The authors would like to thank Drs. Wenjun Li and Daniel Kreisel (Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis) for their assistance in surgery training. R.Y.L. is supported by the National Institutes of Health Grant R01 DK068057 and the President's Research Fund of Saint Louis University.

1. Cell Preparation
Notes: 1) complete RPMI 1640 based culture media recipe (500 ml) includes 435 ml RPMI 1640, 50 ml heat inactivated FBS, 5 ml non-essential amino acids, 5 ml sodium pyruvate, 5 ml antibiotic-antimycotic; 2) place matrigel at 4 &deg;C one day prior to cell harvest.
<ol>
	<li>Human ATC cell line THJ-11T8 are grown in 6 well culture plates and harvested once 80-90% confluent.</li>
	<li>Pellet cells by centrifugation at 200 x g for 4 min at room temperature.</li>
	<li>Aspirate media and resuspend cells in RPMI 1640 media [2 ml/6 well plate].</li>
	<li>Take a small volume of the cell suspension, add it to one volume of 0.4% trypan blue dye and determine cell density using TC10 Automated Cell Counter.</li>
	<li>Calculate volume of cell suspension needed to get 5 x 105 cells/mouse times the number mice injecting.</li>
</ol>
Note: To ensure adequate cell suspension for injection, prepare cells as though you are injecting double the number of mice (e.g. if injecting 5 mice, then prepare cell suspension as though you were injecting 10 mice).
<ol start="6">
	<li>Transfer needed volume of cell suspension into a 15 ml conical tube.</li>
	<li>Pellet cells by centrifugation at 200 x g for 4 min at room temperature.</li>
	<li>Aspirate media and resuspend cells in complete RPMI 1640 media.</li>
	<li>Transfer cells to a 1.6 ml tube, add 1 volume of matrigel and mix gently by slowly pipetting in and out.</li>
</ol>
Note: Each mouse will receive 10 &mu;l of the cell suspension/matrigel cocktail. Since 5 x 105 cells suspended in a 10 &mu;l injectable volume have been successfully used in previous ATC orthotopic studies9-10, we used those parameters in this report.
<ol start="10">
	<li>Place cell suspension on ice until ready to use.</li>
</ol>
2. Mouse Preparation
<ol>
	<li>Clean the surgical zone, which includes the dissecting scope and surrounding area, by wiping all surfaces with 70% ethanol.</li>
	<li>Turn on heating lamps/pads where animals will be recovering from surgery.</li>
	<li>Administer 0.1 ml ketamine/xylazine (drug cocktail consisting of ketamine 9 mg/ml and xylazine 1mg/ml) per 10 g body weight intraperitoneally using a 1 ml, 27G &frac12;" Tuberculin syringe.</li>
	<li>Prep mouse for surgery: 1) shave neck region of mouse (from jaw line to top of sternum and out to arms), 2) scrub surgical area three times with chorhexadine soaked gauze squares, 3) final scrub done with betadine soaked gauze, 4) gently apply eye ointment to prevent eyes from drying.</li>
	<li>Check pedal reflex to ensure mouse is adequately sedated.</li>
	<li>Place animal in dorsal recumbency on a disposable sterile field barrier under the dissecting scope and secure the animal in place with cloth tape.</li>
	<li>Scrubs hands and fingernails then put on sterile surgical gloves.</li>
	<li>In a sterile fashion, open surgery pack and arrange instruments.</li>
	<li>Place sterile drape over animal, leaving only surgical site exposed.</li>
</ol>
3. Surgical Access to Thyroid and Cell Injection
<ol>
	<li>Using a sterile, disposable scalpel, make a 1-to-1.5 cm longitudinal incision along the midline of the throat.</li>
</ol>
Note: Deviation from the midline complicates deeper cutting to access the trachea. Fairly precise midline incision allows you to tease and cut through the membranous tissue holding left and right salivary glands together and reduces chance of nicking or severing large arteries.
<ol start="2">
	<li>Make a second incision into the strap muscles surrounding the trachea then pull the right side of the incised muscle to the side to expose the right thyroid gland.</li>
	<li>Hemostats can be used at this point to hold the muscle layer apart for easy access to the thyroid gland (Figure 1).</li>
</ol>
Note: Alternatively, if procedure performed by two surgical staff, the muscle layer may simply be held back with forceps while a ready injectable syringe is handed to the surgeon by the assisting staff.
<ol start="4">
	<li>Slowly inject 10 &mu;l of cell suspension into the right thyroid gland using a 31G 5/16" insulin syringe then gently remove needle.</li>
</ol>
4. Closure of Surgical Site and Mouse Recovery
<ol>
	<li>Suture muscle layer with 6.0 suturing material using either a continuous or interrupted suturing style.</li>
	<li>Stitch the skin in the same fashion.</li>
	<li>Apply a layer of triple antibiotic ointment directly over incision site.</li>
	<li>Allow animal to recover in dorsal recumbency on warm heating pad. Once animal can achieve sternal recumbency without assistance, it can be placed back with other mice.</li>
</ol>
5. Post-operative Monitoring and Tissue Collection
<ol>
	<li>Check the incision site and overall health of the animal daily for a week following surgery, then check once a week. If the sutures are still intact after 14 days, they are removed.</li>
</ol>
Note: Animals exhibiting signs of declining health (e.g. substantial weight loss, scruffy hair, labored breathing) should be euthanized and tissues collected.
<ol start="2">
	<li>Once mice have reached a predetermined post-operative time-point, administer ketamine/xylazine as describe above to sedate.</li>
	<li>Perfuse animal intracardially and harvest thyroid/trachea and other tissues of interest (not described in detail here).</li>
</ol>

