These studies were funded by US Public Health Services grants P01AI057005, R01AI047734, R01AI111806 and the Functional Profiling and Computational Biology Core of the University of Washington&#8217;s Center for AIDS Research (P30 AI027757).

<ol>
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Die Autoren erklären, dass sie keine konkurrierenden finanziellen Interessen. Die hier geäusserten Meinungen sind diejenigen der Autoren und sind nicht als offizielle oder repräsentieren die Ansichten des US Department of Defense oder die Abteilung der Armee aufgefasst werden.

Die vorgestellten Protokolle bestand aus zwei Hauptteilen: Konstruktion von rekombinanten HIV-1 molekularen Klonen und Wachstum Kompetitionsassays. Um zwei Viren in einer doppelt infizierten Zellkultur zu unterscheiden, ist es wichtig, dass die konkurrierenden molekulare Klone enthalten Sequenz-Tags, die durch eine RT-qPCR-Primer-Sonden-Tests oder durch die Sanger-Sequenzierung nachgewiesen werden kann. Dieses Protokoll verwendet die VIFA und VIFB Tags, welche den gleichen Bereich von HIV-1 NL4-3 vif zu besetzen und codieren die gleiche Aminosäuresequenz, unterscheiden sich jedoch von sechs auch Mutationen. Diese Mutationen zeigten keine Auswirkungen auf virale Replikation Fitness 20. Die in diesem Protokoll verwendeten PCR-basierten Klonierungsverfahren bietet mehr Flexibilität bei der Auswahl der Klonierungsstellen, im Vergleich zu basierte Klonen Restriktionsstelle. Allerdings nimmt die Effizienz der PCR-Klonierung wie die Insertgröße zunimmt. Die Stromgrenze des Einsatzes Größe ist ~ 5 kb 34. Für die PCR-basierte Klonen und die Website geleitet mutagenesis, ist die Verwendung eines High-Fidelity-DNA-Polymerase entscheidend, um die Wahrscheinlichkeit von zusätzlichen Mutationen, zu verringern. Verwendung der minimalen Anzahl von PCR-Zyklen erforderlich, um ausreichende Mengen an Produkten zu ergeben wird auch empfohlen. Nach unserer Erfahrung haben wir keine zusätzlichen Mutationen nach den hier beschriebenen PCR-basierte Klonen und ortsgerichtete Mutagenese Schritte zu erkennen. Dennoch sollte die PCR-Produkte sequenziert, um für jegliche unerwünschte Mutationen zu überprüfen. Idealerweise sollte die gesamte HIV kodierende Region erneut sequenziert werden. Mindestens drei Abtastzeitpunkte innerhalb der exponentiellen Wachstumsphase 9 untersucht werden. Die viralen Wachstumskinetik muss zuvor mit täglichen Probenahme, um die entsprechenden Kulturdauer und Abtastzeitpunkte für das Wachstum Wettbewerb festzustellen, festgelegt werden. Ein Faktor, der die virale Wachstumskinetik beeinflusst, ist die Multiplizität der Infektion (MOI). Dieses Protokoll verwendet insgesamt MOI von 0,005 für beide Monoinfektion und Wachstum Wettbewerb, wie es dargestellt wurde, um mehr zu erhalten roBüste Ergebnisse als untere MOIs 9. Dennoch kann unteren MOIs verwendet werden, um eine längere Phase exponentiellen Wachstums falls erforderlich zu erhalten, aber auf Kosten der Folge Konsistenz. Dieses Protokoll legt eine erste Infektion Verhältnis von 50:50, unter der Annahme, dass das Fitness Unterschiede der Viren sind in der Regel nicht im voraus. Die Verwendung von ungleichen Eingangsverhältnisse sind jedoch geeignet, wenn es vorläufige Daten, die auf signifikante Unterschiede in der Kinetik der viralen Replikation. In diesen Fällen ist eine Infektion von 70:30 empfohlen, für die Erfassung eines großen Fitness Unterschied wo die weniger fit Virus im Überschuß 9 platziert ermöglichen. Das Protokoll für die Bestimmung der TCID 50, virale Wachstumskinetik und zur Durchführung der Wachstums Kompetitionstests wurden optimiert unter Verwendung von HIV-1 Subtyp B haben NL4-3 COTB-p24 und PBMCs von einem einzelnen Spender, deren PBMC konsistent Empfindlichkeit nachgewiesen, HIV- 1-Infektion in vitro. Die Kulturzeitund Abtastzeitpunkten in diesem Protokoll dargestellt sind wahrscheinlich für das Studium von HIV-1 Gruppe M-Viren in menschlichen PBMCs sein. Verwenden von PBMCs aus einer Hand ist sehr zu empfehlen, um konsistente Ergebnisse zu erhalten, wie die Virusreplikation in verschiedenen Spenderzellen 35 variieren. Obwohl weniger wünschenswert, kann PBMCs von mehreren Spendern gebündelt eingesetzt werden als Ersatz zur Verfügung gestellt, dass der gleiche Pool ist in allen Versuchen verwendet. Eine weitere Alternative ist die Verwendung von Zelllinien. Die hier vorgestellte Protokoll wurde erfolgreich mit der T-Zelllinie CEM × 174 23,36 verwendet. Es ist jedoch wichtig, dass die Anzahl von Zellen ausgesät werden neu optimiert werden, um konsistente Zellwachstum zu erzielen. Viral Wachstumskinetik muss auch wieder hergestellt werden, da sie wahrscheinlich in verschiedenen Zelllinien variieren, um die entsprechenden Abtastzeitpunkten in den Wachstums Wettbewerb Schritte zu bestimmen. Zwei verschiedene Methoden, um die virale Verhältnis zur Berechnung Fitness zu bestimmen sind in der Protok inbegriffenol. Die erste nutzt RT-qPCR, um virale cDNA Kopienzahl zu jedem Probenahmezeitpunkt zu messen. Virusreplikation Fitness wurde dann aus dem viralen Verhältnisses berechnet, basierend auf cDNA-Kopie-Nummer. Alternativ kann die virale Verhältnis basierend auf dem Verhältnis der Peakhöhe bei Chromatogramm der VifAB tag Sites bestimmt werden. Die beiden Verfahren ergab vergleichbare Ergebnisse (Figur 4). Das Chromatogramm-Peakhöhe Verfahren auf andere HIV-1-Stämme ohne konstruiert Sequence Tag angewendet werden. Für RT-qPCR, die Verwendung von Primern oder Sonden zu Virusvarianten unterscheiden muss zunächst sorgfältig geprüft werden (siehe 20). Dennoch bietet RT-qPCR bessere Empfindlichkeit für Proben mit einer geringen Menge an viraler RNA, wie die von dem ersten Zeitpunkt in der exponentiellen Wachstumsphase. Direkte Messung der viralen cDNA ermöglicht auch Detektions technischer Probleme, die von der RNA-Extraktion und cDNA-Synthese entstehen können. Mit molekular Klone mit Sequenz-Tags bietet eine kostengünstige Lösung to die RT-qPCR Verfahren, da nur zwei Paare von Primern und Sonden benötigt werden, um mehrere Viren zu studieren. Diese Strategie vermeidet auch das Problem der Spitzenhöhenvariation nacheinander Chromatogramme durch benachbarte Basen 37, die Sequenzierung wird an der gleichen Stelle für alle Viren in der Studie durchgeführt. Die für die RT-qPCR und Sanger-Sequenzierung hergestellt PCR-Produkte können auch Verwendung bei anderen Methoden zur viralen Verhältnis zu bestimmen, wie Schütt Sequenzierung von einzelnen Klonen 12,13 HTA 4,7,17,19 oder Oligonukleotid-Ligation-Assay (OLA) 38 .

