The study was approved by the IRB of Peking University First Hospital, and written informed consent was obtained from all participants.
NOTE: All children with intractable epilepsy who underwent frontal disconnection at the Pediatric Epilepsy Center of Peking University First Hospital from January 1, 2017, to March 1, 2022, were included and analyzed. Those who met the clinical and radiological criteria of MOGHE and whose MRI suggested that the epileptogenic lesion was confined to the frontal lobe were included. The histopathological diagnostic criteria for MOGHE have been previously described6. Semiology, ictal and interictal electroencephalography (EEG), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), interictal 18fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography (PET), and developmental assessment were performed for preoperative evaluation. Children over 7 years of age were evaluated by the Wechsler Intelligence Scale-IV, and children under 7 years of age were evaluated by the Griffith Developmental Assessment Scale. The outcome of epilepsy was evaluated by the ILAE classification, and patients with an ILAE 1 were considered seizure-free8. Semiology was divided into 3 groups (focal, spasm/generalized seizure, and mixed type). Interictal EEG was divided into focal (regional discharge), multifocal (several unilateral hemispheric regional discharges), and diffuse (contralateral involved). Ictal EEG was divided into focal (regional onset), diffuse (unilateral hemispheric onset or nonlocalizing EEG), and focal/diffuse (coexistence of 2 patterns)9. Based on the typing of MOGHE by Hartlieb et al.7, the MRI findings of the 8 patients were also classified as type 1 (Figure 1A, B) or type 2. Figure 1 shows representative intraoperative photos and pre-and postoperative images of frontal disconnection in patient 8.
1. Positioning
<ol>
	<li>Administer general anesthesia to the patient using standard techniques.</li>
	<li>Locate the Sylvian fissure, coronal suture, and central sulcus according to anatomical landmarks as a reference for drawing surgical incision lines. Make a &#34;7&#34;-shaped skin incision 1.0 cm off the midline and 2-3 cm anterior to the coronal suture. Ensure that the posterior margin of the incision includes the precentral gyrus and extends down to the pterygoid region (Figure 1D)</li>
	<li>Place the patient supine with the head turned to the opposite side. Place a shoulder pad under the shoulder to help the head turn.</li>
	<li>Maintain sterile conditions throughout the procedure by sterilely preparing the skin and draping the surgical area.</li>
</ol>
2. Opening
<ol>
	<li>Incise the scalp and muscles. Take care to cut the muscles in layers.</li>
	<li>Separate the scalp and periosteum with a scalpel. 
	NOTE: Preservation of the periosteum reduces postoperative subcutaneous hydrops.</li>
	<li>Drill three 1 cm holes using a high-speed drill of 1 cm diameter and mill down the bone flap with a 1 mm wide milling cutter. 
	NOTE: Adequate exposure of the sphenoid ridge is required to facilitate subsequent disconnection of the frontal base.</li>
	<li>Use bone wax, gelatin sponge, and bipolar cautery to achieve hemostasis.</li>
	<li>Drill 4-5 1 mm holes in the bone margin and suspend the dura to avoid epidural hematoma.</li>
	<li>Cut open the dura 0.5 cm away from the bone margin. Expose the precentral gyrus, the posterior part of the inferior frontal gyrus, and the beginning of the lateral fissure. (Figure 1E)</li>
</ol>
3. Frontal disconnection procedures
<ol>
	<li>Use the stereotactic system software for surgical planning before surgery. Import the 3D T1, flair weighted images, and PET data into the software for registration and 3D reconstruction10. 
	NOTE: The precentral sulcus was delineated by a 3D coregistration. Intraoperative mapping of the central gyrus was not performed (Figure 1C).</li>
	<li>Select the area with the most severe abnormality on preoperative imaging for histological examination.</li>
	<li>Resect the posterior part of the inferior frontal gyrus to fully expose the 1 and 2 short gyri of the insula. 
	NOTE: In children under 5 years of age with suspected frontal MOGHE, preservation of the speech area is not considered in order to maximize the extent of disconnection of the epileptogenic zone.</li>
	<li>Disconnect the base of the frontal lobe and the fibers along the anterior insula to the sphenoid ridge and then to the midline. 
	NOTE: The anterior cerebral artery and the olfactory triangle are landmarks of the posterior boundary of the disconnection. The gyrus rectus is located medial to the olfactory nerve, and the disconnection of the base of the frontal lobe needs to reach the midline pia. The contralateral brain tissue must be well preserved.</li>
	<li>Dissect the gray and white matter along the precentral sulcus. The boundary of disconnection at the midline is the cerebral falx, and down to the cingulate gyrus, disconnect it accordingly.
	<ol>
		<li>When performing intrafrontal disconnection along the precentral sulcus, disconnect the white matter under the bottom of the sulcus slightly forward to make the pyramidal tract intact.</li>
		<li>On the other hand, because MOGHE is a white matter lesion with blurred gray-white matter boundaries, perform a sufficiently deep resection/disconnection to achieve the highest chance of seizure freedom.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Incise the corpus callosum to open the ipsilateral ventricles, dissect the arcuate fibers completely along the top of the ventricles to the anterior horn, and then meet the frontal base disconnection line. 
	NOTE: The entire anterior lateral ventricle is completely open so far.</li>
	<li>Disconnect the anterior corpus callosum to the anterior commissure within the lateral ventricles, where the posterior portion of the frontobasal disconnection reaches the level of the callosal disconnection.</li>
	<li>Expose the anterior cerebral artery, which can be an anatomical landmark in the disconnection of the corpus callosum. Finally, resect the paraterminal gyrus and posterior gyrus rectus behind the anterior cerebral artery with suction. 
	NOTE: The frontobasal disconnection should be complete, including the paraterminal gyrus and posterior gyrus rectus; otherwise, the seizure outcome will be greatly affected. Frontal disconnection is frequently accompanied by resection of the 1 or/and 2 insular short gyri according to the preoperative evaluation, thereby facilitating a more comprehensive excision of the epileptogenic zone. The photos after disconnection and postoperative MRI are shown in Figure 1. Resection of the 1 and 2 short insular gyri should be actively considered, especially if preoperative MRI and PET suggest abnormalities.</li>
</ol>
4. Closure
<ol>
	<li>Suture the dura with 4-0 absorbable sutures to achieve a tight closure.</li>
	<li>Place an epidural drain for 2 days.</li>
	<li>Fix the bone using 3 absorbable cranial bone locks.</li>
	<li>Close the subcutaneous layer with 4-0 subcuticular sutures.</li>
	<li>Suture the skin with a stapler.</li>
</ol>