<ol>
	<li>Bibby, M. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Orthotopic+models+of+cancer+for+preclinical+drug+evaluation:+advantages+and+disadvantages.">Orthotopic models of cancer for preclinical drug evaluation: advantages and disadvantages.</a> Eur. J. Cancer. 40, 852-857 (2004).</li><li>Hoffman, R. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Orthotopic+metastatic+mouse+models+for+anticancer+drug+discovery+and+evaluation:+a+bridge+to+the+clinic.">Orthotopic metastatic mouse models for anticancer drug discovery and evaluation: a bridge to the clinic.</a> Invest. New Drugs. 17, 343-359 (1999).</li><li>Killion, J. J., Radinsky, R., Fidler, I. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Orthotopic+models+are+necessary+to+predict+therapy+of+transplantable+tumors+in+mice.">Orthotopic models are necessary to predict therapy of transplantable tumors in mice.</a> Cancer Metastasis Rev. 17, 279-284 (1998).</li><li>Kim, S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=An+orthotopic+model+of+anaplastic+thyroid+carcinoma+in+athymic+nude+mice.">An orthotopic model of anaplastic thyroid carcinoma in athymic nude mice.</a> Clin. Cancer Res. 11, 1713-1721 (2005).</li><li>Nucera, C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+novel+orthotopic+mouse+model+of+human+anaplastic+thyroid+carcinoma.">A novel orthotopic mouse model of human anaplastic thyroid carcinoma.</a> Thyroid. 19, 1077-1084 (2009).</li><li>Todaro, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Tumorigenic+and+metastatic+activity+of+human+thyroid+cancer+stem+cells.">Tumorigenic and metastatic activity of human thyroid cancer stem cells.</a> Cancer Res. 70, 8874-8885 (2010).</li><li>Tran Cao, H. S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Real-time+imaging+of+tumor+progression+in+a+fluorescent+orthotopic+mouse+model+of+thyroid+cancer.">Real-time imaging of tumor progression in a fluorescent orthotopic mouse model of thyroid cancer.</a> Anticancer Res. 30, 4415-4422 (2010).</li><li>Marlow, L. A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Detailed+molecular+fingerprinting+of+four+new+anaplastic+thyroid+carcinoma+cell+lines+and+their+use+for+verification+of+RhoB+as+a+molecular+therapeutic+target.">Detailed molecular fingerprinting of four new anaplastic thyroid carcinoma cell lines and their use for verification of RhoB as a molecular therapeutic target.</a> J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 95, 5338-5347 (2010).</li><li>Nehs, M. A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Late+Intervention+with+anti-BRAF+(V600E)+therapy+induces+tumor+regression+in+an+orthotopic+mouse+model+of+human+anaplastic+thyroid+cancer.">Late Intervention with anti-BRAF (V600E) therapy induces tumor regression in an orthotopic mouse model of human anaplastic thyroid cancer.</a> Endocrinology. 153, 985-994 (2012).</li><li>Nucera, C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Targeting+BRAFV600E+with+PLX4720+displays+potent+antimigratory+and+anti-invasive+activity+in+preclinical+models+of+human+thyroid+cancer.">Targeting BRAFV600E with PLX4720 displays potent antimigratory and anti-invasive activity in preclinical models of human thyroid cancer.</a> Oncologist. 16, 296-309 (2011).</li></ol>