Virale Replikation Fitness ist als die Fähigkeit eines Virus der infektiösen Nachkommen in einer bestimmten Umgebung 1 produzieren definiert und ist ein wichtiger Faktor bei der Bestimmung der Prävalenz von einer Virusvariante auf Bevölkerungsebene im Laufe der Zeit 2. In vivo-Studien Fitness nicht machbar mit humanpathogenen Viren, wie HIV-1, verschiedene in vitro und ex vivo-Replikation Fitness Assays wurden entwickelt, um die Auswirkungen auf die Eignung, die aus Arzneimittelresistenz und Immun-Escape-Mutationen epistasis und der Entwicklung zu untersuchen viraler Populationen 3-6. Unter den verschiedenen Fitness Assays werden Wachstums Kompetitionstests erkannt empfindlicher und gültig Maßnahmen Kondition Unterschiede ergeben, da zwei oder mehrere virale Varianten konkurrieren um die gleiche Zellpopulation unter exakt denselben Umweltbedingungen wie in vivo 1,7,8 auftritt. Vor Beginn der Wachstums Kompetitionsexperimente mehrere variables muss bestimmt werden, einschließlich der Verwendung von verschiedenen Multiplizitäten der Infektion (MOI), virale Eingangsverhältnis, und der Zeitpunkt der Probenahme für die Analyse. Wir haben die Auswirkungen dieser Parameter auf die virale Wachstumskinetik und auf das Ergebnis der Konkurrenzexperimenten studiert und haben wichtige Faktoren für robuste Messungen von HIV-1 Fitness erforderlich in Zellkultur 9 identifiziert. Zusätzlich zum Test Variablen gibt es eine Vielzahl von Verfahren zur Quantifizierung Virusvarianten in Wachstums Kompetitionsexperimenten. Bulk 10,11 oder 12,13 klonale Sequenzierung wurde verwendet, um das Verhältnis der konkurrierenden Viren auf der Grundlage der Nucleotid-Frequenzen an der Stelle (n) von Interesse zu bestimmen. Relative Fitness von Änderungen in diesem Verhältnis im Laufe der Zeit ab. Dieses Verfahren ist praktisch, da die DNA-Sequenzierung Dienstleistungen sind überall erhältlich. Die parallele allelspezifische Sequenzierung (PASS) Verfahren ermöglicht die Sequenzierung an mehreren Standorten und den Nachweis von Rekombinanten 14 </sup&gt;, Aber es erfordert auch speziell entwickelten Reagenzien und Nachweissystemen. Im Wesentlichen wurden diese Methoden entwickelt, um Virusstämme mit einer geringen Anzahl von Nukleotid-Differenzen in einer Region von Interesse zu untersuchen. Andere Methoden mit einem kleinen Reporter-Gen 15 oder auch Mutationen 4,16-18 als Tags, die konkurrierenden Viren durch Sequenzierung, Heteroduplex-Tracking-Tests (HTA) 4,7,17,19 unterscheiden oder reverse Transkription-quantitative Echtzeit-Polymerase-Kettenreaktion (RT-qPCR) 15,16,18,20, von denen alle für studieren konkurrierenden Stämme unabhängig von Sequenzähnlichkeit werden. Ein zusätzlicher Schritt ist erforderlich, um Tags in virale Genome einführen und die RT-qPCR-Assay erfordert auch spezifische Reagenzien und Instrumentierung. Wir haben festgestellt, daß Schütt Sanger Sequenzierung Ausbeuten 9 vergleichbare Ergebnisse. Nach einem Wachstum Wettbewerb wird die virale Replikation Fitness als relative Fitness, oder ein Fitness-Verhältnis zwischen t vorgestelltwo Virusvarianten. Die relative Eignung eines Virus kann als der endgültige Anteil einer Virusvariante durch die ursprüngliche Anteil im Inokulum oder als die Netto-Wachstumsrate Differenz zwischen den zwei konkurrierenden Viren normalisiert definiert werden. Wir fanden, dass das letztgenannte Verfahren, mit Längsdatenpunkte nur in der exponentiellen Wachstumsphase, erzeugt die robustesten Ergebnisse 9,20. In-vitro-Assays Fitness in erster Linie verwendet werden, um biologische Klone 6-8 und infektiöse molekulare Klone von HIV-1 zu untersuchen. Letzteres ist zugänglich Genmanipulation werden oft eingesetzt, um die Wirkung auf die Eignung von bestimmten Mutationen oder spezifische Sequenzen von Interesse 3-5,21,22 studieren. Die folgenden Protokolle beschreiben einen Workflow unter dem Aspekt der Bau neuer voller Länge infektiösen HIV-1 molekulare Klone mit HIV-1-Vektoren, die eine Sequenz-Tag, die Einführung von Mutationen von Interesse, so dass virale Bestände und zur Errichtung virale Wachstum KinetikZur Durchführung der Wachstums Kompetitionsassays und die Berechnung der relativen fitness (Abbildung 1). Mit unserer optimierten Verfahren, wir drei rekombinanten HIV-1-Mutanten erzeugt und bestimmt ihre Replikation Fitness. Das rekombinante molekularen Klon wurde zuerst durch Ersetzen des HIV-1 gag-p24-Genregion pNL4-3, einem Plasmid, das ein Volllängen-infektiöse Genom des HIV-1-Stamm NL4-3 Labor, mit einem synthetischen COTB (Mitte-of konstruiert Baum, Subtyp B) gag-p24-Sequenz 23, um den Prototyp-Stamm zu erstellen. Einzel amino Änderungen (T186M, T242N und I256V) wurden dann eingebracht, um drei mutierten Klone erstellen. Jede Mutante wurde gegenüber dem Prototyp-Virus konkurrierten um die Fitness Auswirkungen der einzelnen Mutation im gegebenen genetischen Hintergrund zu beobachten. Die drei Mutanten demonstrierten unterschiedlichem Replikation fsitness von gering bis deutlich niedriger als der Prototyp-Virus. Die T242N Mutation wurde bereits berichtet, eine moderate fitne habenss kosten 24-26, ähnlich zu dem in dieser Untersuchung gezeigte Ergebnis. Der Fitnesskosten der anderen zwei Mutationen zuvor nicht berichtet worden.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="1172">
	<tbody>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:355px;">Name of Material/ Equipment</td>
			<td style="width:484px;">Company</td>
			<td style="width:137px;">Catalog Number</td>
			<td style="width:196px;">Comments/Description</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Construction of recombinant clones</td>
			<td style="width:484px;"></td>
			<td style="width:137px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:355px;">Chimeric primer/Mutagenic/Sequencing primers</td>
			<td style="width:484px;">IDT</td>
			<td style="width:137px;">N/A</td>
			<td>Custom DNA oligos</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:355px;">pNL4-3VifA and pNL4-3VifB plasmid</td>
			<td style="width:484px;">N/A</td>
			<td style="width:137px;">N/A</td>
			<td>Please contact Dr. James I Mullins (jmullins@uw.edu)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:355px;">High-Fidelity DNA polymerase</td>
			<td style="width:484px;">Thermo Scientific</td>
			<td>F-549S</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:355px;">High-fidelity buffer</td>
			<td style="width:484px;">Thermo Scientific</td>
			<td>F-549S</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:355px;">dNTP</td>
			<td style="width:484px;">Bioline</td>
			<td style="width:137px;">Bio-39026</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Thermal cycler</td>
			<td style="width:484px;">Life Technologies</td>
			<td style="width:137px;">N/A</td>
			<td>Applied Biosystems&#174; GeneAmp&#174; PCR System 9700</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">DNA loading dye</td>
			<td style="width:484px;">Thermo Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:137px;">R0631</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">1kb Plus DNA ladder</td>
			<td style="width:484px;">Invitrogen</td>
			<td style="width:137px;">10787-018</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:355px;">QIAquick PCR Purification Kit</td>
			<td style="width:484px;">Qiagen</td>
			<td style="width:137px;">28104</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">QIAquick gel extraction kit</td>
			<td style="width:484px;">Qiagen</td>
			<td style="width:137px;">28704</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:355px;">DpnI enzyme</td>
			<td style="width:484px;">New England Biolabs</td>
			<td>R0176S</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:355px;">TOP10 chemically competent Escherichia coli</td>
			<td style="width:484px;">Invitrogen</td>
			<td>C4040-10</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:355px;">Luria Broth base powder</td>
			<td style="width:484px;">Invitrogen</td>
			<td style="width:137px;">12795-084</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:355px;">Carbenicillin</td>
			<td style="width:484px;">Research Products International</td>
			<td style="width:137px;">C46000-25.0</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">QIAprep Spin Miniprep kit&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:484px;">Qiagen</td>
			<td style="width:137px;">27104</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">EndoFree Plasmid Maxi Kit</td>
			<td style="width:484px;">Qiagen</td>
			<td style="width:137px;">12362</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Transfection</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:355px;">X-tremeGENE 9 DNA transfection reagent</td>
			<td style="width:484px;">Roche</td>
			<td>6365787001</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:355px;">HEK 293T-17</td>
			<td style="width:484px;">ATCC</td>
			<td style="width:137px;">CRL-11268</td>
			<td>http://www.atcc.org/</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:355px;">0.22um filter top tube</td>
			<td style="width:484px;">VWR International</td>
