Platform to Test Contact Lenses

Current in vitro models for evaluating contact lenses (CLs) and other eye-related applications are severely limited. The presented ocular platform simulates physiological tear flow, tear volume, air exposure and mechanical wear. This system is highly versatile and can be applied to various in vitro analyses with CLs.

Currently, in vitro evaluations of contact lenses (CLs) for drug delivery are typically performed in large volume vials,1-6 which fail to mimic ...

An In Vitro Organ Culture Model of the Murine Intervertebral Disc

Intervertebral disc (IVD) degeneration is a significant contributor to low back pain. The IVD is a fibrocartilaginous joint that serves to transmit and dampen loads in the spine. The IVD consists of a proteoglycan-rich nucleus pulposus (NP) and a collagen-rich annulus fibrosis (AF) sandwiched by cartilaginous end-plates. Together with the adjacent vertebrae, the vertebrae-IVD structure forms a functional spine unit (FSU). These microstructures contain unique cell types as well as unique extracellular matrices. Whole organ culture of the FSU preserves the native extracellular matrix, cell differentiation phenotypes, and cellular-matrix interactions. Thus, organ culture techniques are particularly useful for investigating the complex biological mechanisms of the IVD. Here, we describe a high-throughput approach for culturing whole lumbar mouse FSUs that provides an ideal platform for studying disease mechanisms and therapies for the IVD. Furthermore, we describe several applications that utilize this organ culture method to conduct further studies including contrast-enhanced microCT imaging and three-dimensional high-resolution finite element modeling of the IVD.

An In Vitro Organ Culture Model of the Murine Intervertebral Disc

Whole organ culture of the intervertebral disc (IVD) preserves the native extracellular matrix, cell phenotypes, and cellular-matrix interactions. Here we describe an IVD culture system using mouse lumbar and caudal IVDs in their functional spinal units and several applications utilizing this system.

Intervertebral disc (IVD) degeneration is a significant contributor to low back pain. The IVD is a fibrocartilaginous joint that serves to transmit and ...

Synthesis of Infectious Bacteriophages in an E. coli-based Cell-free Expression System

A new generation of cell-free transcription-translation (TXTL) systems, engineered to have a greater versatility and modularity, provide novel capabilities to perform basic and applied sciences in test tube reactions. Over the past decade, cell-free TXTL has become a powerful technique for a broad range of novel multidisciplinary research areas related to quantitative and synthetic biology. The new TXTL platforms are particularly useful to construct and interrogate biochemical systems through the execution of synthetic or natural gene circuits. In vitro TXTL has proven convenient to rapidly prototype regulatory elements and biological networks as well as to recapitulate molecular self-assembly mechanisms found in living systems. In this article, we describe how infectious bacteriophages, such as MS2 (RNA), &#934;&#935;174 (ssDNA), and T7 (dsDNA), are entirely synthesized from their genome in one-pot reactions using an all Escherichia coli, cell-free TXTL system. Synthesis of the three coliphages is quantified using the plaque assay. We show how the yield of synthesized phage depends on the biochemical settings of the reactions. Molecular crowding, emulated through a controlled concentration of PEG 8000, affects the amount of synthesized phages by orders of magnitudes. We also describe how to amplify the phages and how to purify their genomes. The set of protocols and results presented in this work should be of interest to multidisciplinary researchers involved in cell-free synthetic biology and bioengineering.

Synthesis of Infectious Bacteriophages in an E. coli-based Cell-free Expression System

A new generation of cell-free transcription-translation platforms has been engineered to construct biochemical systems in vitro through the execution of gene circuits. In this article, we describe how bacteriophages, such as MS2, &#934;&#935;174, and T7, are synthesized from their genome using an all E. coli cell-free TXTL system.

A new generation of cell-free transcription-translation (TXTL) systems, engineered to have a greater versatility and modularity, provide novel ...

Advanced 3D Liver Models for In vitro Genotoxicity Testing Following Long-Term Nanomaterial Exposure

Due to the rapid development and implementation of a diverse array of engineered nanomaterials (ENM), exposure to ENM is inevitable and the development of robust, predictive in vitro test systems is essential. Hepatic toxicology is key when considering ENM exposure, as the liver serves a vital role in metabolic homeostasis and detoxification as well as being a major site of ENM accumulation post exposure. Based upon this and the accepted understanding that 2D hepatocyte models do not accurately mimic the complexities of intricate multi-cellular interactions and metabolic activity observed in vivo, there is a greater focus on the development of physiologically relevant 3D liver models tailored for ENM hazard assessment purposes in vitro. In line with the principles of the 3Rs to replace, reduce and refine animal experimentation, a 3D HepG2 cell-line based liver model has been developed, which is a user friendly, cost effective system that can support both extended and repeated ENM exposure regimes (&#8804;14 days). These spheroid models (&#8805;500 &#181;m in diameter) retain their proliferative capacity (i.e., dividing cell models) allowing them to be coupled with the &#8216;gold standard&#8217; micronucleus assay to effectively assess genotoxicity in vitro. Their ability to report on a range of toxicological endpoints (e.g., liver function, (pro-)inflammatory response, cytotoxicity and genotoxicity) has been characterized using several ENMs across both acute (24 h) and long-term (120 h) exposure regimes. This 3D in vitro hepatic model has the capacity to be utilized for evaluating more realistic ENM exposures, thereby providing a future in vitro approach to better support ENM hazard assessment in a routine and easily accessible manner.

