The authors thank members of the Shapiro lab and Erin Schrader for comments on the manuscript. The authors acknowledge financial support from: NIH postdoctoral fellowship F32 GM100732 to JMS and NIH grants R01 GM51426 and R01 GM32506 to LS.

1. Sincronía a gran escala - óptimo para el Western Blot, Microarray / RNA-Seq, y otros ensayos intensivos de materiales <ol><li> De una acción congelador o una placa, crecer un 5 ml O / N de la cultura NA1000 cepa por agitación a 28 ° C en medio PYE. </li><li> Inocular 0,5 ml de las células de la etapa 1 en 25 ml de M2G (Tablas 1-2) y agitar a 28 ° C hasta que el cultivo alcanza una OD 600 entre 0,5 y 0,6. </li><li> Se inoculan las células en 1 l de M2G y agitar a 28 ° C. </li><li> Una vez DO600 alcanza de 0,5 a 0,6, confirmar la presencia de swarmer células utilizando microscopía fase líquida montada. Punto 1 l de células sobre un portaobjetos de vidrio, cubierta con una hoja de la cubierta, y la imagen por microscopía de fase. Confirmar la presencia de células swarmer mediante la visualización de las células que nadan rápidamente en la población. </li><li> Girar las células durante 15 min a 7 kxg a 4 ° C en un rotor JA-10. </li><li> Descartar el sobrenadante y añadir 180 ml de frío M2 (Tablas 1-2) y cosa suavementeuspend todas las células utilizando una pipeta serológica. Deseche células poco granuladas; que son las células predivisional y acechado. </li><li> Añadir 60 ml de solución de sílice coloidal frío (asegúrese de mezclar la suspensión de sílice coloidal bien antes de añadir a las células) y mezclar bien la suspensión celular. </li><li> Verter la suspensión de células en ocho tubos de 30 ml y centrifugar durante 30 min a 6,4 kxg a 4 ° C en un rotor JA-20. NOTA: Hay que ver a dos bandas distintas; la banda swarmer es la banda más baja mientras acechadas células / predivisional están en la banda superior (Figura 1B). </li><li> Aspirar con cuidado la banda superior y retire el líquido a ~ 1 cm por encima de la banda swarmer (la banda inferior). </li><li> (Crítica) Con una pipeta Pasteur, retire con cuidado la banda swarmer y colocar en un tubo limpio. Para lavar la sílice coloidal, parte superior del tubo con frío M2 y centrifugado durante 10 minutos a 6,4 kxg a 4 ° C en un rotor JA-20. </li><li> Desechar cuidadosamente el sobrenadante y resuspender ellas células en 20 ml de frío M2 y centrifugado durante 10 minutos a 6,4 kxg a 4 ° C en un rotor JA-20. </li><li> Resuspender todas las pastillas en 30 ml de frío M2 y medir la OD 600 usando un espectrofotómetro y en blanco utilizando medio M2 frío. Guardar 1 l para la imagen de fase para comprobar swarmer células; 