The authors have nothing to disclose.

In our model, animals demonstrated thyroid tumor metastasis and disease related cachexia and respiratory distress by 4 weeks post-injection. As with most other orthotopic models utilizing injectable delivery of a cell suspension, injection into surrounding tissues and post-injection leakage that spreads beyond the target are possible. With that being said, one recognizable potential unknown produced by this procedure is the effect of off target exposure to non-disease related metastases or complications. This is a general concern with most xenographic transplants, regardless of the disease being investigated. Nonetheless, unintentional consequences from metastasis may be significantly minimized by ensuring the entire bevel of the needle tip has penetrated the membrane snugly overlaying the thyroid gland and slowly expelling the cellular suspension. If leakage is observed during or after injection, those animals may be omitted from the study.
It is essential that the animals are perfused prior to harvesting the thyroid/trachea and other tissues. The benefits are two-fold, 1) red blood cells are purged and will not clutter histological specimens and 2) tissue morphology and integrity are preserved. Furthermore, resected thyroid/trachea that have either a tumorous mass attached or are entombed within it should be cut in a way that anatomical landmarks can be identified before being embedded for histological preparation. This will dramatically reduce specimen preparation time.
In this report we describe local growth and invasion of advanced thyroid tumor following orthotopic injection of ATC cells. ATC metastasis may be investigated by analyzing histological preparations of other tissues using standard histological stains, such as hematoxylin and eosin, or by immunohistochemistry utilizing cell or pathology relevant markers. This system can be further developed by genetically modifying thyroid cancer cells with fluorescence reporters so that live imaging may be used to monitor metastasis and the efficacy of therapeutic treatments.

<table border="1">
 <tbody>
 <tr>
 <td>Name of Reagent/Material</td>
 <td>Company</td>
 <td>Catalogue Number</td>
 <td>Comments</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>RPMI 1640 cell culture media</td>
 <td>Mediatech</td>
 <td>10-041-CV</td>
 <td>Media and additives used depend on cell line</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>TC10 Automated Cell Counter</td>
 <td>Bio-Rad</td>
 <td>145-0001</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Matrigel</td>
 <td>Becton, Dickinson and Company</td>
 <td>354234</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Graefe Forceps, Serrated; Slight Curve, 4"</td>
 <td>Roboz</td>
 <td>RS-5135</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Disposable scalpel, No. 15</td>
 <td>Feather</td>
 <td>2975#15</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Olsen Hegar Needle Holder - 4 &frac12;" delicate serrated</td>
 <td>gSource</td>
 <td>gS 21.5400</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>6-0 nylon black monofilament suture</td>
 <td>Surgical Specialties Corporation</td>
 <td>1279B</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Heating Pad, reusable, 8" x 12"</td>
 <td></td>
 <td></td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Cloth tape, 1" X 10 yds</td>
 <td>Medline</td>
 <td>MIINON260101</td>
 <td>For restraining anesthetized mouse</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Peanut Clipper/Trimmer</td>
 <td>Wahl</td>
 <td>8655</td>
 <td>For removing hair from surgical site</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>ChlorHex-Q SCRUB 2%</td>
 <td>Penn Veterinary Supply</td>
 <td>VED1222</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Betadine</td>
 <td>Henry Schein Company</td>
 <td>6906727</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Petrolatum ophthalmic ointment</td>
 <td>Dechra Veterinary Products</td>
 <td>17033-211-38</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>2 x 2 gauze, 12-ply</td>
 <td>Butler Animal Health Supply</td>
 <td>6936</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Sterile Field, Barrier, 18" x 26"</td>
 <td>Busse</td>
 <td>696</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Drapes (CSR Wrap)</td>
 <td>Cardinal Health</td>
 <td>AT 21 412</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>27G &frac12;" needle</td>
 <td>Becton, Dickinson and Company</td>
 <td>309623</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>31G 5/16" needle</td>
 <td>Becton, Dickinson and Company</td>
 <td>328438</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Ketamine (9 mg/ml) / xylazine (1 mg/ml) solution</td>
 <td></td>
 <td></td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Triple antibiotic ointment</td>
 <td></td>
 <td></td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 </tbody>
</table>