			<td>89220-716&#160;</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Cell culture</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Dulbecco&#39;s Modified Eagle Medium (DMEM)</td>
			<td style="width:484px;">Life Technologies</td>
			<td>10566016</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Iscove&#8242;s Modified Dulbecco&#8242;s Medium (IMDM)</td>
			<td style="width:484px;">Life Technologies</td>
			<td>31980-030</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:355px;">RPMI-1640 media</td>
			<td style="width:484px;">Life Technologies</td>
			<td>61870-036</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:355px;">Phytohemagglutinin (PHA)</td>
			<td style="width:484px;">Thermo Scientific</td>
			<td>R30852801</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:355px;">Human Interleukin-2</td>
			<td style="width:484px;">Roche</td>
			<td>11147528001</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:355px;">Fetal bovine serum</td>
			<td style="width:484px;">JR Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:137px;">43640</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:355px;">Penicillin and Streptomycin</td>
			<td style="width:484px;">Corning Cellgro</td>
			<td>30-001-CI</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">6 well plate</td>
			<td style="width:484px;">VWR Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:137px;">73520-906</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">48 well plate</td>
			<td style="width:484px;">VWR Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:137px;">62407-338</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">96 well flat-bottomed plate</td>
			<td style="width:484px;">ISC Bioexpress</td>
			<td style="width:137px;">T-3015-4</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">96 well round-bottomed plate</td>
			<td style="width:484px;">BD Falcon</td>
			<td style="width:137px;">353077</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:355px;">1.5 ml Microcentrifuge Tube</td>
			<td style="width:484px;">Mt. Baker Bio</td>
			<td style="width:137px;">MBD-1500</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:355px;">1.5 mL tubes w/ O-ring</td>
			<td style="width:484px;">VWR Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:137px;">89004-290</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="22">
			<td height="22" style="height:22px;width:355px;">50 mL conical tube</td>
			<td style="width:484px;">ISC Bioexpress</td>
			<td>C-3317-6</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">ELISA</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:355px;">Triton-X 100</td>
			<td style="width:484px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>X100</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:355px;">Phosphate buffer saline (PBS)</td>
			<td style="width:484px;">Invitrogen</td>
			<td style="width:137px;">14190-250</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:355px;">Fetal bovine serum (FBS)</td>
			<td style="width:484px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>F0392</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:355px;">glycerol</td>
			<td style="width:484px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:137px;">G5516</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:355px;">Tween 20</td>
			<td style="width:484px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>P1379</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:355px;">Bovine Serum Albumin (BSA)</td>
			<td style="width:484px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>A2153</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Rabbit anti-HIV-1 SF2 p24 antiserum</td>
			<td style="width:484px;">NIH AIDS Reagent Program</td>
			<td style="width:137px;">4250</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Goat anti-rabbit HRP</td>
			<td style="width:484px;">KPL</td>
			<td style="width:137px;">474-1516</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">TMB Microwell Peroxidase Substrate</td>
			<td style="width:484px;">KPL</td>
			<td style="width:137px;">52-00-01</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="26">
			<td height="26" style="height:26px;">H2SO4</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>A300-500</td>
			<td>Causes severe burns by all exposure routes. Use personal protective equipment. Use only under a chemical fume hood. Wash off immediately with plenty of water for at least 15 minutes.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:355px;">HIV p24 standard</td>
			<td style="width:484px;">AIDS and Cancer Virus program (NCI-Frederick)</td>
			<td style="width:137px;">N/A</td>
			<td>For order details please contact Julian Bess, Jr. (bessjw@mail.nih.gov); http://ncifrederick.cancer.gov/Programs/Science/Acvp/bio/Bess.aspx</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:355px;">Microplate reader</td>
			<td style="width:484px;">Molecular Devices</td>
			<td style="width:137px;">N/A</td>
			<td>VMax Kinetic ELISA Microplate Reader</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">RNA isolation cDNA synthesis</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:355px;">QIAxtractor</td>
			<td style="width:484px;">Qiagen</td>
			<td style="width:137px;">N/A</td>
			<td>http://www.qiagen.com/products/catalog/automated-solutions/sample-prep/qiaxtractor</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">QIAamp Viral RNA Mini Kit</td>
			<td style="width:484px;">Qiagen</td>
			<td style="width:137px;">52906</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:355px;">dNTP</td>
			<td style="width:484px;">Bioline</td>
			<td style="width:137px;">Bio-39026</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:355px;">SuperscriptIII</td>
			<td style="width:484px;">Invitrogen</td>
			<td>18080-085</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">First-strand buffer&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:484px;">Invitrogen</td>
			<td>18080-085</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Dithiothreitol (DTT)</td>
			<td style="width:484px;">Invitrogen</td>
			<td>18080-085</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:355px;">Rnase inhibitor</td>
			<td style="width:484px;">Roche</td>
			<td>3335402001</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:355px;">RnaseH</td>
			<td style="width:484px;">Invitrogen</td>
			<td>18021-071</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">qPCR</td>
			<td style="width:484px;"></td>
			<td style="width:137px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:355px;">Real-time qPCR machine</td>
			<td style="width:484px;">Life Technologies</td>
			<td style="width:137px;">N/A</td>
			<td>Applied Biosystems 7300 Real-Time PCR&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">TaqMan&#174; Gene Expression Master Mix</td>
			<td style="width:484px;">Life Technologies</td>
			<td>4369016</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:355px;">Forward, reverse primer</td>
			<td style="width:484px;">IDT</td>
			<td style="width:137px;">N/A</td>
			<td>Custom order</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:355px;">Probe</td>
			<td style="width:484px;">Life Technologies</td>
			<td style="width:137px;">N/A</td>
			<td>Custom order</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:355px;">optical 96 well reaction plate</td>
			<td style="width:484px;">Life Technologies</td>
			<td style="width:137px;">I19N3Q216</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">PCR+sequencing</td>
			<td style="width:484px;"></td>
			<td style="width:137px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:355px;">Taq DNA polymerase (Biolase)</td>
			<td style="width:484px;">Bioline</td>
			<td style="width:137px;">Bio-21043</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">NH4 buffer&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:484px;">Bioline</td>
			<td style="width:137px;">Bio-21043</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="26">
			<td height="26" style="height:26px;">MgCl2</td>
			<td style="width:484px;">Bioline</td>
			<td style="width:137px;">Bio-21043</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:355px;">Sequencing primer</td>
			<td style="width:484px;">IDT</td>
			<td style="width:137px;">N/A</td>
			<td>Custom order</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:355px;">QIAxcel</td>
			<td style="width:484px;">Qiagen</td>
			<td style="width:137px;"></td>
			<td>http://www.qiagen.com/products/catalog/automated-solutions/detection-and-analysis/qiaxcel-advanced-system</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">DNA sequencing service provider</td>
			<td>http://www.htseq.org/</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;"></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;"></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">GRC web tool</td>
			<td>http://indra.mullins.microbiol.washington.edu/grc/</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">ChromatQuan web tool</td>
			<td>http://indra.mullins.microbiol.washington.edu/cgi-bin/chromatquant.cgi</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