90-95% de las células debería ser enjambres. </li><li> Centrifugar las células durante 5 minutos a 6,4 kxg a 4 ° C en un rotor JA-20. Resuspender las células en 28 ° C M2G medio de modo que el A 600 es de ~ 0,3-0,4 y comenzar agitación a 28 ° C. NOTA: Los rendimientos típicos son entre 30 y 60 ml de swarmer cultivo celular de 1 litro de células no sincronizadas. </li><li> Comience a tomar los puntos de tiempo (la cultura de tipo salvaje tomará aproximadamente 135-140 minutos para dividir) 8,9. En cada punto de tiempo, medir el OD 600. Compruebe que el OD 600 después de la división es de aproximadamente 2 veces la DO inicial 600. </li><li> Para ensayos de transferencia o de expresión génica occidentales, retirar alícuotas de 1 ml de la culture en los tiempos deseados, de girar a velocidad máxima en una centrífuga de mesa durante 30 segundos, rápidamente decantar o aspirar el medio, y el flash congelar el sedimento de células en nitrógeno líquido. Guarde las células a -80 ° C hasta el análisis de aguas abajo. </li></ol> 2. Sincronía pequeña escala - Óptimo para Microscopía <ol><li> De una acción congelador o una placa, crecer un cultivo de 5 ml O / N agitación a 28 ° C en M2G. </li><li> Diluir en 15 ml de M2G (Tablas 1-2) y crecer hasta mediados de log (OD 600 = 0,5 a 0,6). </li><li> Giran a 6,4 kxg durante 10 min a 4 ° C en un rotor JA-20, y se vuelve a suspender en 1 ml M2 frías (Tablas 1-2) y transferir a un tubo de microcentrífuga de 2 ml. </li><li> Giran a 15 kxg durante 3 min en un tubo de microcentrífuga para sedimentar las células, aspirar el sobrenadante, el sedimento se puso en hielo, y resuspender en 900 l de frío M2. </li><li> Añadir 900 l de PVP frío recubierto de sílice coloidal y centrifugado durante 20 minutos a 15 kxg a 4 ° C en un microtubo rocentrifuge. </li><li> (Crítica) Aspirar o una pipeta de la parte superior de banda celular acechado / predivisional y recoger la parte inferior swarmer banda en un nuevo tubo de microcentrífuga. </li><li> Lavar las células dos veces en swarmer 1 ml de frío, mientras que M2 centrifugación a 15 kxg durante 3 min. </li><li> Antes de que el centrifugado final, mover las células en un tubo de ensayo de vidrio de 1 ml pre-enfriada y medir la OD 600 de las células en comparación con un blanco de M2. </li><li> Resuspender el precipitado celular final a 28 ° C M2G a una DO entre 0,3 a 0,4 y agitar células / rollo a 28 ° C. NOTA: Los rendimientos típicos son entre 2 y 4 ml de cultivo celular swarmer. </li><li> Para los experimentos de microscopía, a la deseada puntos temporales lugar 1 l de células sobre una almohadilla de agarosa M2G para la imagen. </li></ol>

