We acknowledge financial support from the German Science Foundation (projects A1.1 and A1.2 of the Collaborative Research Center 1182 on the Origin and Function of Metaorganisms). We thank the members of the Schulenburg lab for their advice and support.

1. Preparation of buffers and media
<ol>
	<li>Prepare S-buffer by adding 5.85 g of NaCl, 1.123 g of K2HPO4, 5.926 g of KH2PO4, and 1 L of deionized H2O to a flask and autoclave for 20 min at 121 &#176;C.</li>
	<li>Prepare a viscous medium by adding S-buffer containing 1.2% (w/v) hydroxymethylcellulose (the substance causing viscosity of the medium), 5 mg/mL cholesterol, 1 mM MgSO4, 1 mM CaCl2, and 0.1% (v/v) acetone. Autoclave and stir the viscous medium until it is completely homogeneous. 
	NOTE: This can take multiple hours. Also, S-buffer can be directly prepared and added to the viscous medium without prior sterilization.</li>
	<li>Prepare M9-buffer by adding 3 g of KH2PO4, 6 g of NA2HPO4&#183;2 H2O, 5 g of NaCl, and 1 L of deionized H2O to a 1 L flask. Autoclave the solution, and after cooling, add 1 mL of 1 M MgSO4 (123.24&#160;g of MgSO4&#183;7H2O in 500 mL of deionized H2O, filter sterilized).</li>
	<li>Prepare 10% (v/v) Triton X-100 stock solution by mixing 5 mL of Triton X-100 with 45 mL of M9-buffer. Filter-sterilize the solution using a 0.2 &#181;m filter.</li>
	<li>Prepare M9-buffer with Triton X-100 (M9-T) by adding 2.5 mL of the 10% (v/v) Triton X-100 stock solution to 1 L of M9-buffer after autoclaving to obtain 0.025% (v/v) M9-T.</li>
	<li>Prepare 30% (v/v) glycerol in S-buffer by mixing 15 mL of sterile 100% glycerol and 35 mL of sterile S-buffer in a 50 mL tube.</li>
</ol>
2. Preparation of environmental samples (Figure 1)
<ol>
	<li>Collect environmental samples like compost or rotten fruits and place each sample in an individual plastic bag, tube, or other clean container. 
	NOTE: In order to attract nematodes, apples can be placed on compost several weeks prior to the sampling.</li>
	<li>Spread pieces of the environmental sample evenly in an empty, sterile, 9 cm Petri dish. 
	NOTE: Samples with higher levels of decay are more likely to contain C. elegans. Optionally, a Petri dish filled with peptone-free agar medium (PFM) can be used to increase contrast.</li>
	<li>Cover the sample carefully with approximately 20 mL of sterile viscous medium. 
	NOTE: Nematodes float to the surface within 1-2 h. The viscous medium slows down the movement of the worms and makes it easier to sample them. Sterile M9-buffer can be used as an alternative, however, worm movement will be faster.</li>
</ol>
<img alt="Figure 1" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/64249/64249fig01.jpg" /> 
Figure 1: Isolation of nematodes from substrates. Substrate samples are placed in empty Petri dishes and covered with viscous medium to flush out nematodes. Nematodes are transferred to M9-T and repeatedly washed to remove bacteria from the outside. Individual nematodes can be used for DNA isolation, isolation of associated bacteria, or placed on agar plates to culture worm populations. Figure created with BioRender.com. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/64249/64249fig01large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
3. Isolation of Caenorhabditis nematodes (Figure 1)
<ol>
	<li>Search for Caenorhabditis nematodes using a dissecting microscope, following the guidelines presented in the WormBook chapter on the isolation of C. elegans and related nematodes by Barri&#232;re and F&#233;lix27. 
	NOTE: Caenorhabditis hermaphrodites/females have a gut of light brown color (under transmitted illumination). Moreover, the gut cells have large cell nuclei, which are visible as white dots. By contrast, other nematode species often have a dark brown gut and may show anteroposterior asymmetry in pigment intensity and usually no visible nuclei. The vulva of adult Caenorhabditis hermaphrodites/females is found in the middle of the animal. This vulva localization is not always shown by other nematode taxa. Caenorhabditis nematodes possess two pharyngeal bulbs, which are both visible with sufficient magnification and transmitted illumination and contrast with many other nematode taxa. Caenorhabditis nematodes have a pointed tail, whereas some other nematodes have a round tail.</li>
	<li>Collect the Caenorhabditis nematodes under a dissecting microscope in as little liquid as possible using a 20-100 &#181;L pipette. Transfer the collected nematodes directly to 1-3 mL of sterile M9-T in a sterile 3 cm Petri dish for washing the worms to remove non-attached microbes (step 3.3) or, alternatively, transfer individual worms onto a plate with nematode growth medium (NGM) to establish a worm population (step 3.4).</li>
	<li>Wash the nematodes to remove microbes from the outside of the nematode. 
	NOTE: This protocol enriches for gut bacteria but does not completely eliminate bacteria sticking to the worm cuticle.
	<ol>
		<li>Incubate the nematodes for 10-15 min in M9-T.</li>
		<li>Pipette the nematodes in as little liquid as possible into 1-3 mL of fresh M9-T in a new sterile 3 cm Petri dish.</li>
		<li>Repeat the incubation and transfer the nematodes to fresh M9-T two more times. 
		NOTE: The following steps can be done either with individual worms or with worm populations. The worms can now be used for the characterization of C. elegans and associated microbes, as well as the isolation of bacteria (steps 4 and 5). Alternatively, they can be transferred individually to NGM plates to establish a worm population (step 3.4).</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>To obtain a worm population, pipette an individual nematode to a NGM plate. 
	NOTE: Only hermaphroditic nematodes such as C. elegans or C. briggsae are able to produce offspring from single worms. However, single worms of other species may still produce offspring if they were already mated.
	<ol>
		<li>Naturally isolated nematodes usually contain bacteria in their gut, which they shed onto the NGM plates, where these bacteria grow and are available as food for C. elegans. Do not add separate food organisms like the standard laboratory food organism, E. coli strain OP50. 
		NOTE: Rearing worms on plates influences the composition of the associated bacterial community, yet the composition is still comparable to that of the natural C. elegans isolates6,7.</li>
		<li>Allow the nematodes to proliferate for up to 10 days at the appropriate temperature (e.g., 15-20 &#176;C for temperate locations). Freeze these nematodes (step 3.5) or use them for the characterization of C. elegans and associated microbes as well as the&#160;isolation of microbes (steps 4 and 5).</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Freezing nematodes for long-term storage
	<ol>
		<li>Leave the nematodes on plates until the food bacteria have disappeared, and there are mainly small larval stages on the plates. Wash the worms off the plates in 1.5 mL of S-buffer.</li>
		<li>Mix 500 &#181;L of worm-containing S-buffer thoroughly with 500 &#181;L of 30% (v/v) glycerol in S-buffer in a sterile 2 mL tube. Freeze the tubes promptly at -80 &#176;C for long-term storage, otherwise the glycerol may harm the nematodes.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
4. Preparation of the worms for molecular identification of C. elegans and microbes
<ol>