an orthotopic mouse model of anaplastic thyroid carcinoma

Several types of animal models of human thyroid carcinomas have been established, including subcutaneous xenograft and orthotopic implantation of cancer cells into immunodeficient mice. Subcutaneous xenograft models have been valuable for preclinical screening and evaluation of new therapeutic treatments. There are a number of advantages to using a subcutaneous model; 1) rapid, 2) reproducible, and 3) tumor establishment, growth, and response to therapeutic agents may be monitored by visual inspection. However, substantial evidence has shed light on the short-comings of subcutaneous xenograft models1-3. For instance, medicinal treatments demonstrating curative properties in subcutaneous xenograft models often have no notable impact on the human disease. The microenvironment of the site of xenographic transplantation or injection lies at the heart of this dissimilarity.
Orthotopic tumor xenograft models provide a more biologically relevant context in which to study the disease. The advantages of implanting diseased cells or tissue into their anatomical origin equivalent within a host animal includes a suitable site for tumor-host interactions, development of disease-related metastases and the ability to examine site-specific influence on investigational therapeutic remedies. Therefore, orthotopic xenograft models harbor far more clinical value because they closely reproduce human disease. For these reasons, a number of groups have taken advantage of an orthotopic thyroid cancer model as a research tool4-7.
Here, we describe an approach that establishes an orthotopic model for the study of anaplastic thyroid carcinoma (ATC), which is highly invasive, resists treatment, and is virtually fatal in all diagnosed patients. Cultured ATC cells are prepared as a dissociated cellular suspension in a solution containing a basement membrane matrix. A small volume is slowly injected into the right thyroid gland. Overall appearance and health of the mice are monitored to ensure minimal post-operative complications and to gauge pathological penetrance of the cancer. Mice are sacrificed at 4 weeks, and tissue is collected for histological analysis. Animals may be taken at later time-points to examine more advance progression of the disease. Production of this orthotopic mouse model establishes a platform that accomplishes two objectives: 1) further our understanding of ATC pathology, and 2) screen current and future therapeutic agents for efficacy in combating ATC.