<ol>
	<li>McAdams, H. H., Shapiro, L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=System-level+design+of+bacterial+cell+cycle+control.">System-level design of bacterial cell cycle control.</a> FEBS Lett. 583, 3984-3991 (2009).</li><li>McAdams, H. H., Shapiro, L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+architecture+and+conservation+pattern+of+whole-cell+control+circuitry.">The architecture and conservation pattern of whole-cell control circuitry.</a> J. Mol. Biol. 409, 28-35 (2011).</li><li>McAdams, H. H., Shapiro, L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+bacterial+cell-cycle+regulatory+network+operating+in+time+and+space.">A bacterial cell-cycle regulatory network operating in time and space.</a> Science. 301, 1874-1877 (2003).</li><li>Ptacin, J. L., Shapiro, L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Initiating+bacterial+mitosis:+understanding+the+mechanism+of+ParA-mediated+chromosome+segregation.">Initiating bacterial mitosis: understanding the mechanism of ParA-mediated chromosome segregation.</a> Cell Cycle. 9, 4033-4034 (2010).</li><li>Evinger, M., Agabian, N. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Envelope-associated+nucleoid+from+Caulobacter+crescentus+stalked+and+swarmer+cells.">Envelope-associated nucleoid from Caulobacter crescentus stalked and swarmer cells.</a> J. Bacteriol. 132, 294-301 (1977).</li><li>Tsai, J. W., Alley, M. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Proteolysis+of+the+Caulobacter+McpA+chemoreceptor+is+cell+cycle+regulated+by+a+ClpX-dependent+pathway.">Proteolysis of the Caulobacter McpA chemoreceptor is cell cycle regulated by a ClpX-dependent pathway.</a> J. Bacteriol. 183, 5001-5007 (2001).</li><li>Marks, M. E., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+genetic+basis+of+laboratory+adaptation+in+Caulobacter+crescentus.">The genetic basis of laboratory adaptation in Caulobacter crescentus.</a> J. Bacteriol. 192, 3678-3688 (2010).</li><li>Ely, B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Genetics+of+Caulobacter+crescentus.">Genetics of Caulobacter crescentus.</a> Methods Enzymol. 204, 372-384 (1991).</li><li>Williams, B., Bhat, N., Chien, P., Shapiro, L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=ClpXP+and+ClpAP+proteolytic+activity+on+divisome+substrates+is+differentially+regulated+following+the+Caulobacter+asymmetric+cell+division.">ClpXP and ClpAP proteolytic activity on divisome substrates is differentially regulated following the Caulobacter asymmetric cell division.</a> Mol. Microbiol. 93, 853-866 (2014).</li><li>Quon, K. C., Yang, B., Domian, I. J., Shapiro, L., Marczynski, G. T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Negative+control+of+bacterial+DNA+replication+by+a+cell+cycle+regulatory+protein+that+binds+at+the+chromosome+origin.">Negative control of bacterial DNA replication by a cell cycle regulatory protein that binds at the chromosome origin.</a> Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 95, 120-125 (1998).</li><li>Laub, M. T., Chen, S. L., Shapiro, L., McAdams, H. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Genes+directly+controlled+by+CtrA,+a+master+regulator+of+the+Caulobacter+cell+cycle.">Genes directly controlled by CtrA, a master regulator of the Caulobacter cell cycle.</a> Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 99, 4632-4637 (2002).</li><li>Quon, K. C., Marczynski, G. T., Shapiro, L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cell+cycle+control+by+an+essential+bacterial+two-component+signal+transduction+protein.">Cell cycle control by an essential bacterial two-component signal transduction protein.</a> Cell. 84, 83-93 (1996).</li><li>Ferullo, D. J., Cooper, D. L., Moore, H. R., Lovett, S. T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cell+cycle+synchronization+of+Escherichia+coli+using+the+stringent+response,+with+fluorescence+labeling+assays+for+DNA+content+and+replication.">Cell cycle synchronization of Escherichia coli using the stringent response, with fluorescence labeling assays for DNA content and replication.</a> Methods. 48, 8-13 (2009).</li><li>Degnen, S. T., Newton, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Chromosome+replication+during+development+in+Caulobacter+crescentus.">Chromosome replication during development in Caulobacter crescentus.</a> J. Mol. Biol. 64, 671-680 (1972).</li><li>Bates, D., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+Escherichia+coli+baby+cell+column:+a+novel+cell+synchronization+method+provides+new+insight+into+the+bacterial+cell+cycle.">The Escherichia coli baby cell column: a novel cell synchronization method provides new insight into the bacterial cell cycle.</a> Mol. Microbiol. 57, 380-391 (2005).</li><li>Abel, S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Bi-modal+distribution+of+the+second+messenger+c-di-GMP+controls+cell+fate+and+asymmetry+during+the+caulobacter+cell+cycle.">Bi-modal distribution of the second messenger c-di-GMP controls cell fate and asymmetry during the caulobacter cell cycle.</a> PLoS Genet. 9, e1003744 (2013).</li><li>Johnson, R. C., Ely, B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Isolation+of+spontaneously+derived+mutants+of+Caulobacter+crescentus.">Isolation of spontaneously derived mutants of Caulobacter crescentus.</a> Genetics. 86, 25-32 (1977).</li><li>Britos, L., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Regulatory+response+to+carbon+starvation+in+Caulobacter+crescentus.">Regulatory response to carbon starvation in Caulobacter crescentus.</a> PLoS One. 6, e18179 (2011).</li><li>Boutte, C. C., Crosson, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+complex+logic+of+stringent+response+regulation+in+Caulobacter+crescentus:+starvation+signalling+in+an+oligotrophic+environment.">The complex logic of stringent response regulation in Caulobacter crescentus: starvation signalling in an oligotrophic environment.</a> Mol. Microbiol. 80, 695-714 (2011).</li></ol>