	<li>For unbiased identification of nematode-associated microbes, prepare a 96-well plate with three sterile 1 mm beads, 19.5 &#181;L of PCR-buffer, and 0.5 &#181;L of Proteinase K (20 mg/mL) per well. Pipette an individual, washed nematode to each well, transferring as little liquid as possible.</li>
	<li>Worm populations can also be used. For this, wash the worms from the plates with M9-buffer and transfer ~300 &#181;L of worm-containing M9-buffer to 2 mL tubes with 10-15 beads.</li>
	<li>Break up the nematodes using a bead homogenizer (e.g., bead-beating for 3 min at 30 Hz). Centrifuge the plate or tubes briefly to get the liquid to the bottom (e.g., for 10 s at 8000 x g at room temperature [RT]).</li>
	<li>Identification of C. elegans
	<ol>
		<li>Isolate the DNA of individual nematodes by heating the samples in a PCR cycler for 1 h at 50 &#176;C and 15 min at 95 &#176;C. Isolate the DNA of worm populations using any isolation method of choice (example protocols of different isolation methods using commercial kits7,9). Freeze the DNA at -20 &#176;C for long-term storage.</li>
		<li>For the identification of C. elegans, use the DNA and the primer pair nlp30-F (Table 1, 5&#39;-ACACATACAACTGATCACTCA-3&#39;) and nlp30-R (Table 1, 5&#39;-TACTTTCCCCATCCGTATC-3&#39;) in a PCR, following the instructions of a Taq supplier of choice.</li>
		<li>Use the following PCR conditions: initial denaturation step at 95 &#176;C for 2 min, followed by 35 cycles of 95 &#176;C for 45 s, 55 &#176;C for 30 s, 72 &#176;C for 1 min, and a final elongation step at 72 &#176;C for 5 min. C. elegans produces a 154 bp PCR product.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Characterize the nematode-associated bacteria via 16S amplicon sequencing of the V3-V4 region, using the isolated DNA.
	<ol>
		<li>Prepare a 16S library with the 16S primers of choice and follow the library preparation kit protocol. One option is to use the primers 341F (Table 1, 5&#39;-CCTACGGGNGGCWGCAG-3&#39;) and 806R (Table 1, 5&#39;-GACTACHVGGGTATCTAATCC-3&#39;) covering the V3-V4 region of the 16S rRNA gene, which results in sequences that can be classified with standard databases with good resolution7. 
		NOTE: The amount of input DNA is critical in this step. DNA acquired from single worms is going to be much less than that obtained from worm populations. For single worms, it might be necessary to increase the amount of input DNA or to increase the amount of PCR cycles7.</li>
		<li>Libraries can be sequenced on a sequencing platform using a suitable sequencing kit. 
		NOTE: Here, the MiSeq platform is used with a suitable MiSeq Reagent Kit. The reagents are improved constantly and should be chosen to the newest standards.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
5. Isolation and cultivation of nematode-associated bacteria (Figure 2)
<ol>
	<li>To isolate bacteria, prepare a 96-well plate with three sterile 1 mm beads, 20 &#181;L of M9-buffer per well, and pipette an individual, washed nematode to each well, transferring as little liquid as possible. 
	NOTE: Alternatively, worm populations can be washed from the plates with M9-buffer and ~300 &#181;L of worm-containing M9-buffer can be transferred to 2 mL tubes with 10-15 beads. In all cases, the worms should come from a culture that was identified to be C. elegans using steps 4.1-4.4.</li>
	<li>Break up the nematodes using a bead homogenizer (e.g., bead-beating for 3 min at 30 Hz). Centrifuge the plate or tubes briefly to get the liquid to the bottom (e.g., for 10 s at 8000 x g at RT). 
	NOTE: The usage of this method led to the isolation of bacterial taxa similar to those revealed by 16S rDNA amplicon sequencing7, suggesting that the described bead-beating leaves most bacterial cells intact.</li>
	<li>Collect the supernatant, serially dilute it at 1:10, and plate up to 100 &#181;L onto 9 cm agar plates.
	<ol>
		<li>To ensure that most bacteria can be cultivated, use a variety of alternative media with different nutrient compositions, including diluted trypticase soy agar (TSA, 1:10 dilution), MacConkey agar, Sabouraud glucose agar, potato dextrose agar, or yeast peptone dextrose agar.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Incubate the plates at the average temperature conditions of the sampling location (e.g., temperatures between 15-20 &#176;C for temperate locations) for 24-48 h.</li>
	<li>Use the standard three-streak technique and a sterile loop to obtain pure bacterial cultures (Figure 2).
	<ol>
		<li>Pick a single colony from a plate using a sterile loop or toothpick and streak it out onto a new agar plate containing the same agar medium as used for purification. Make sure to use only roughly 1/3 of the plate.</li>
		<li>Either use a new sterile loop or sterilize a reusable loop and drag it through the first streak to create a second streak on another 1/3 of the same plate.</li>
		<li>Repeat this step by dragging a sterile loop through the second streak.</li>
		<li>Incubate the plate at the same growth conditions used for isolation. This technique must result in single colonies growing in the area of the third streak. 
		NOTE: It might be necessary to repeat the purification step multiple times as natural isolates tend to form biofilms and/or aggregates.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Grow the pure colonies in a liquid medium (of the same type as the agar medium) using the same temperature and growth time as above (step 5.4)</li>
	<li>Prepare bacteria stocks by adding 300 &#181;L of the bacterial culture to 200 &#181;L of 86% (v/v) glycerol (in the respective growth medium, e.g., TSB) and pipette up and down to mix properly. Alternatively, prepare DMSO stocks by mixing 50 &#181;L of bacterial culture with 50 &#181;L of 7% (v/v) DMSO. Freeze at -80 &#176;C for long-term storage.</li>
	<li>Characterizing bacteria using sequencing of the full 16S ribosomal RNA gene
	<ol>
		<li>Extract the bacterial DNA from pure liquid cultures using a suitable technique (e.g., a DNA extraction kit; from experience, a CTAB-based extraction protocol works very well22).</li>
		<li>Amplify the 16S rRNA gene using the primers 27F (Table 1, 5&#39;-GAGAGTTTGATCCTGGCTCAG-3&#39;) and 1495R (Table 1, 5&#39;-CTACGGCTACCTTGTTACGA -3&#39;)28 and the following PCR conditions: 95 &#176;C, 2 min, 22x (95 &#176;C, 30 s; 55 &#176;C, 30 s; 72 &#176;C, 100 s), and a final extension period at 72 &#176;C, 5 min.</li>
		<li>In order to acquire the full sequences, additionally use two internal sequencing primers, such as 701F (Table 1, 5&#39;-GTGTAGCGGTGAAATGCG-3&#39;) and 785R (Table 1, 5&#39;-GGATTAGATACCCTGGTAGTCC-3&#39;)6.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
<img alt="Figure 2" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/64249/64249fig2v2.jpg" /> 
Figure 2: Species identification and isolation of individual bacteria. Individual nematodes are broken up using a bead homogenizer, and DNA is isolated for species determination via PCR or sequencing. Alternatively, the broken-up nematode material is serially diluted and plated onto growth medium plates. Plates are incubated until bacterial colonies appear, and single colonies are streaked to new plates to obtain pure cultures. Single colonies of the pure cultures are used to grow liquid bacterial cultures for the preparation of bacterial stocks for long-term storage at -80 &#176;C. Figure created with BioRender.com. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/64249/64249fig2v2large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>