We detected 19 invasive thyroid tumors from a total of 20 mice injected with ATC cells after 4 weeks. In the example shown in Figure 2A, mice receiving an orthotopic injection of 5X105 ATC cells grown under attached conditions, exhibit significant infiltration of cancer cells into the thyroid by 4 weeks post-injection. The nature of the invading ATC cells with a characteristic spindled cells and medium- to giant-sized cells with eosinophilic cytoplasm and large nuclei was verified by hematoxylin and eosin (H&amp;E) staining. For comparison, the thyroid and trachea from a non-injected control animal is shown in Figure 2B. Follicles of the uninjected animal display a close, yet loose, association and have essentially a round morphology.
Due to the small size of the thyroid and use of injectable delivery, unintentional outcomes may arise. Figure 3A illustrates the most commonly observed, which is development of a tumor mass outside of, but not encompassing, the thyroid. This is more than likely due to needle penetration through and beyond the thyroid when cells are expelled. Occasionally, mice presenting with no tumor growth, both grossly and histologically, are detected as shown in Figure 3B. Absence of detectable tumor development can be caused by expulsion of the cell suspension from the injection site and dissemination into neighboring tissues and cavities.
<img src="/files/ftp_upload/50097/50097fig1.jpg" alt="Figure 1"/> 
 Figure 1. Exposing the thyroid. Labels indicate the right and left thyroid glands flanking the trachea.
<img src="/files/ftp_upload/50097/50097fig2.jpg" alt="Figure 2"/> 
 Figure 2. Histological examination of tumor growth and invasion after successful thyroid injection. Tissue specimens were sectioned along the coronal plane. A) Image taken at 200X of mouse exhibiting substantial tumor growth with characteristic spindled cells and medium- to giant- sized cells with eosinophilic cytoplasm and large nuclei in hematoxylin and eosin (H&amp;E) stain. Tu indicates the primary lesion from which tumor cells invade the thyroid. B) Trachea and thyroid from control animal (image taken at 100X). Tu ,Tumors; S, smooth muscle; Tr, trachea; Thy, thyroid gland.
<img src="/files/ftp_upload/50097/50097fig3.jpg" alt="Figure 3"/> 
 Figure 3. Unintentional outcomes of orthotopic injection. Tissue specimens were sectioned along the coronal plane. A) Peripheral tumor growth with no growth evident in the thyroid (black arrow, image taken at 100X). B) Lack of tumor detection upon gross (not shown) or histological examination (image taken at 50X). Thy, thyroid gland.

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about An Orthotopic Mouse Model of Anaplastic Thyroid Carcinoma at JoVE.com

An Orthotopic Mouse Model of Anaplastic Thyroid Carcinoma

Generation of an orthotopic mouse model of anaplastic thyroid carcinoma is described here. This technique employs surgical placement of human anaplastic thyroid cancer cells into the thyroid of immunodeficient mice, thus creating a more clinically relevant setting to study disease progression as well as screen innovative therapeutic interventions.

Several types of animal models of human thyroid carcinomas have been established, including subcutaneous xenograft and orthotopic implantation of cancer ...

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Bladder tumors are established in female mice in a minimally invasive fashion through catheterization, local cauterization, and subsequent adhesion of carcinoma cells to the burn sites.

In this straightforward procedure, bladder tumors are established in female C57 mice through the use of catheterization, local cauterization, and ...

Loco-regional invasion of head and neck cancer is linked to metastatic risk and presents a difficult challenge in designing and implementing patient management strategies. Orthotopic mouse models of oral cancer have been developed to facilitate the study of factors that impact invasion and serve as model system for evaluating anti-tumor therapeutics. In these systems, visualization of disseminated tumor cells within oral cavity tissues has typically been conducted by either conventional histology or with in vivo bioluminescent methods. A primary drawback of these techniques is the inherent inability to accurately visualize and quantify early tumor cell invasion arising from the primary site in three dimensions. Here we describe a protocol that combines an established model for squamous cell carcinoma of the tongue (SCOT) with two-photon imaging to allow multi-vectorial visualization of lingual tumor spread. The OSC-19 head and neck tumor cell line was stably engineered to express the F-actin binding peptide LifeAct fused to the mCherry fluorescent protein (LifeAct-mCherry). Fox1nu/nu mice injected with these cells reliably form tumors that allow the tongue to be visualized by ex-vivo application of two-photon microscopy. This technique allows for the orthotopic visualization of the tumor mass and locally invading cells in excised tongues without disruption of the regional tumor microenvironment. In addition, this system allows for the quantification of tumor cell invasion by calculating distances that invaded cells move from the primary tumor site. Overall this procedure provides an enhanced model system for analyzing factors that contribute to SCOT invasion and therapeutic treatments tailored to prevent local invasion and distant metastatic spread. This method also has the potential to be ultimately combined with other imaging modalities in an in vivo setting.

A comprehensive overview of the techniques involved in generating a mouse model of oral cancer and quantitative monitoring of tumor invasion within the tongue through multi-photon microscopy of labeled cells is presented. This system can serve as a useful platform for the molecular assessment and drug efficacy of anti-invasive compounds.