The authors have nothing to disclose.

The bacterial cell cycle is a fundamental process in life and is important for the study of growth and as a target for next generation antibiotics. Here, we detailed the rapid synchronization procedures for C. crescentus NA1000, a model organism for the study of the bacterial cell cycle and asymmetric cell division. This method is amendable to western blot, gene expression profiling, and fluorescence microscopy assays to investigate the spatiotemporal regulation of the bacterial cell cycle. 
<p class='jove_...

El ciclo celular bacteriana controla tanto la replicación del genoma y la división de las células hijas. Es importante destacar que, como la resistencia a los antibióticos es una amenaza creciente para la salud pública, el ciclo celular bacteriana presenta un objetivo sin explotar para el desarrollo de antibióticos. En la bacteria Caulobacter crescentus, cada ciclo celular conduce a una división asimétrica, produciendo dos células hijas de diferentes destinos (Figura 1A) 1,2. Una célula hija hereda un flagelo y es móvil, mientras que la otra hija hereda un tallo y es sésiles. Un circuito genético integrado controla la progresión del ciclo celular y destino celular mediante la regulación transcripcional, fosfo-señalización, y proteólisis regulada 3. Además, la replicación de cromosomas y células hijas rendimiento segregación concurrentes que contienen exactamente una copia del cromosoma 4. Es importante destacar que estos dos tipos de células se pueden separar rápidamente por colloidal partícula de sílice centrifugación de densidad en la cepa NA1000 sincronizable 5-7 permitiendo el aislamiento de las células swarmer del resto de la población con altos rendimientos (Figura 1B). Aislado swarmer células luego proceder de forma sincrónica a través de la división celular asimétrica. Aquí, detallamos el protocolo utilizado para sincronizar Caulobacter cepa NA1000. Proporcionamos protocolos y sugerencias para solucionar problemas comunes para ambos de gran y pequeña escala sincronizaciones. Este procedimiento experimental proporciona una poderosa herramienta para interrogar el control espacio-temporal del ciclo celular Caulobacter y destino celular.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="573">
	<tbody>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">Name of Material/ Equipment</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Company</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">Catalog Number</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">Comments/Description</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">PVP Coated Colloidal Silica (Percoll)</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">P4937</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">Colloidal Silica (Ludox AS-40)</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">420840</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">JA10 Rotor</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Beckman-Coulter</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">369687</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">JA20 Rotor</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Beckman-Coulter</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">334831</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">Ferrous Sulfate Chelate Solution</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>F0518</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">30 mL Centrifuge Tubes</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Corning</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">8445</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="25">
			<td height="25" style="height:25px;width:216px;">Na2HPO4</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">EMD</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">SX0720-1</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="25">
			<td height="25" style="height:25px;width:216px;">KH2PO4</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">VWR</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">BDH9268-500G</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="25">
			<td height="25" style="height:25px;width:216px;">NH4Cl</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Amresco</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">0621-500g</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

synchronization of caulobacter crescentus for investigation of the bacterial cell cycle

The cell cycle is important for growth, genome replication, and development in all cells. In bacteria, studies of the cell cycle have focused largely on unsynchronized cells making it difficult to order the temporal events required for cell cycle progression, genome replication, and division. Caulobacter crescentus provides an excellent model system for the bacterial cell cycle whereby cells can be rapidly synchronized in a G0 state by density centrifugation. Cell cycle synchronization experiments have been used to establish the molecular events governing chromosome replication and segregation, to map a genetic regulatory network controlling cell cycle progression, and to identify the establishment of polar signaling complexes required for asymmetric cell division. Here we provide a detailed protocol for the rapid synchronization of Caulobacter NA1000 cells. Synchronization can be performed in a large-scale format for gene expression profiling and western blot assays, as well as a small-scale format for microscopy or FACS assays. The rapid synchronizability and high cell yields of Caulobacter make this organism a powerful model system for studies of the bacterial cell cycle.

Sincronización típicamente produce dos bandas de células (Figura 1B): la banda swarmer, que tiene una densidad más alta, y una banda de células tallo / predivisional de menor densidad. Para asegurar los controles comunes de sincronización eficiente incluyen la supervisión de la OD 600 y la medición de los niveles de proteína CtrA por Western blot en momentos distintos del ciclo celular. La OD 600 debería aumentar en aproximadamente 2 veces durante el curso del ciclo celul...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Synchronization of Caulobacter Crescentus for Investigation of the Bacterial Cell Cycle at JoVE.com

Synchronization of Caulobacter Crescentus for Investigation of the Bacterial Cell Cycle

Synchronization of bacterial cells is essential for studies of the bacterial cell cycle and development. Caulobacter crescentus is synchronizable through density centrifugation allowing a rapid and powerful tool for studies of the bacterial cell cycle. Here we provide a detailed protocol for the synchronization of Caulobacter cells.