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A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Isolation+of+C.+elegans+and+related+nematodes.">Isolation of C. elegans and related nematodes.</a> WormBook. , 1-19 (2014).</li><li>Weisburg, W. G., Barns, S. M., Pelletier, D. A., Lane, D. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=16S+ribosomal+DNA+amplification+for+phylogenetic+study.">16S ribosomal DNA amplification for phylogenetic study.</a> Journal of Bacteriology. 173 (2), 697-703 (1991).</li><li>Brenner, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+genetics+of+Caenorhabditis+elegans.">The genetics of Caenorhabditis elegans.</a> Genetics. 77 (1), 71-94 (1974).</li><li>Crombie, T. A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Local+adaptation+and+spatiotemporal+patterns+of+genetic+diversity+revealed+by+repeated+sampling+of+Caenorhabditis+elegans+across+the+Hawaiian+Islands.">Local adaptation and spatiotemporal patterns of genetic diversity revealed by repeated sampling of Caenorhabditis elegans across the Hawaiian Islands.</a> Molecular Ecology. 31 (8), 2327-2347 (2022).</li><li>Haber, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Evolutionary+history+of+Caenorhabditis+elegans+inferred+from+microsatellites:+Evidence+for+spatial+and+temporal+genetic+differentiation+and+the+occurrence+of+outbreeding.">Evolutionary history of Caenorhabditis elegans inferred from microsatellites: Evidence for spatial and temporal genetic differentiation and the occurrence of outbreeding.</a> Molecular Biology and Evolution. 22 (1), 160-173 (2004).</li><li>Watson, E., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Metabolic+network+rewiring+of+propionate+flux+compensates+vitamin+B12+deficiency+in+C.+elegans.">Metabolic network rewiring of propionate flux compensates vitamin B12 deficiency in C. elegans.</a> eLife. 5, 17670 (2016).</li></ol>