Loco-regional invasion of head and neck cancer is linked to metastatic risk and presents a difficult challenge in designing and implementing patient ...

Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) are the most common and aggressive adult primary brain tumors1. In recent years there has been substantial progress in the understanding of the mechanics of tumor invasion, and direct intracerebral inoculation of tumor provides the opportunity of observing the invasive process in a physiologically appropriate environment2. As far as human brain tumors are concerned, the orthotopic models currently available are established either by stereotaxic injection of cell suspensions or implantation of a solid piece of tumor through a complicated craniotomy procedure3. In our technique we harvest cells from tissue culture to create a cell suspension used to implant directly into the brain. The duration of the surgery is approximately 30 minutes, and as the mouse needs to be in a constant surgical plane, an injectable anesthetic is used. The mouse is placed in a stereotaxic jig made by Stoetling (figure 1). After the surgical area is cleaned and prepared, an incision is made; and the bregma is located to determine the location of the craniotomy. The location of the craniotomy is 2 mm to the right and 1 mm rostral to the bregma. The depth is 3 mm from the surface of the skull, and cells are injected at a rate of 2 &mu;l every 2 minutes. The skin is sutured with 5-0 PDS, and the mouse is allowed to wake up on a heating pad. From our experience, depending on the cell line, treatment can take place from 7-10 days after surgery. Drug delivery is dependent on the drug composition. For radiation treatment the mice are anesthetized, and put into a custom made jig. Lead covers the mouse's body and exposes only the brain of the mouse. The study of tumorigenesis and the evaluation of new therapies for GBM require accurate and reproducible brain tumor animal models. Thus we use this orthotopic brain model to study the interaction of the microenvironment of the brain and the tumor, to test the effectiveness of different therapeutic agents with and without radiation.

The purpose of this article is to describe the use of an orthotopic glioblastoma model for chemoradiation studies. This article will go though cell processing, implanting, and radiotherapy of the mouse using an intracranial model.

Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) are the most common and aggressive adult primary brain tumors1. In recent years there has been substantial progress in the ...

An Orthotopic Bladder Tumor Model and the Evaluation of Intravesical saRNA Treatment

We present a novel method for treating bladder cancer with intravesically delivered small activating RNA (saRNA) in an orthotopic xenograft mouse bladder tumor model. The mouse model is established by urethral catheterization under inhaled general anesthetic. Chemical burn is then introduced to the bladder mucosa using intravesical silver nitrate solution to disrupt the bladder glycosaminoglycan layer and allows cells to attach. Following several washes with sterile water, human bladder cancer KU-7-luc2-GFP cells are instilled through the catheter into the bladder to dwell for 2 hours. Subsequent growth of bladder tumors is confirmed and monitored by in vivo bladder ultrasound and bioluminescent imaging. The tumors are then treated intravesically with saRNA formulated in lipid nanoparticles (LNPs). Tumor growth is monitored with ultrasound and bioluminescence. All steps of this procedure are demonstrated in the accompanying video.

Establishing an orthotopic bladder tumor model to evaluate antitumor effects of intravesically delivered saRNA and monitoring tumor growth by ultrasound and bioluminescent imaging.

We present a novel method for treating bladder cancer with intravesically delivered small activating RNA (saRNA) in an orthotopic xenograft mouse bladder ...

An Orthotopic Bladder Cancer Model for Gene Delivery Studies

Bladder cancer is the second most common cancer of the urogenital tract and novel therapeutic approaches that can reduce recurrence and progression are needed. The tumor microenvironment can significantly influence tumor development and therapy response. It is therefore often desirable to grow tumor cells in the organ from which they originated. This protocol describes an orthotopic model of bladder cancer, in which MB49 murine bladder carcinoma cells are instilled into the bladder via catheterization. Successful tumor cell implantation in this model requires disruption of the protective glycosaminoglycan layer, which can be accomplished by physical or chemical means. In our protocol the bladder is treated with trypsin prior to cell instillation. Catheterization of the bladder can also be used to deliver therapeutics once the tumors are established. This protocol describes the delivery of an adenoviral construct that expresses a luciferase reporter gene. While our protocol has been optimized for short-term studies and focuses on gene delivery, the methodology of mouse bladder catheterization has broad applications.