pairwise growth competition assay for determining the replication fitness of human immunodeficiency viruses

In vitro fitness assays are essential tools for determining viral replication fitness for viruses such as HIV-1. Various measurements have been used to extrapolate viral replication fitness, ranging from the number of viral particles per infectious unit, growth rate in cell culture, and relative fitness derived from multiple-cycle growth competition assays. Growth competition assays provide a particularly sensitive measurement of fitness since the viruses are competing for cellular targets under identical growth conditions. There are several experimental factors to consider when conducting growth competition assays, including the multiplicity of infection (MOI), sampling times, and viral detection and fitness calculation methods. Each factor can affect the end result and hence must be considered carefully during the experimental design. The protocol presented here includes steps from constructing a new recombinant HIV-1 clone to performing growth competition assays and analyzing the experimental results. This protocol utilizes experimental parameter values previously shown to yield consistent and robust results. Alternatives are discussed, as some parameters need to be adjusted according to the cell type and viruses being studied. The protocol contains two alternative viral detection methods to provide flexibility as the availability of instruments, reagents and expertise varies between laboratories.

Um die Fitness Auswirkungen der einzelnen Aminosäureänderungen in HIV-1 Gag p24-Studie verwendeten wir Oligonukleotid-gerichtete Mutagenese, um Mutationen in ein pNL4-3 Plasmid, das die HIV-1-p24-Gen COTB 23,32,33 einzuführen. Virusstammlösungen wurden durch Transfektion von 293T-Zellen erzeugt, und nach 48 h geerntet. Wir schätzten die 50% Gewebekulturinfektionsdosis (TCID 50) jedes virale Stamm durch die Reed-Muench-Methode 31. Die TCID 50 des Prototyps und Mutantenviren reichten von 10. April - 10. MAI IU / ml (Abbildung 3a). Die Wachstumskinetik der rekombinanten Viren wurden in PBMCs aus einem einzigen Spender bei einer MOI von 0,005 hergestellt. RT-qPCR wurde verwendet, um virale cDNA Kopienzahl täglich für sechs Tage zu messen. Alle Mutanten und Prototypen Viren wuchs exponentiell zwischen Tag 2 und Tag 4, wonach das virale Wachstum verlangsamt, wie durch eine verringerte Neigung der Virus-RNA-Kopienzahl erhöhen (angegeben &lt;strong&gt; 3B). Die Abnahme der cDNA-Kopienzahl zwischen Tag 0 (entsprechend dem Inokulum) und am Tag 2 aufgrund der Absorption von Virus an Zellen und die Entfernung von ungebundenem Virionen von Tag zu Tag 1 Wäsche (Schritt 5.1.6) ist. In der exponentiellen Wachstumsphase, hatten alle drei Mutanten eine langsamere Wachstumsrate (g) als das Prototyp-Virus (Abbildung 3c). Alle drei Mutanten wurden gegenüber dem Prototyp-Virus in Wachstums Kompetitionsassays an insgesamt MOI von 0,005 konkurrierten. Virale Wachstumskinetik in doppelt infizierten Kulturen waren ähnlich der Monoinfektion; das virale exponentiellen Wachstumsphase wurde zwischen den Tagen 2 und 4 und das Viruswachstum ein Plateau um Tag 5 (4A). Virale Wachstum Unterschiede wurden aus der Änderung in der viralen Verhältnis über die Zeit abgeleitet wird. Die virale Verhältnis wurde auf Basis von cDNA Kopienzahl der Referenz und den mutierten Viren unter Verwendung von RT-qPCR, und durch Vergleichen Spitzenhöhen berechnetnacheinander Chromatogramme bei Nukleotid Sites Unterscheidung der zwei Viren (4B). Die Wachstumsdifferenzen unter Verwendung des Spitzenhöhe und Virus-RNA-Kopienzahl Methoden ergab ähnliche Ergebnisse (4C). Alle drei Mutanten hatten niedrigere Replikation Fitness als die Prototypen-Viren mit dem mutierten I256V mit der niedrigsten Fitness (4C). <img alt="Abbildung 1" src="/files/ftp_upload/52610/52610fig1.jpg" /> Abbildung 1: Flussdiagramm der Protokolle in diesem Papier Das Virus Vorbereitung Protokolle Sorge Bau von HIV-1 rekombinanten Klonen und die Erzeugung von Virusbestände.. Der Fitness-Assays Protokolle sind für die Festlegung virale Wachstum Kinetik und Bestimmung der relativen viralen Fitness. Gestrichelten Linien alternative Strömungen für die Protokolle. Zum Beispiel kann eine Mutation direkt in HIV-1 NL4-3 eingeführt werdenmolekularen Klon ohne Erzeugung eines rekombinanten Klons. <img alt="Figur 2" src="/files/ftp_upload/52610/52610fig2.jpg" /> Abb. 2: Der Bau der HIV-1 NL4-3 COTB Gag-p24 rekombinante molekulare Klone mit Overlap-Extension-PCR (A) Gestalten Sie die chimären Primer. Die 5&#39;-Hälften der Primer enthalten die NL4-3 Vektorsequenz und dem 3&#39;-Hälften enthalten die Enden des Einsatzes Folge. (B) chimäre Primer werden verwendet, um die Insertfragment, COTB Gag-p24 zu verstärken. (C) Die Insert-Fragmente als Primer für eine zweite PCR verwendet, um ein neues rekombinantes Plasmid zu erzeugen. <img alt="Figur 3" src="/files/ftp_upload/52610/52610fig3.jpg" /> Abb. 3: Viral Wachstumseigenschaften in PBMCs (A) Log 10 TCID 50 </sub&gt; viraler Aktien. (B) Viral Wachstumskinetik in Monoinfektionen bei einer MOI = 0.005 begonnen. (C) Viral Wachstumsraten über sechs Tagen, einschließlich der exponentiellen Wachstumsphase (Tage 2-4) von der Platte (B) abgeleitet ist. Die gezeigten Werte stellen den Durchschnitt von drei Replikaten von einem Experiment. Die Fehlerbalken stellen 95% Konfidenzintervall. <img alt="Figur 4" src="/files/ftp_upload/52610/52610fig4.jpg" /> Abbildung 4: Viral Wachstum und relative Fitness-Bestimmungen (A) das virale Wachstum in doppelt infizierten PBMC-Kulturen.. (B) Verhältnisse von T242N und Prototypen Viren bestimmt mittels RT-qPCR oder die Sequenzierung Spitzenhöhe Methode. (C) Net virale Wachstum Unterschiede (d) zwischen der Mutante und der Prototyp-Viren in doppelt infizierten Kulturen, wie in (A) gezeigt. d Werte f berechnetROM Die in (B) gezeigt, virale Verhältnisdaten. Die gezeigten Werte stellen den Durchschnitt von drei Replikaten von einem Experiment. Die Fehlerbalken stellen 95% Konfidenzintervall.