We declare that we have no conflict of interest.

The nematode Caenorhabditis elegans is one of the most intensively studied model organisms in biological research. It was introduced by Sydney Brenner in the 1960s, originally for understanding the development and the function of the nervous system29. Since then, C. elegans has become a powerful model for studying fundamental processes across all biological disciplines, including behavioral biology, neurobiology, aging, evolutionary biology, cell biology, developmental biology, a...

In nature, C. elegans is commonly found in rotten plant matter, especially rotten fruits like apples or on compost heaps1. It is also associated with certain invertebrate hosts such as slugs and woodlice2,3. These habitats are rich in microbes, which not only serve as food for the worm, but may also form stable associations with it. Information on the diversity of naturally associated microorganisms was only published in 20164,5,6. Since then, these and only a few more recent studies have revealed that C. elegans is associated with a variety of bacteria and fungi, most commonly including bacteria of the genus Pseudomonas, Enterobacter, Ochrobactrum, Erwinia, Comamonas, Gluconobacter, and several others6,7,8. Several associated bacteria can stably colonize the worm gut, although not all6,9,10,11,12. They are likely to be of key importance for our understanding of C. elegans biology because they can provide nutrition, protect against pathogens and possibly other stressors, and affect central life-history traits such as reproductive rate, development, or behavioral responses.
As an example, naturally associated isolates of the genera Pseudomonas, Ochrobactrum, and also Enterobacter or Gluconobacter can protect the worm from pathogen infection and killing in distinct ways5,6,11,13,14. A specific isolate of the genus Comamonas influences nematode dietary response, development, lifespan, and fertility15,16,17. Providencia bacteria produce the neuromodulator tyramine and thereby modulate host nervous system activity and resulting behavioral responses18. A set of different naturally associated bacteria were demonstrated to affect population growth rate, fertility, and behavioral responses5,6,9,11,19.
To date, the exact diversity and consistency of the native C. elegans microbiota across habitats and geographic locations are not fully understood, and further associations between the worm and microbes from its environment remain to be uncovered. Several previous studies used bacterial strains isolated from some soil environment, natural C. elegans habitats, or from mesocosm experiments (i.e., lab-based environments that recreate natural habitats) with C. elegans laboratory strains4,5,20. Even though these studies obtained new insights into the influence of microbes on specific nematode traits (e.g., nematode metabolism21), the relevance of these interactions for C. elegans biology in nature is unclear. Therefore, this manuscript describes the methods to directly isolate C. elegans from nature and to isolate and subsequently characterize the naturally associated microbes from both single worms and groups of worms. The described methods are an updated and improved version of the procedures used previously for the isolation and characterization of natural C. elegans and its native microbiota2,6,7. Considering that C. elegans is widely found in decomposing plant matter across the globe (especially in rotting fruits, temperate regions, and in autumn)1,2,22,23,24,25, this protocol can be applied by any lab whenever there is interest in relating C. elegans traits to naturally associated microbes and thus a more naturally relevant context. The latter is pivotal for a full understanding of the nematode&#39;s biology because it is known from a diversity of other host systems that the associated microbiota can affect diverse life history characteristics26, an aspect which is currently largely neglected in the multitude of C. elegans studies across almost all life science disciplines.