MOGHE and Epilepsy: Outcomes of Frontal Disconnection Surgery 

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Y., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Clinical+characteristics+and+surgical+outcomes+in+children+with+mild+malformation+of+cortical+development+and+oligodendroglial+hyperplasia+in+epilepsy.">Clinical characteristics and surgical outcomes in children with mild malformation of cortical development and oligodendroglial hyperplasia in epilepsy.</a> Epilepsia Open. 8 (3), 898-911 (2023).</li><li>Hartlieb, T., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Age-related+MR+characteristics+in+mild+malformation+of+cortical+development+with+oligodendroglial+hyperplasia+and+epilepsy+(MOGHE).">Age-related MR characteristics in mild malformation of cortical development with oligodendroglial hyperplasia and epilepsy (MOGHE).</a> Epilepsy Behav. 91, 68-74 (2019).</li><li>Wieser, H. G., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Proposal+for+a+new+classification+of+outcome+with+respect+to+epileptic+seizures+following+epilepsy+surgery.">Proposal for a new classification of outcome with respect to epileptic seizures following epilepsy surgery.</a> Epilepsia. 42 (2), 282-286 (2001).</li><li>Wang, Y., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Disconnection+surgery+in+pediatric+epilepsy:+A+single+center's+experience+with+185+cases.">Disconnection surgery in pediatric epilepsy: A single center's experience with 185 cases.</a> Neurosurgery. 93 (6), 1251-1258 (2023).</li><li>Wang, Y., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Seizure+and+cognitive+outcomes+of+posterior+quadrantic+disconnection:+A+series+of+12+pediatric+patients.">Seizure and cognitive outcomes of posterior quadrantic disconnection: A series of 12 pediatric patients.</a> Br J Neurosurg. 34 (6), 677-682 (2020).</li><li>Gaballa, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Clinical+characteristics+and+postoperative+seizure+outcome+in+patients+with+mild+malformation+of+cortical+development+and+oligodendroglial+hyperplasia.">Clinical characteristics and postoperative seizure outcome in patients with mild malformation of cortical development and oligodendroglial hyperplasia.</a> Epilepsia. 62 (12), 2920-2931 (2021).</li><li>Barba, C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Clinical+features,+neuropathology,+and+surgical+outcome+in+patients+with+refractory+epilepsy+and+brain+somatic+variants+in+the+slc35a2+gene.">Clinical features, neuropathology, and surgical outcome in patients with refractory epilepsy and brain somatic variants in the slc35a2 gene.</a> Neurology. 100 (5), e528-e542 (2023).</li><li>Garganis, K., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Frontal+lobe+epilepsy+and+mild+malformation+with+oligodendroglial+hyperplasia:+Further+observations+on+electroclinical+and+imaging+phenotypes,+and+surgical+perspectives.">Frontal lobe epilepsy and mild malformation with oligodendroglial hyperplasia: Further observations on electroclinical and imaging phenotypes, and surgical perspectives.</a> Epileptic Disord. 25 (3), 343-359 (2023).</li><li>Willard, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Seizure+outcome+after+surgery+for+mri-diagnosed+focal+cortical+dysplasia:+A+systematic+review+and+meta-analysis.">Seizure outcome after surgery for mri-diagnosed focal cortical dysplasia: A systematic review and meta-analysis.</a> Neurology. 98 (3), e236-e248 (2022).</li><li>Kalbhenn, T., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Operative+posterior+disconnection+in+epilepsy+surgery:+Experience+with+29+patients.">Operative posterior disconnection in epilepsy surgery: Experience with 29 patients.</a> Epilepsia. 60 (9), 1973-1983 (2019).</li><li>Devlin, A. M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Clinical+outcomes+of+hemispherectomy+for+epilepsy+in+childhood+and+adolescence.">Clinical outcomes of hemispherectomy for epilepsy in childhood and adolescence.