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Pairwise Growth Competition Assay for Determining the Replication Fitness of Human Immunodeficiency Viruses at JoVE.com

Pairwise Growth Competition Assay for Determining the Replication Fitness of Human Immunodeficiency Viruses

Growth competition between nearly isogenic viruses provides a sensitive measurement for determining relative replication fitness. The protocols described here include the construction of recombinant HIV-1 clones, virus propagation and growth competition and analysis methods optimized to yield sensitive and consistent results.

Paarweise Wachstum Wettbewerb Assay zur Bestimmung der Replication Fitness von Human Immunodeficiency Viruses

In vitro fitness assays are essential tools for determining viral replication fitness for viruses such as HIV-1. Various measurements have been used to ...

pairwise-growth-competition-assay-for-determining-replication-fitness

Research

JoVE Journal

Immunology and Infection

11.0K Aufrufe.  University of Washington. Growth competition between nearly isogenic viruses provides a sensitive measurement for determining relative replication fitness. The protocols described here include the construction of recombinant HIV-1 clones, virus propagation and growth competition and analysis methods optimized to yield sensitive and consistent results.

Serie: Pairwise Growth Competition Assay for Determining the Replication Fitness of Human Immunodeficiency Viruses

Determining the Reactivity and Titre of Serum using a Haemagglutination Assay

Haemagglutination is a specific form of agglutination and is used when antibodies bind to red blood cells, which act as a particulate antigen. Red blood cells are particularly useful targets as they are readily available and agglutination is observable using the naked eye. This technique is commonly used to determine the titre of an antibody (Ab), for blood grouping and viral quantification. In this video, the steps involved in preparing and performing a haemagglutination assay is demonstrated using antibodies specific to blood group A-antigens added to red blood cells (Revercells). The antiserum is serially diluted in a 96 well U-bottom microtitre tray, to which is added a suspension of Revercells. The samples are mixed and then incubated at 37&deg;C for 60 minutes. After this time, the samples can then be easily scored for  ve, +ve and intermediate (-/+) haemagglutination reactions. This approach allows for the reactivity and titre of a serum sample to be assessed using a rapid and simple technique. The video will cover the theory behind the assay, how the results are read and interpreted, how the titre is determined, how the assay can be modified and any issues associated with the use of this technique.

Haemagglutination is a form of agglutination where antibodies bind to red blood cells. Red blood cells are both readily available and the results are readily observable using the naked eye. This video demonstrates the steps involved in a haemagglutination assay, interpreting the results and determining the titre.

Die Bestimmung der Reaktivität und Titre von Serum mit einem Hämagglutinations Assay

Haemagglutination is a specific form of agglutination and is used when antibodies bind to red blood cells, which act as a particulate antigen. Red blood ...

Forschung

Immunologie und Infektion

Cost-effective Method for Microbial Source Tracking Using Specific Human and Animal Viruses

Microbial contamination of the environment represents a significant health risk. Classical bacterial fecal indicators have shown to have significant limitations, viruses are more resistant to many inactivation processes and standard fecal indicators do not inform on the source of contamination. The development of cost-effective methods for the concentration of viruses from water and molecular assays facilitates the applicability of viruses as indicators of fecal contamination and as microbial source tracking (MST) tools. Adenoviruses and polyomaviruses are DNA viruses infecting specific vertebrate species including humans and are persistently excreted in feces and/or urine in all geographical areas studied. In previous studies, we suggested the quantification of human adenoviruses (HAdV) and JC polyomaviruses (JCPyV) by quantitative PCR (qPCR) as an index of human fecal contamination. Recently, we have developed qPCR assays for the specific quantification of porcine adenoviruses (PAdV) and bovine polyomaviruses (BPyV) as animal fecal markers of contamination with sensitivities of 1-10 genome copies per test tube. In this study, we present the procedure to be followed to identify the source of contamination in water samples using these tools. As example of representative results, analysis of viruses in ground water presenting high levels of nitrates is shown.
Detection of viruses in low or moderately polluted waters requires the concentration of the viruses from at least several liters of water into a much smaller volume, a procedure that usually includes two concentration steps in series. This somewhat cumbersome procedure and the variability observed in viral recoveries significantly hamper the simultaneous processing of a large number of water samples.
In order to eliminate the bottleneck caused by the two-step procedures we have applied a one-step protocol developed in previous studies and applicable to a diversity of water matrices. The procedure includes: acidification of ten-liter water samples, flocculation by skimmed milk, gravity sedimentation of the flocculated materials, collection of the precipitate and centrifugation, resuspension of the precipitate in 10 ml phosphate buffer. The viral concentrate is used for the extraction of viral nucleic acids and the specific adenoviruses and polyomaviruses of interest are quantified by qPCR. High number of samples may be simultaneously analyzed using this low-cost concentration method.
The procedure has been applied to the analysis of bathing waters, seawater and river water and in this study, we present results analyzing groundwater samples. This high-throughput quantitative method is reliable, straightforward, and cost-effective.