Implantation of cancer cells into the organ of origin can serve as a useful preclinical model to evaluate novel therapies. MB49 bladder carcinoma cells can be grown within the bladder following intravesical instillation. This protocol demonstrates catheterization of the mouse bladder for the purpose of tumor implantation and adenoviral delivery.

Bladder cancer is the second most common cancer of the urogenital tract and novel therapeutic approaches that can reduce recurrence and progression are ...

Bioluminescent Orthotopic Model of Pancreatic Cancer Progression

Pancreatic cancer has an extremely poor five-year survival rate of 4-6%. New therapeutic options are critically needed and depend on improved understanding of pancreatic cancer biology. To better understand the interaction of cancer cells with the pancreatic microenvironment, we demonstrate an orthotopic model of pancreatic cancer that permits non-invasive monitoring of cancer progression. Luciferase-tagged pancreatic cancer cells are resuspended in Matrigel and delivered into the pancreatic tail during laparotomy. Matrigel solidifies at body temperature to prevent leakage of cancer cells during injection. Primary tumor growth and metastasis to distant organs are monitored following injection of the luciferase substrate luciferin, using in vivo imaging of bioluminescence emission from the cancer cells. In vivo imaging also may be used to track primary tumor recurrence after resection. This orthotopic model is suited to both syngeneic and xenograft models and may be used in pre-clinical trials to investigate the impact of novel anti-cancer therapeutics on the growth of the primary pancreatic tumor and metastasis.

Improved understanding of pancreatic cancer biology is critically needed to enable the development of better therapeutic options to treat pancreatic cancer. To address this need, we demonstrate an orthotopic model of pancreatic cancer that permits non-invasive monitoring of cancer progression using in vivo bioluminescence imaging.

Pancreatic cancer has an extremely poor five-year survival rate of 4-6%.  New therapeutic options are critically needed and depend on improved ...

An Orthotopic Murine Model of Human Prostate Cancer Metastasis

Our laboratory has developed a novel orthotopic implantation model of human prostate cancer (PCa). As PCa death is not due to the primary tumor, but rather the formation of distinct metastasis, the ability to effectively model this progression pre-clinically is of high value. In this model, cells are directly implanted into the ventral lobe of the prostate in Balb/c athymic mice, and allowed to progress for 4-6 weeks. At experiment termination, several distinct endpoints can be measured, such as size and molecular characterization of the primary tumor, the presence and quantification of circulating tumor cells in the blood and bone marrow, and formation of metastasis to the lung. In addition to a variety of endpoints, this model provides a picture of a cells ability to invade and escape the primary organ, enter and survive in the circulatory system, and implant and grow in a secondary site. This model has been used effectively to measure metastatic response to both changes in protein expression as well as to response to small molecule therapeutics, in a short turnaround time.

This orthotopic model of human prostate cancer allows for quantification of tumor size, circulating tumor cells, and formation of distinct metastasis to the lung. As cells must escape the primary organ, enter the blood stream, and implant into a secondary site, this model effectively recapitulates the scenario in humans.

Our laboratory has developed a novel orthotopic implantation model of  human prostate cancer (PCa). As PCa death is not due to the primary tumor, but  ...

An Orthotopic Glioblastoma Mouse Model Maintaining Brain Parenchymal Physical Constraints and Suitable for Intravital Two-photon Microscopy

Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is the most aggressive form of brain tumors with no curative treatments available to date.
Murine models of this pathology rely on the injection of a suspension of glioma cells into the brain parenchyma following incision of the dura-mater. Whereas the cells have to be injected superficially to be accessible to intravital two-photon microscopy, superficial injections fail to recapitulate the physiopathological conditions. Indeed, escaping through the injection tract most tumor cells reach the extra-dural space where they expand abnormally fast in absence of mechanical constraints from the parenchyma.
Our improvements consist not only in focally implanting a glioma spheroid rather than injecting a suspension of glioma cells in the superficial layers of the cerebral cortex but also in clogging the injection site by a cross-linked dextran gel hemi-bead that is glued to the surrounding parenchyma and sealed to dura-mater with cyanoacrylate. Altogether these measures enforce the physiological expansion and infiltration of the tumor cells inside the brain parenchyma. Craniotomy was finally closed with a glass window cemented to the skull to allow chronic imaging over weeks in absence of scar tissue development.
Taking advantage of fluorescent transgenic animals grafted with fluorescent tumor cells we have shown that the dynamics of interactions occurring between glioma cells, neurons (e.g. Thy1-CFP mice) and vasculature (highlighted by an intravenous injection of a fluorescent dye) can be visualized by intravital two-photon microscopy during the progression of the disease.
The possibility to image a tumor at microscopic resolution in a minimally compromised cerebral environment represents an improvement of current GBM animal models which should benefit the field of neuro-oncology and drug testing.

We have established a cortical orthotopic glioblastoma model in mice for intravital two-photon microscopy that recapitulates the biophysical constraints normally at play during the growth of the tumor. A chronic glass window replacing the skull above the tumor enables the follow-up of the tumor progression over time by two-photon microscopy.

Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is the most aggressive form of brain tumors with no curative treatments available to date.
Murine models of this pathology ...

The In Ovo Chick Chorioallantoic Membrane (CAM) Assay as an Efficient Xenograft Model of Hepatocellular Carcinoma

The chick chorioallantoic membrane (CAM) begins to develop by day 7 after fertilization and matures by day 12. The CAM is naturally immunodeficient and highly vascularized, making it an ideal system for tumor implantation. Furthermore, the CAM contains extracellular matrix proteins such as fibronectin, laminin, collagen, integrin alpha(v)beta3, and MMP-2, making it an attractive model to study tumor invasion and metastasis. Scientists have long taken advantage of the physiology of the CAM by using it as a model of angiogenesis. More recently, the CAM assay has been modified to work as an in vivo xenograft model system for various cancers that bridges the gap between basic in vitro work and more complex animal cancer models. The CAM assay allows for the study of tumor growth, anti-tumor therapies, and pro-tumor molecular pathways in a biologically relevant system that is both cost- and time-effective. Here, we describe the development of CAM xenograft model of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) with embryonic survival rates of up to 93% and reliable tumor take leading to growth of three-dimensional, vascularized tumors.

The In Ovo Chick Chorioallantoic Membrane CAM Assay as an Efficient Xenograft Model of Hepatocellular Carcinoma

The chick chorioallantoic membrane (CAM) is immunodeficient and highly vascularized, making it a natural in vivo model of tumor growth and angiogenesis. In this protocol, we describe a reliable method of growing three-dimensional, vascularized hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) tumors using the CAM assay.

The chick chorioallantoic membrane (CAM) begins to develop by day 7 after fertilization and matures by day 12. The CAM is naturally immunodeficient and ...

Dynamic contrast enhanced magnetic resonance imaging (DCE-MRI) has been limitedly used for orthotopic pancreatic tumor xenografts due to severe respiratory motion artifact in the abdominal area. Orthotopic tumor models offer advantages over subcutaneous ones, because those can reflect the primary tumor microenvironment affecting blood supply, neovascularization, and tumor cell invasion. We have recently established a protocol of DCE-MRI of orthotopic pancreatic tumor xenografts in mouse models by securing tumors with an orthogonally bent plastic board to prevent motion transfer from the chest region during imaging. The pressure by this board was localized on the abdominal area, and has not resulted in respiratory difficulty of the animals. This article demonstrates the detailed procedure of orthotopic pancreatic tumor modeling using small animals and DCE-MRI of the tumor xenografts. Quantification method of pharmacokinetic parameters in DCE-MRI is also introduced. The procedure described in this article will assist investigators to apply DCE-MRI for orthotopic gastrointestinal cancer mouse models.

The goal of this protocol is to apply dynamic contrast enhanced magnetic resonance imaging (DCE-MRI) for orthotopic pancreatic tumor xenografts in mice. DCE-MRI is a non-invasive method to analyze microvasculature in a target tissue, and useful to assess vascular response in a tumor following a novel therapy.