<table><tbody><tr><td>COMSOL</td><td>COMSOL</td><td></td><td>multiphysics simulation software</td></tr></tbody></table>

isolation and characterization of the natural microbiota of the model nematode caenorhabditis elegans

The nematode Caenorhabditis elegans interacts with a large diversity of microorganisms in nature. In general, C. elegans is commonly found in rotten plant matter, especially rotten fruits like apples or on compost heaps. It is also associated with certain invertebrate hosts such as slugs and woodlice. These habitats are rich in microbes, which serve as food for C. elegans and which can also persistently colonize the nematode gut. To date, the exact diversity and consistency of the native C. elegans microbiota across habitats and geographic locations is not fully understood. Here, we describe a suitable approach for isolating C. elegans from nature and characterizing the microbiota of worms. Nematodes can be easily isolated from compost material, rotting apples, slugs, or attracted by placing apples on compost heaps. The prime time for finding C. elegans in the Northern Hemisphere is from September until November. Worms can be washed out of collected substrate material by immersing the substrate in buffer solution, followed by the collection of nematodes and their transfer onto nematode growth medium or PCR buffer for subsequent analysis. We further illustrate how the samples can be used to isolate and purify the worm-associated microorganisms and to process worms for 16S ribosomal RNA analysis of microbiota community composition. Overall, the described methods may stimulate new research on the characterization of the C. elegans microbiota across habitats and geographic locations, thereby helping to obtain a comprehensive understanding of the diversity and stability of the nematode's microbiota as a basis for future functional research.

The nematode C. elegans is frequently found in decomposing fruits, such as apples, and also compost samples. In Northern Germany, C. elegans as well as congeneric species (particularly C. remanei but also C. briggsae) are mainly found from September until November2. The nematodes are most commonly found in decomposing plant matter, especially rotting fruits such as apples or pears, and also compost, particularly material that shows a high grade of decomposition....

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Isolation and Characterization of the Natural Microbiota of the Model Nematode Caenorhabditis elegans

Caenorhabditis elegans is one of the main model species in biology, yet almost all research is performed in the absence of its naturally associated microbes. The methods described here will help to improve our understanding of the diversity of associated microbes as a basis for future functional C. elegans research.

Isolation and Characterization of the Natural Microbiota of the Model Nematode Caenorhabditis elegans

The nematode Caenorhabditis elegans interacts with a large diversity of microorganisms in nature. In general, C. elegans is commonly found in rotten plant ...

isolation-characterization-natural-microbiota-model-nematode

Research

JoVE Journal

Biology

2.9K Views.  University of Kiel. Caenorhabditis elegans is one of the main model species in biology, yet almost all research is performed in the absence of its naturally associated microbes. The methods described here will help to improve our understanding of the diversity of associated microbes as a basis for future functional C. elegans research.

Video: Isolation and Characterization of the Natural Microbiota of the Model Nematode Caenorhabditis elegans

The Nematode Caenorhabditis Elegans - A Versatile In Vivo Model to Study Host-microbe Interactions

We demonstrate a method using Caenorhabditis elegans as a model host to study microbial interaction. Microbes are introduced via the diet making the intestine the primary location for disease. The nematode intestine structurally and functionally mimics mammalian intestines and is transparent making it amenable to microscopic study of colonization. Here we show that pathogens can cause disease and death. We are able to identify microbial mutants that show altered virulence. Its conserved innate response to biotic stresses makes C. elegans an excellent system to probe facets of host innate immune interactions. We show that hosts with mutations in the dual oxidase gene cannot produce reactive oxygen species and are unable to resist microbial insult. We further demonstrate the versatility of the presented survival assay by showing that it can be used to study the effects of inhibitors of microbial growth. This assay may also be used to discover fungal virulence factors as targets for the development of novel antifungal agents, as well as provide an opportunity to further uncover host-microbe interactions. The design of this assay lends itself well to high throughput whole-genome screens, while the ability to cryo-preserve worms for future use makes it a cost-effective and attractive whole animal model to study.

The Nematode Caenorhabditis Elegans - A Versatile In Vivo Model to Study Host-microbe Interactions

Here, we present the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans as a versatile host model to study microbial interaction.

We demonstrate a method using Caenorhabditis elegans as a model host to study microbial interaction. Microbes are introduced via the diet making the ...

Genetics

Automated Separation of C. elegans Variably Colonized by a Bacterial Pathogen

The wormsorter is an instrument analogous to a FACS machine that is used in studies of Caenorhabditis elegans, typically to sort worms based on expression of a fluorescent reporter. Here, we highlight an alternative usage of this instrument, for sorting worms according to their degree of colonization by a GFP-expressing pathogen. This new usage allowed us to address the relationship between colonization of the worm intestine and induction of immune responses. While C. elegans immune responses to different pathogens have been documented, it is still unknown what initiates them. The two main possibilities (which are not mutually exclusive) are recognition of pathogen-associated molecular patterns, and detection of damage caused by infection. To differentiate between the two possibilities, exposure to the pathogen must be dissociated from the damage it causes. The wormsorter enabled separation of worms that were extensively-colonized by the Gram-negative pathogen Pseudomonas aeruginosa, with the damage likely caused by pathogen load, from worms that were similarly exposed, but not, or marginally, colonized. These distinct populations were used to assess the relationship between pathogen load and the induction of transcriptional immune responses. The results suggest that the two are dissociated, supporting the possibility of pathogen recognition.