The study describes a cost-effective method for the identification of the source of fecal/urine contamination or contamination by nitrates in water using qPCR for the specific quantification of human/porcine/bovine DNA viruses, adenoviruses and polyomaviruses, proposed as MST tools.

Kostengünstige Methode für Mikrobielle Source Tracking mit spezifischen menschlichen und tierischen Viren

Microbial contamination of the environment represents a significant health risk. Classical bacterial fecal indicators have shown to have significant ...

Determining Optimal Cytotoxic Activity of Human Her2neu Specific CD8 T cells by Comparing the Cr51 Release Assay to the xCELLigence System

Cytotoxic CD8 T cells constitute a subgroup of T cells that are capable of inducing the death of infected or malignant host cells1. These cells express a specialized receptor, called the T cell receptor (TCR), which can recognize a specific antigenic peptide bound to HLA class I molecules2. Engagement of infected cells or tumor cells through their HLA class I molecule results in production of lytic molecules such as granzymes and perforin resulting in target cell death. While it is useful to determine frequencies of antigen-specific CD8 T cells using assays such as the ELIspot or flow cytometry, it is also helpful to ascertain the strength of CD8 T cell responses using cytotoxicity assays3. The most recognizable assay for assessing cytotoxic function is the Chromium Release Assay (CRA), which is considered a standard assay 4. The CRA has several limitations, including exposure of cells to gamma radiation, lack of reproducibility, and a requirement for large numbers of cells. Over the past decade, there has been interest in adopting new strategies to overcome these limitations. Newer approaches include those that measure caspase 
release 4, BLT esterase activity 5 and surface expression of CD107 6. The impedance-based assay, using the Roche xCelligence system, was examined in the present paper for its potential as an alternative to the CRA. Impedance or opposition to an electric current occurs when adherent tumor cells bind to electrode plates. Tumor cells detach following killing and electrical impedance is reduced which can be measured by the xCelligence system. The ability to adapt the impedance-based approach to assess cell-mediated killing rests on the observation that T cells do not adhere tightly to most surfaces and do not appear to have much impact on impedance thus diminishing any concern of direct interference of the T cells with the measurement. Results show that the impedance-based assay can detect changes in the levels of antigen-specific cytotoxic CD8 T cells with increased sensitivity relative to the standard CRA. Based on these results, impedance-based approaches may be good alternatives to CRAs or other approaches that aim to measure cytotoxic CD8 T cell functionality.

The chromium release assay, a common assay for detecting cytotoxic T cell activity, has several limitations. Using antigen-specific CD8 T cells and the human breast cancer tumor line, SKBR3, in the present article, an impedance-based approach was examined for the capability of detecting cell killing.

Bestimmung der optimalen zytotoxische Aktivität der Menschenrechte Her2neu spezifischen CD8 T-Zellen durch Vergleich der Cr51 Freisetzungsassay dem xCELLigence-System

Cytotoxic CD8 T cells constitute a subgroup of T  cells that are capable of inducing the death of infected or malignant host  cells1. These cells express ...

Determining Soil-transmitted Helminth Infection Status and Physical Fitness of School-aged Children

Soil-transmitted helminth (STH) infections are common. Indeed, more than 1 billion people are affected, mainly in the developing world where poverty prevails and hygiene behavior, water supply, and sanitation are often deficient1,2. Ascaris lumbricoides, Trichuris trichiura, and the two hookworm species, Ancylostoma duodenale and Necator americanus, are the most prevalent STHs3. The estimated global burden due to hookworm disease, ascariasis, and trichuriasis is 22.1, 10.5, and 6.4 million disability-adjusted life years (DALYs), respectively4. Furthermore, an estimated 30-100 million people are infected with Strongyloides stercoralis, the most neglected STH species of global significance which arguably also causes a considerable public health impact5,6. Multiple-species infections (i.e., different STHs harbored in a single individual) are common, and infections have been linked to lowered productivity and thus economic outlook of developing countries1,3.
For the diagnosis of common STHs, the World Health Organization (WHO) recommends the Kato-Katz technique7,8, which is a relatively straightforward method for determining the prevalence and intensity of such infections. It facilitates the detection of parasite eggs that infected subjects pass in their feces.
With regard to the diagnosis of S.stercoralis, there is currently no simple and accurate tool available. The Baermann technique is the most widely employed method for its diagnosis. The principle behind the Baermann technique is that active S.stercoralis larvae migrate out of an illuminated fresh fecal sample as the larvae are phototactic9. It requires less sophisticated laboratory materials and is less time consuming than culture and immunological methods5.
Morbidities associated with STH infections range from acute but common symptoms, such as abdominal pain, diarrhea, and pruritus, to chronic symptoms, such as anemia, under- and malnutrition, and cognitive impairment10. Since the symptoms are generally unspecific and subtle, they often go unnoticed, are considered a normal condition by affected individuals, or are treated as symptoms of other diseases that might be more common in a given setting. Hence, it is conceivable that the true burden of STH infections is underestimated by assessment tools relying on self-declared signs and symptoms as is usually the case in population-based surveys.
In the late 1980s and early 1990s, Stephenson and colleagues highlighted the possibility of STH infections lowering the physical fitness of boys aged 6-12 years11,12. This line of scientific inquiry gained new momentum recently13,14,15. The 20-meter (m) shuttle run test was developed and validated by L&eacute;ger et al.16 and is used worldwide to measure the aerobic fitness of children17. The test is easy to standardize and can be performed wherever a 20-m long and flat running course and an audio source are available, making its use attractive in resource-constrained settings13. To facilitate and standardize attempts at assessing whether STH infections have an effect on the physical fitness of school-aged children, we present methodologies that diagnose STH infections or measure physical fitness that are simple to execute and yet, provide accurate and reproducible outcomes. This will help to generate new evidence regarding the health impact of STH infections.

Chronic infection with soil-transmitted helminths (STHs) causes malabsorption, stunting, and wasting in the growing child. Hence, it is plausible that these infections also reduce the physical fitness of children. Here, we visualize two techniques for the diagnosis of STHs and the 20-meter shuttle run test for assessing children's physical fitness.