This procedure was established to be used for developing advanced 3D hepatic cultures in vitro, which can provide a more physiologically relevant assessment of the genotoxic hazards associated with nanomaterial exposures over both an acute or long-term, repeated dose regimes.

Due to the rapid development and implementation of a diverse array of engineered nanomaterials (ENM), exposure to ENM is inevitable and the development of ...

Single-Cell Optical Action Potential Measurement in Human Induced Pluripotent Stem Cell-Derived Cardiomyocytes

Conventional intracellular microelectrode techniques to quantify cardiomyocyte electrophysiology are extremely complex, labor intensive, and typically carried out in low throughput. Rapid and ongoing expansion of induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC) technology presents a new standard in cardiovascular research and alternate methods are now necessary to increase throughput of electrophysiological data at a single cell level. VF2.1Cl is a recently derived voltage sensitive dye which provides a rapid single channel, high magnitude response to fluctuations in membrane potential. It possesses kinetics superior to those of other existing voltage indicators and makes available functional data equivalent to that of traditional microelectrode techniques. Here, we demonstrate simplified, non-invasive action potential characterization in externally paced human iPSC derived cardiomyocytes using a modular and highly affordable photometry system.

Here we describe optical acquisition and characterization of action potentials from induced pluripotent stem cell derived cardiomyocytes using a high-speed modular photometry system.

Conventional intracellular microelectrode techniques to quantify cardiomyocyte electrophysiology are extremely complex, labor intensive, and typically ...

An In vitro System to Gauge the Thrombolytic Efficacy of Histotripsy and a Lytic Drug

Deep vein thrombosis (DVT) is a global health concern. The primary approach to achieve vessel recanalization for critical obstructions is catheter-directed thrombolytics (CDT). To mitigate caustic side effects and the long treatment time associated with CDT, adjuvant and alternative approaches are under development. One such approach is histotripsy, a focused ultrasound therapy to ablate tissue via bubble cloud nucleation. Pre-clinical studies have demonstrated strong synergy between histotripsy and thrombolytics for clot degradation. This report outlines a benchtop method to assess the efficacy of histotripsy-aided thrombolytic therapy, or lysotripsy.
Clots manufactured from fresh human venous blood were introduced into a flow channel whose dimensions and acousto-mechanical properties mimic an iliofemoral vein. The channel was perfused with plasma and the lytic&#160;recombinant tissue-type plasminogen activator. Bubble clouds were generated in the clot with a focused ultrasound source designed for the treatment of femoral venous clots. Motorized positioners were used to translate the source focus along the clot length. At each insonation location, acoustic emissions from the bubble cloud were passively recorded, and beamformed to generate passive cavitation images. Metrics to gauge treatment efficacy included clot mass loss (overall treatment efficacy), and the concentrations of D-dimer (fibrinolysis) and hemoglobin (hemolysis) in the perfusate. There are limitations to this in vitro design, including lack of means to assess in vivo side effects or dynamic changes in flow rate as the clot lyses. Overall, the setup provides an effective method to assess the efficacy of histotripsy-based strategies to treat DVT.

Histotripsy-aided lytic delivery or lysotripsy is under development for the treatment of deep vein thrombosis. An in vitro procedure is presented here to assess the efficacy of this combination therapy. Key protocols for the clot model, image guidance, and assessment of treatment efficacy are discussed.

Deep vein thrombosis (DVT) is a global health concern. The primary approach to achieve vessel recanalization for critical obstructions is ...

Fibroblast Derived Human Engineered Connective Tissue for Screening Applications

Fibroblasts are phenotypically highly dynamic cells, which quickly transdifferentiate into myofibroblasts in response to biochemical and biomechanical stimuli. The current understanding of fibrotic processes, including cardiac fibrosis, remains poor, which hampers the development of new anti-fibrotic therapies. Controllable and reliable human model systems are crucial for a better understanding of fibrosis pathology. This is a highly reproducible and scalable protocol to generate engineered connective tissues (ECT) in a 48-well casting plate to facilitate studies of fibroblasts and the pathophysiology of fibrotic tissue in a 3-dimensional (3D) environment. ECT are generated around the poles with tunable stiffness, allowing for studies under a defined biomechanical load. Under the defined loading conditions, phenotypic adaptations controlled by cell-matrix interactions can be studied. Parallel testing is feasible in the 48-well format with the opportunity for the time-course analysis of multiple parameters, such as tissue compaction and contraction against the load. From these parameters, biomechanical properties such as tissue stiffness and elasticity can be studied.

Presented here is a protocol to generate engineered connective tissues for a parallel culture of 48 tissues in a multi-well plate with double poles, suitable for mechanistic studies, disease modeling, and screening applications. The protocol is compatible with fibroblasts from different organs and species and is exemplified here with human primary cardiac fibroblasts.

Fibroblasts are phenotypically highly dynamic cells, which quickly transdifferentiate into myofibroblasts in response to biochemical and biomechanical ...