Automated Separation of C. elegans Variably Colonized by a Bacterial Pathogen

The wormsorter facilitates genetic screens in Caenorhabditis elegans by sorting worms according to expression of fluorescent reporters. Here, we describe a new usage:&#160;sorting according to colonization by a GFP-expressing pathogen, and we employ it to examine the poorly understood role of pathogen recognition in initiating immune responses.

The wormsorter is an instrument analogous to a FACS machine that is used in studies of Caenorhabditis elegans, typically to sort worms based on expression ...

Immunology and Infection

Isolation of Specific Neuron Populations from Roundworm Caenorhabditis elegans

During the aging process, many cells accumulate high levels of damage leading to cellular dysfunction, which underlies many geriatric and pathological conditions. Post-mitotic neurons represent a major cell type affected by aging. Although multiple mammalian models of neuronal aging exist, they are challenging and expensive to establish. The roundworm Caenorhabditis elegans is a powerful model to study neuronal aging, as these animals have short lifespan, an available robust genetic toolbox, and well-cataloged nervous system. The method presented herein allows for seamless isolation of specific cells based on the expression of a transgenic green fluorescent protein (GFP). Transgenic animal lines expressing GFP under distinct, cell type-specific promoters are digested to remove the outer cuticle and gently mechanically disrupted to produce slurry containing various cell types. The cells of interest are then separated from non-target cells through fluorescence-activated cell sorting, or by anti-GFP-coupled magnetic beads. The isolated cells can then be cultured for a limited time or immediately used for cell-specific ex vivo analyses such as transcriptional analysis by real time quantitative PCR. Thus, this protocol allows for rapid and robust analysis of cell-specific responses within different neuronal populations in C. elegans.

Isolation of Specific Neuron Populations from Roundworm Caenorhabditis elegans

Here, we present a protocol for simple isolation of specific groups of live neuronal cells expressing green fluorescent protein from transgenic Caenorhabditis elegans lines. This method enables a variety of ex vivo studies focused on specific neurons and has the capacity to isolate cells for further short-term culturing.

During the aging process, many cells accumulate high levels of damage leading to cellular dysfunction, which underlies many geriatric and pathological ...

Developmental Biology

Selective Cleaning of Wild Caenorhabditis Nematodes to Enrich for Intestinal Microbiome Bacteria

Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans)&#160;has proven to be an excellent model for studying host-microbe interactions and the microbiome, especially in the context of the intestines. Recently, ecological sampling of wild Caenorhabditis nematodes has discovered a diverse array of associated microbes, including bacteria, viruses, fungi, and microsporidia. Many of these microbes have interesting colonization or infection phenotypes that warrant further study, but they are often unculturable. This protocol presents a method to enrich the desired intestinal microbes in C. elegans and related nematodes and reduce the presence of the many contaminating microbes adhering to the cuticle. This protocol involves forcing animals into the dauer stage of development and using a series of antibiotic and detergent washes to remove external contamination. As dauer animals have physiological changes that protect nematodes from harsh environmental conditions, any intestinal microbes will be protected from these conditions. But, for enrichment to work, the microbe of interest must be maintained when animals develop into dauers. When the animals leave the dauer stage, they are singly propagated into individual lines. F1 populations are then selected for desired microbes or infection phenotypes and against visible contamination. These methods will allow researchers to enrich unculturable microbes in the intestinal lumen, which make up part of the natural microbiome of C. elegans and intracellular intestinal pathogens. These microbes can then be studied for colonization or infection phenotypes and their effects on the host fitness.

Selective Cleaning of Wild Caenorhabditis Nematodes to Enrich for Intestinal Microbiome Bacteria

Wild Caenorhabditis nematodes are associated with many microbes, often in the gut lumen or infecting the intestine. This protocol details a method to enrich unculturable microbes colonizing the intestine, taking advantage of the resistance of the dauer cuticle.

Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans)&#160;has proven to be an excellent model for studying host-microbe interactions and the microbiome, especially in the ...

RNA Fluorescence in situ Hybridization (FISH) to Visualize Microbial Colonization and Infection in Caenorhabditis elegans Intestines

The intestines of wild Caenorhabditis nematodes are inhabited by a variety of microorganisms, including gut microbiome bacteria and pathogens, such as microsporidia and viruses. Because of the similarities between Caenorhabditis elegans and mammalian intestinal cells, as well as the power of the C. elegans system, this host has emerged as a model system to study host intestine-microbe interactions in vivo. While it is possible to observe some aspects of these interactions with bright-field microscopy, it is difficult to accurately classify microbes and characterize the extent of colonization or infection without more precise tools. RNA fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) can be used as a tool to identify and visualize microbes in nematodes from the wild or to experimentally characterize and quantify infection in nematodes infected with microbes in the lab. FISH probes, labeling the highly abundant small subunit ribosomal RNA, produce a bright signal for bacteria and microsporidian cells. Probes designed to target conserved regions of ribosomal RNA common to many species can detect a broad range of microbes, whereas targeting divergent regions of the ribosomal RNA is useful for narrower detection. Similarly, probes can be designed to label viral RNA. A protocol for RNA FISH staining with either paraformaldehyde (PFA) or acetone fixation is presented. PFA fixation is ideal for nematodes associated with bacteria, microsporidia, and viruses, whereas acetone fixation is necessary for the visualization of microsporida spores. Animals were first washed and fixed in paraformaldehyde or acetone. After fixation, FISH probes were incubated with samples to allow for the hybridization of probes to the desired target. The animals were again washed and then examined on microscope slides or using automated approaches. Overall, this FISH protocol enables detection, identification, and quantification of the microbes that inhabit the C. elegans intestine, including microbes for which there are no genetic tools available.