Bestimmung Boden übertragenen Wurminfektionen Status und körperliche Fitness der School-Aged Children

Soil-transmitted helminth (STH) infections are common. Indeed, more than 1 billion people are affected, mainly in the developing world where poverty ...

A Visual Assay to Monitor T6SS-mediated Bacterial Competition

Type VI secretion systems (T6SSs) are molecular nanomachines allowing Gram-negative bacteria to transport and inject proteins into a wide variety of target cells1,2. The T6SS is composed of 13 core components and displays structural similarities with the tail-tube of bacteriophages3. The phage uses a tube and a puncturing device to penetrate the cell envelope of target bacteria and inject DNA. It is proposed that the T6SS is an inverted bacteriophage device creating a specific path in the bacterial cell envelope to drive effectors and toxins to the surface. The process could be taken further and the T6SS device could perforate other cells with which the bacterium is in contact, thus injecting the effectors into these targets. The tail tube and puncturing device parts of the T6SS are made with Hcp and VgrG proteins, respectively4,5.
The versatility of the T6SS has been demonstrated through studies using various bacterial pathogens. The Vibrio cholerae T6SS can remodel the cytoskeleton of eukaryotic host cells by injecting an "evolved" VgrG carrying a C-terminal actin cross-linking domain6,7. Another striking example was recently documented using Pseudomonas aeruginosa which is able to target and kill bacteria in a T6SS-dependent manner, therefore promoting the establishment of bacteria in specific microbial niches and competitive environment8,9,10.
In the latter case, three T6SS-secreted proteins, namely Tse1, Tse2 and Tse3 have been identified as the toxins injected in the target bacteria (Figure 1). The donor cell is protected from the deleterious effect of these effectors via an anti-toxin mechanism, mediated by the Tsi1, Tsi2 and Tsi3 immunity proteins8,9,10. This antimicrobial activity can be monitored when T6SS-proficient bacteria are co-cultivated on solid surfaces in competition with other bacterial species or with T6SS-inactive bacteria of the same species8,11,12,13.
The data available emphasized a numerical approach to the bacterial competition assay, including time-consuming CFU counting that depends greatly on antibiotic makers. In the case of antibiotic resistant strains like P. aeruginosa, these methods can be inappropriate. Moreover, with the identification of about 200 different T6SS loci in more than 100 bacterial genomes14, a convenient screening tool is highly desirable. We developed an assay that is easy to use and requires standard laboratory material and reagents. The method offers a rapid and qualitative technique to monitor the T6SS-dependent bactericidal/bacteriostasis activity by using a reporter strain as a prey (in this case Escherichia coli DH5&alpha;) allowing a-complementation of the lacZ gene. Overall, this method is graphic and allows rapid identification of T6SS-related phenotypes on agar plates. This experimental protocol may be adapted to other strains or bacterial species taking into account specific conditions such as growth media, temperature or time of contact.

We describe a qualitative assay to monitor bacterial competition mediated by the Pseudomonas aeruginosa type VI secretion system (T6SS). The assay relies on the survival/killing of Escherichia coli target cells carrying a lacZ-reporter. This technique is adjustable to assess the bactericidal/bacteriostasis activity of T6SS-proficient microorganisms.

Ein Visual Assay zur T6SS-vermittelte bakterielle Wettbewerb überwachen

Type VI secretion systems (T6SSs) are molecular  nanomachines allowing Gram-negative bacteria to transport and inject proteins  into a wide variety of ...

Establishing a Liquid-covered Culture of Polarized Human Airway Epithelial Calu-3 Cells to Study Host Cell Response to Respiratory Pathogens In vitro

The apical and basolateral surfaces of airway epithelial cells demonstrate directional responses to pathogen exposure in vivo. Thus, ideal in vitro models for examining cellular responses to respiratory pathogens polarize, forming apical and basolateral surfaces. One such model is differentiated normal human bronchial epithelial cells (NHBE). However, this system requires lung tissue samples, expertise isolating and culturing epithelial cells from tissue, and time to generate an air-liquid interface culture.
Calu-3 cells, derived from a human bronchial adenocarcinoma, are an alternative model for examining the response of proximal airway epithelial cells to respiratory insult1, pharmacological compounds2-6, and bacterial7-9 and viral pathogens, including influenza virus, rhinovirus and severe acute respiratory syndrome - associated coronavirus10-14. Recently, we demonstrated that Calu-3 cells are susceptible to respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) infection in a manner consistent with NHBE15,16 . Here, we detail the establishment of a polarized, liquid-covered culture (LCC) of Calu-3 cells, focusing on the technical details of growing and culturing Calu-3 cells, maintaining cells that have been cultured into LCC, and we present the method for performing respiratory virus infection of polarized Calu-3 cells.
To consistently obtain polarized Calu-3 LCC, Calu-3 cells must be carefully subcultured before culturing in Transwell inserts. Calu-3 monolayer cultures should remain below 90% confluence, should be subcultured fewer than 10 times from frozen stock, and should regularly be supplied with fresh medium. Once cultured in Transwells, Calu-3 LCC must be handled with care. Irregular media changes and mechanical or physical disruption of the cell layers or plates negatively impact polarization for several hours or days. Polarization is monitored by evaluating trans-epithelial electrical resistance (TEER) and is verified by evaluating the passive equilibration of sodium fluorescein between the apical and basolateral compartments17,18 . Once TEER plateaus at or above 1,000 &Omega;&times;cm2, Calu-3 LCC are ready to use to examine cellular responses to respiratory pathogens.

Establishing a Liquid-covered Culture of Polarized Human Airway Epithelial Calu-3 Cells to Study Host Cell Response to Respiratory Pathogens In vitro

The findings and conclusions in this report are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the views of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.

Aufbau einer Liquid-bedeckten Kultur Polarized Menschliche Airway Epithelial Calu-3-Zellen, um Host-Zell-Antwort, um Atemwegspathogene Studie<em&gt; In-vitro-</em

The  apical and basolateral surfaces of airway epithelial cells demonstrate  directional responses to pathogen exposure in  vivo. Thus, ideal in vitro ...

A Restriction Enzyme Based Cloning Method to Assess the In vitro Replication Capacity of HIV-1 Subtype C Gag-MJ4 Chimeric Viruses

The protective effect of many HLA class I alleles on HIV-1 pathogenesis and disease progression is, in part, attributed to their ability to target conserved portions of the HIV-1 genome that escape with difficulty. Sequence changes attributed to cellular immune pressure arise across the genome during infection, and if found within conserved regions of the genome such as Gag, can affect the ability of the virus to replicate in vitro. Transmission of HLA-linked polymorphisms in Gag to HLA-mismatched recipients has been associated with reduced set point viral loads. We hypothesized this may be due to a reduced replication capacity of the virus. Here we present a novel method for assessing the in vitro replication of HIV-1 as influenced by the gag gene isolated from acute time points from subtype C infected Zambians. This method uses restriction enzyme based cloning to insert the gag gene into a common subtype C HIV-1 proviral backbone, MJ4. This makes it more appropriate to the study of subtype C sequences than previous recombination based methods that have assessed the in vitro replication of chronically derived gag-pro sequences. Nevertheless, the protocol could be readily modified for studies of viruses from other subtypes. Moreover, this protocol details a robust and reproducible method for assessing the replication capacity of the Gag-MJ4 chimeric viruses on a CEM-based T cell line. This method was utilized for the study of Gag-MJ4 chimeric viruses derived from 149 subtype C acutely infected Zambians, and has allowed for the identification of residues in Gag that affect replication. More importantly, the implementation of this technique has facilitated a deeper understanding of how viral replication defines parameters of early HIV-1 pathogenesis such as set point viral load and longitudinal CD4+ T cell decline.