</a> Brain. 126 (Pt 3), 556-566 (2003).</li><li>Marras, C. E., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Hemispherotomy+and+functional+hemispherectomy:+Indications+and+outcome.">Hemispherotomy and functional hemispherectomy: Indications and outcome.</a> Epilepsy Res. 89 (1), 104-112 (2010).</li><li>Castagno, S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Seizure+outcomes+of+large+volume+temporo-parieto-occipital+and+frontal+surgery+in+children+with+drug-resistant+epilepsy.">Seizure outcomes of large volume temporo-parieto-occipital and frontal surgery in children with drug-resistant epilepsy.</a> Epilepsy Res. 177, 106769 (2021).</li><li>Kamalboor, H., Alhindi, H., Alotaibi, F., Althubaiti, I., Alkhateeb, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Frontal+disconnection+surgery+for+drug-resistant+epilepsy:+Outcome+in+a+series+of+16+patients.">Frontal disconnection surgery for drug-resistant epilepsy: Outcome in a series of 16 patients.</a> Epilepsia Open. 5 (3), 475-486 (2020).</li></ol>

The authors have nothing to disclose.

MOGHE is a new white matter entity predominantly at the GM/WM boundaries but shows no cortical layer disorganization as is typical for FCDs2. The untypical semiology and extensive EEG make it very difficult to determine the location of the epileptogenic zone using traditional methods of anatomo-electro-clinical evaluation, which creates difficulties in surgical decision-making. Previous studies reported that patients with MOGHE achieved good outcomes after wide resection6<s...

Malformation of cortical development (MCD) is an important cause of drug-resistant epilepsy and developmental delay in young children. There are many types of MCD, among which FCD is the most common type1. According to the latest updated FCD classification in 2022, MOGHE is described and classified as a predominantly white matter lesion in contrast to juxta-cortical localized FCD2 that was primarily described as proliferative&#8195;oligodendroglial&#8195;hyperplasia&#8195;with&#8195;epilepsy&#8195;(POGHE) in 20133 and first proposed in 20174. MOGHE is defined by an increase in heterotopic neurons in the white matter and deep cortical layers above 2200 Olig2-immunoreactive cells/mm2 in specimen2,4,5.
Clinically, MOGHE is most commonly observed in the frontal lobe, and epileptic spasms are the most common initial seizure type6. The interictal EEG pattern was usually multifocal or widespread in young children6. In younger children, MRI showed an increased laminar signal at the gray-white matter junction. In older children, reduced subcortical T2/FLAIR signals and blurring at the gray-white matter transition were observed7. An accurate delineation of MOGHE is very difficult in clinical practice. Therefore, the traditional concept and strategy of preoperative evaluation to determine the extent of the epileptogenic zone by comprehensive anatomo-electro-clinical evaluation is difficult to implement. Herein, a pediatric cohort with MOGHE in the frontal lobe was analyzed to extend the knowledge of surgical treatment for MOGHE.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Absorbable cranial bone lock</td>
			<td>Braun Inc.</td>
			<td>FF016</td>
			<td></td>
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			<td>5400-050-000</td>
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			<td>Microscope</td>
			<td>Leica Inc.</td>
			<td>M525F40</td>
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			<td>NIHON KOHDAN EEG system</td>
			<td>NIHON KOHDAN Inc.</td>
			<td>EEG-1200C</td>
			<td>EEG&#160;</td>
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			<td>Philips PET-CT system</td>
			<td>Philips Inc.</td>
			<td>Gemini GXL</td>
			<td>PET-CT</td>
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			<td>Sinovation Stereotactic system</td>
			<td>Sinovation Inc.</td>
			<td>SR1</td>
			<td>3D construction</td>
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</table>