RNA Fluorescence in situ Hybridization FISH to Visualize Microbial Colonization and Infection in Caenorhabditis elegans Intestines

Intestinal microbes, including extracellular bacteria and intracellular pathogens like the Orsay virus and microsporidia (fungi), are often associated with wild Caenorhabditis nematodes. This article presents a protocol for detecting and quantifying microbes that colonize and/or infect C. elegans nematodes, and for measuring pathogen load after controlled infections in the lab.

The intestines of wild Caenorhabditis nematodes are inhabited by a variety of microorganisms, including gut microbiome bacteria and pathogens, such as ...

High-Throughput Screening of Microbial Isolates with Impact on Caenorhabditis elegans Health

With its small size, short lifespan, and easy genetics, Caenorhabditis elegans offers a convenient platform to study the impact of microbial isolates on host physiology. It also fluoresces in blue when dying, providing a convenient means of pinpointing death. This property has been exploited to develop high-throughput label-free C. elegans survival assays (LFASS). These involve time-lapse fluorescence recording of worm populations set in multiwell plates, from which population median time of death can be derived. The present study adopts the LFASS approach to screen multiple microbial isolates at once for the effects on C. elegans susceptibility to severe heat and oxidative stresses. Such microbial screening pipeline, which can notably be used to prescreen probiotics, using severe stress resistance as a proxy for host health is reported here. The protocol describes how to grow both C. elegans gut microbiota isolate collections and synchronous worm populations in multiwell arrays before combining them for the assays. The example provided covers the testing of 47 bacterial isolates and one control strain on two worm strains, in two stress assays in parallel. However, the approach pipeline is readily scalable and applicable to the screening of many other modalities. Thus, it provides a versatile setup to rapidly survey a multiparametric landscape of biological and biochemical conditions that impact C. elegans health.

High-Throughput Screening of Microbial Isolates with Impact on Caenorhabditis elegans Health

Gut microbes may positively or negatively impact the health of their host via specific or conserved mechanisms. Caenorhabditis elegans is a convenient platform to screen for such microbes. The present protocol describes high-throughput screening of 48 bacterial isolates for impact on nematode stress resistance, used as a proxy for worm health.

With its small size, short lifespan, and easy genetics, Caenorhabditis elegans offers a convenient platform to study the impact of microbial isolates on ...

Using Single-Worm Data to Quantify Heterogeneity in Caenorhabditis elegans-Bacterial Interactions

The nematode Caenorhabditis elegans is a model system for host-microbe and host-microbiome interactions. Many studies to date use batch digests rather than individual worm samples to quantify bacterial load in this organism. Here it is argued that the large inter-individual variability seen in bacterial colonization of the C. elegans intestine is informative, and that batch digest methods discard information that is important for accurate comparison across conditions. As describing the variation inherent to these samples requires large numbers of individuals, a convenient 96-well plate protocol for disruption and colony plating of individual worms is established.

Using Single-Worm Data to Quantify Heterogeneity in Caenorhabditis elegans-Bacterial Interactions

This protocol describes a 96-well disruption of individual bacterially colonized Caenorhabditis elegans following cold paralysis and surface bleaching&#160;to remove external bacteria. The resulting suspension is plated on agar plates to allow accurate, medium-throughput quantification of bacterial load in large numbers of individual worms.

The nematode Caenorhabditis elegans is a model system for host-microbe and host-microbiome interactions. Many studies to date use batch digests rather ...

Hand Dissection of Caenorhabditis elegans Intestines

Comprised of only 20 cells, the Caenorhabditis elegans intestine&#160;is the nexus of many life-supporting functions, including digestion, metabolism, aging, immunity, and environmental response. Critical interactions between the C. elegans host and its environment converge within the intestine, where gut microbiota concentrate. Therefore, the ability to isolate intestine tissue away from the rest of the worm is necessary to assess intestine-specific processes. This protocol describes a method for hand dissecting adult C. elegans intestines. The procedure can be performed in fluorescently labeled strains for ease or training purposes. Once the technique is perfected, intestines can be collected from unlabeled worms of any genotype. This microdissection approach allows for the simultaneous capture of host intestinal tissue and gut microbiota, a benefit to many microbiome studies. As such, downstream applications for the intestinal preparations generated by this protocol can include but are not limited to RNA isolation from intestinal cells and DNA isolation from captured microbiota. Overall, hand dissection of C. elegans intestines affords a simple and robust method to investigate critical aspects of intestine biology.