A Restriction Enzyme Based Cloning Method to Assess the In vitro Replication Capacity of HIV-1 Subtype C Gag-MJ4 Chimeric Viruses

HIV-1 pathogenesis is defined by both viral characteristics and host genetic factors. Here we describe a robust method that allows for reproducible measurements to assess the impact of the gag gene sequence variation on the in vitro replication capacity of the virus.

Einem Restriktionsenzym basierte Klonen Methode, um das Beurteilen<em&gt; In-vitro-</em&gt; Replikation Kapazität von HIV-1 Subtyp C-Gag MJ4 chimären Viren

The protective effect of many HLA class I alleles on HIV-1 pathogenesis and disease progression is, in part, attributed to their ability to target ...

Intranasal Administration of Recombinant Influenza Vaccines in Chimeric Mouse Models to Study Mucosal Immunity

Vaccines are one of the greatest achievements of mankind, and have saved millions of lives over the last century. Paradoxically, little is known about the physiological mechanisms that mediate immune responses to vaccines perhaps due to the overall success of vaccination, which has reduced interest into the molecular and physiological mechanisms of vaccine immunity. However, several important human pathogens including influenza virus still pose a challenge for vaccination, and may benefit from immune-based strategies. 
Although influenza reverse genetics has been successfully applied to the generation of live-attenuated influenza vaccines (LAIVs), the addition of molecular tools in vaccine preparations such as tracer components to follow up the kinetics of vaccination in vivo, has not been addressed. In addition, the recent generation of mouse models that allow specific depletion of leukocytes during kinetic studies has opened a window of opportunity to understand the basic immune mechanisms underlying vaccine-elicited protection. Here, we describe how the combination of reverse genetics and chimeric mouse models may help to provide new insights into how vaccines work at physiological and molecular levels, using as example a recombinant, cold-adapted, live-attenuated influenza vaccine (LAIV). We utilized laboratory-generated LAIVs harboring cell tracers as well as competitive bone marrow chimeras (BMCs) to determine the early kinetics of vaccine immunity and the main physiological mechanisms responsible for the initiation of vaccine-specific adaptive immunity. In addition, we show how this technique may facilitate gene function studies in single animals during immune responses to vaccines. We propose that this technique can be applied to improve current prophylactic strategies against pathogens for which urgent medical countermeasures are needed, for example influenza, HIV, Plasmodium, and hemorrhagic fever viruses such as Ebola virus.

There is an overall lack of knowledge about how vaccines work. Here we propose the combined use of reverse genetics and bone marrow chimeric mice to gain insight into the early host immune responses to vaccines with a special focus on dendritic cells and T cell immunity.

Die intranasale Verabreichung von rekombinantem Influenza Vaccines in chimären Maus-Modelle zu Mucosale Immunität Studieren

Vaccines are one of the greatest achievements of mankind, and have saved millions of lives over the last century. Paradoxically, little is known about the ...

Fluorescence-based Neuraminidase Inhibition Assay to Assess the Susceptibility of Influenza Viruses to The Neuraminidase Inhibitor Class of Antivirals

The neuraminidase (NA) inhibitors are the only class of antivirals approved for the treatment and prophylaxis of influenza that are effective against currently circulating strains. In addition to their use in treating seasonal influenza, the NA inhibitors have been stockpiled by a number of countries for use in the event of a pandemic. It is therefore important to monitor the susceptibility of circulating influenza viruses to this class of antivirals. There are different types of assays that can be used to assess the susceptibility of influenza viruses to the NA inhibitors, but the enzyme inhibition assays using either a fluorescent substrate or a chemiluminescent substrate are the most widely used and recommended. This protocol describes the use of a fluorescence-based assay to assess influenza virus susceptibility to NA inhibitors. The assay is based on the NA enzyme cleaving the 2&#8242;-(4-Methylumbelliferyl)-&#945;-D-N-acetylneuraminic acid (MUNANA) substrate to release the fluorescent product 4-methylumbelliferone (4-MU). Therefore, the inhibitory effect of an NA inhibitor on the influenza virus NA is determined based on the concentration of the NA inhibitor that is required to reduce 50% of the NA activity, given as an IC50 value.

We describe the use of a phenotypic fluorescence-based neuraminidase inhibition assay to assess the susceptibility of influenza A and B viruses to the neuraminidase inhibitor class of antivirals.

Fluoreszenz-basierte Neuraminidase-Inhibitionsassay die Empfänglichkeit der Influenza-Viren an die Neuraminidase-Inhibitor-Klasse von Anti-Virus zu beurteilen

The neuraminidase (NA) inhibitors are the only class of antivirals approved for the treatment and prophylaxis of influenza that are effective against ...

Ex Vivo Infection of Human Lymphoid Tissue and Female Genital Mucosa with Human Immunodeficiency Virus 1 and Histoculture

Histocultures allow studying intercellular interactions within human tissues, and they can be employed to model host-pathogen interactions under controlled laboratory conditions. Ex vivo infection of human tissues with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), among other viruses, has been successfully used to investigate early disease pathogenesis, as well as a platform to test the efficacy and toxicity of antiviral drugs. In the present protocol, we explain how to process and infect with HIV-1 tissue explants from human tonsils and cervical mucosae, and maintain them in culture on top of gelatin sponges at the liquid-air interface for about two weeks. This non-polarized culture setting maximizes access to nutrients in culture medium and oxygen, although progressive loss of tissue integrity and functional architectures remains its main limitation. This method allows monitoring HIV-1 replication and pathogenesis using several techniques, including immunoassays, qPCR, and flow cytometry. Of importance, the physiologic variability between tissue donors, as well as between explants from different areas of the same specimen, may significantly affect experimental results. To ensure result reproducibility, it is critical to use an adequate number of explants, technical replicates, and donor-matched control conditions to normalize the results of the experimental treatments when compiling data from multiple experiments (i.e., conducted using tissue from different donors) for statistical analysis.

Ex Vivo Infection of Human Lymphoid Tissue and Female Genital Mucosa with Human Immunodeficiency Virus 1 and Histoculture

Infection of human tissues with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) ex vivo provides a valuable 3D model of virus pathogenesis. Here, we describe a protocol to process and infect tissue specimens from human tonsils and female genital mucosae with HIV-1 and maintain them in culture at the liquid-air interface.