frontal disconnection for treating mild malformation of cortical development with oligodendroglial hyperplasia in epilepsy (moghe) in the frontal lobe

Malformation of cortical development is an important cause of drug-resistant epilepsy in young children. Mild malformation of cortical development with oligodendroglial hyperplasia in epilepsy (MOGHE) has been added to the last focal cortical dysplasia (FCD) classification and commonly involves the frontal lobe. The semiology at the onset of epilepsy is dominated by non-lateralizing infantile spasm; the boundaries of the malformation are usually difficult to determine by magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and positron emission tomography (PET), and electroencephalography (EEG) findings are often widespread. Therefore, the traditional concept and strategy of preoperative evaluation to determine the extent of the epileptogenic zone by comprehensive anatomo-electro-clinical methods are difficult to implement. 
Frontal disconnection is an effective surgical method for the treatment of epilepsy, but there are few related reports. A total of 8 children with histo-pathologically confirmed MOGHE were retrospectively studied. MOGHE was located in the frontal lobe in all patients, and frontal disconnection was performed. The periinsular approach was used in the disconnective procedures, divided into several surgical steps: the partial inferior frontal gyrus resection, the frontobasal and intrafrontal disconnection, and the anterior corpus callosotomy. 
One patient presented with a short-term postoperative speech disorder, while another patient exhibited transient postoperative limb weakness. No long-term postoperative complications were observed. At 2 years after surgery, 75% of patients were seizure-free, with cognitive improvement in half of them. This finding suggested that frontal disconnection is an effective and safe surgical procedure for the treatment of MOGHE instead of extensive resection in the frontal lobe.

Author Spotlight: Studying Clinical Characters and Epilepsy Outcomes After Frontal Disconnection in Patients with MOGHE

Frontal Disconnection for Treating Mild Malformation of Cortical Development with Oligodendroglial Hyperplasia in Epilepsy (MOGHE) in the Frontal Lobe

According to the inclusion criteria, a total of 8 eligible patients were included in the analysis. The group consisted of 8 boys. The age of onset was 4-28 months (median 6 months), and the age of surgery ranged from 17-135 months (median 38 months). The duration of epilepsy ranged from 13 to 121 months (median 32 months). The semiology of 4 patients was epileptic spasms, 3 had focal seizures, and 1 had mixed seizures. Interictal EEG indicated focal in 3 patients, multifocal in 3 patients, and diffuse in 2 patients. Icta...

Here, we present a protocol to describe the epilepsy outcome and complications of 8 patients with mild malformation of cortical development with oligodendroglial hyperplasia in epilepsy (MOGHE) in the frontal lobe after frontal disconnection. The procedure is characterized by its simplicity, user-friendliness, and fewer postoperative complications.

Malformation of cortical development is an important cause of drug-resistant epilepsy in young children. Mild malformation of cortical development with ...

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559 Views.  Peking University First Hospital. Here, we present a protocol to describe the epilepsy outcome and complications of 8 patients with mild malformation of cortical development with oligodendroglial hyperplasia in epilepsy (MOGHE) in the frontal lobe after frontal disconnection. The procedure is characterized by its simplicity, user-friendliness, and fewer postoperative complications.

Video: Author Spotlight: Studying Clinical Characters and Epilepsy Outcomes After Frontal Disconnection in Patients with MOGHE

Efficacy of Frontal Disconnection in Treating Epilepsy Associated with Mild Malformation of Cortical Development with Oligodendroglial Hyperplasia in Epilepsy (MOGHE)