Hand Dissection of Caenorhabditis elegans Intestines

The present protocol describes a procedure for isolating intestines from adult Caenorhabditis elegans nematode worms by hand for input in genomics, proteomics, microbiome, or other assays.

Comprised of only 20 cells, the Caenorhabditis elegans intestine&#160;is the nexus of many life-supporting functions, including digestion, metabolism, ...

Compost Microcosms as Microbially Diverse, Natural-like Environments for Microbiome Research in Caenorhabditis elegans

The nematode Caenorhabditis elegans is emerging as a useful model for studying the molecular mechanisms underlying interactions between hosts and their gut microbiomes. While experiments with well-characterized bacteria or defined bacterial communities can facilitate the analysis of molecular mechanisms, studying nematodes in their natural microbial context is essential for exploring the diversity of such mechanisms. At the same time, the isolation of worms from the wild is not always feasible, and, even when possible, sampling from the wild restricts the use of the genetic toolkit otherwise available for C. elegans research. The following protocol describes a method for microbiome studies utilizing compost microcosms for the in-lab&#160;growth in microbially diverse and natural-like environments.
Locally sourced soil can be enriched with produce to diversify the microbial communities in which worms are raised and from which they are harvested, washed, and surface-sterilized for subsequent analyses. Representative experiments demonstrate the ability to modulate the microbial community in a common soil by enriching it with different produce and further demonstrate that worms raised in these distinct environments assemble similar gut microbiomes distinct from their respective environments, supporting the notion of a species-specific core gut microbiome. Overall, compost microcosms provide natural-like in-lab environments for microbiome research as an alternative to synthetic microbial communities or to the isolation of wild nematodes.

Compost Microcosms as Microbially Diverse, Natural-like Environments for Microbiome Research in Caenorhabditis elegans

Compost microcosms bring the microbial diversity found in nature into the laboratory to facilitate microbiome research in Caenorhabditis elegans. Provided here are protocols for setting up microcosm experiments, with the experiments demonstrating the ability to modulate environmental microbial diversity to explore the relationships between environmental microbial diversity and worm gut microbiome composition.

The nematode Caenorhabditis elegans is emerging as a useful model for studying the molecular mechanisms underlying interactions between hosts and their ...

Application of Flow Vermimetry for Quantification and Analysis of the Caenorhabditis elegans Gut Microbiome

The composition of the gut microbiome can have a dramatic impact on host physiology throughout the development and the life of the animal. Measuring compositional changes in the microbiome is crucial in identifying the functional relationships between these physiological changes. Caenorhabditis elegans has emerged as a powerful host system to examine the molecular drivers of host-microbiome interactions. With its transparent body plan and fluorescent-tagged natural microbes, the relative levels of microbes within the gut microbiome of an individual C. elegans animal can be easily quantified using a large particle sorter. Here we describe the procedures for the experimental setup of a microbiome, collection, and analysis of C. elegans populations in the desired life stage, operation, and maintenance of the sorter, and statistical analyses of the resulting datasets. We also discuss considerations for optimizing sorter settings based on the microbes of interest, the development of effective gating strategies for C. elegans life stages, and how to utilize sorter capabilities to enrich animal populations based on gut microbiome composition. Examples of potential applications will be presented as part of the protocol, including the potential for scalability to high-throughput applications.

Application of Flow Vermimetry for Quantification and Analysis of the Caenorhabditis elegans Gut Microbiome

Caenorhabditis elegans is a powerful model to examine the molecular determinants driving host-microbiome interactions. We present a high throughput pipeline profiling the single animal levels of gut microbiome colonization together with key aspects of the C. elegans physiology.

The composition of the gut microbiome can have a dramatic impact on host physiology throughout the development and the life of the animal. Measuring ...

Isolation and Characterization of the Natural Microbiota of the Model Nematode Caenorhabditis elegans

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Chapters in this video

The Nematode Caenorhabditis Elegans - A Versatile In Vivo Model to Study Host-microbe Interactions

Automated Separation of C. elegans Variably Colonized by a Bacterial Pathogen

Isolation of Specific Neuron Populations from Roundworm Caenorhabditis elegans

Selective Cleaning of Wild Caenorhabditis Nematodes to Enrich for Intestinal Microbiome Bacteria

RNA Fluorescence in situ Hybridization (FISH) to Visualize Microbial Colonization and Infection in Caenorhabditis elegans Intestines

High-Throughput Screening of Microbial Isolates with Impact on Caenorhabditis elegans Health

Using Single-Worm Data to Quantify Heterogeneity in Caenorhabditis elegans-Bacterial Interactions

Hand Dissection of Caenorhabditis elegans Intestines

Compost Microcosms as Microbially Diverse, Natural-like Environments for Microbiome Research in Caenorhabditis elegans

Application of Flow Vermimetry for Quantification and Analysis of the Caenorhabditis elegans Gut Microbiome