Sincronización de<em&gt; Caulobacter crescentus</em&gt; Para la Investigación del Ciclo Celular Bacteriana

The cell cycle is important for growth, genome replication, and development in all cells.  In bacteria, studies of the cell cycle have focused largely on ...

synchronization-caulobacter-crescentus-for-investigation-bacterial

Research

JoVE Journal

Biology

Synchronization of Caulobacter Crescentus for Investigation of the Bacterial Cell Cycle

11.8K vistas.  Stanford University School of Medicine. Synchronization of bacterial cells is essential for studies of the bacterial cell cycle and development. Caulobacter crescentus is synchronizable through density centrifugation allowing a rapid and powerful tool for studies of the bacterial cell cycle. Here we provide a detailed protocol for the synchronization of Caulobacter cells.

Video: Synchronization of Caulobacter Crescentus for Investigation of the Bacterial Cell Cycle

Measuring the Bending Stiffness of Bacterial Cells Using an Optical Trap

We developed a protocol to measure the bending rigidity of filamentous rod-shaped bacteria. Forces are applied with an optical trap, a microscopic three-dimensional spring made of light that is formed when a high-intensity laser beam is focused to a very small spot by a microscope's objective lens. To bend a cell, we first bind live bacteria to a chemically-treated coverslip. As these cells grow, the middle of the cells remains bound to the coverslip but the growing ends are free of this restraint. By inducing filamentous growth with the drug cephalexin, we are able to identify cells in which one end of the cell was stuck to the surface while the other end remained unattached and susceptible to bending forces. A bending force is then applied with an optical trap by binding a polylysine-coated bead to the tip of a growing cell. Both the force and the displacement of the bead are recorded and the bending stiffness of the cell is the slope of this relationship.

We present a protocol for bending filamentous bacterial cells attached to a cover-slip surface with an optical trap to measure the cellular bending stiffness.

La medición de la resistencia a la flexión de las células bacterianas usando una trampa óptica

We developed a protocol to measure the bending rigidity of filamentous rod-shaped bacteria. Forces are applied with an optical trap, a microscopic ...

Investigación

Biología

Monitoring Kinase and Phosphatase Activities Through the Cell Cycle by Ratiometric FRET

F&ouml;rster resonance energy transfer (FRET)-based reporters1 allow the assessment of endogenous kinase and phosphatase activities in living cells. Such probes typically consist of variants of CFP and YFP, intervened by a phosphorylatable sequence and a phospho-binding domain. Upon phosphorylation, the probe changes conformation, which results in a change of the distance or orientation between CFP and YFP, leading to a change in FRET efficiency (Fig 1). Several probes have been published during the last decade, monitoring the activity balance of multiple kinases and phosphatases, including reporters of PKA2, PKB3, PKC4, PKD5, ERK6, JNK7, Cdk18, Aurora B9 and Plk19. Given the modular design, additional probes are likely to emerge in the near future10. 
Progression through the cell cycle is affected by stress signaling pathways 11. Notably, the cell cycle is regulated differently during unperturbed growth compared to when cells are recovering from stress12.Time-lapse imaging of cells through the cell cycle therefore requires particular caution. This becomes a problem particularly when employing ratiometric imaging, since two images with a high signal to noise ratio are required to correctly interpret the results. Ratiometric FRET imaging of cell cycle dependent changes in kinase and phosphatase activities has predominately been restricted to sub-sections of the cell cycle8,9,13,14.
Here, we discuss a method to monitor FRET-based probes using ratiometric imaging throughout the human cell cycle. The method relies on equipment that is available to many researchers in life sciences and does not require expert knowledge of microscopy or image processing.

FRET-based reporters are increasingly used to monitor kinase and phosphatase activities in live cells. Here we describe a method on how to use FRET-based reporters to assess cell cycle-dependent changes in target phosphorylation.

Seguimiento de las actividades de quinasa y fosfatasa través del ciclo celular por Proporcional FRET

F&ouml;rster resonance energy transfer (FRET)-based reporters1 allow the assessment of endogenous kinase and phosphatase activities in living cells. Such ...

Analysis of Cell Cycle Position in Mammalian Cells

The regulation of cell proliferation is central to tissue morphogenesis during the development of multicellular organisms. Furthermore, loss of control of cell proliferation underlies the pathology of diseases like cancer. As such there is great need to be able to investigate cell proliferation and quantitate the proportion of cells in each phase of the cell cycle. It is also of vital importance to indistinguishably identify cells that are replicating their DNA within a larger population. Since a cell&prime;s decision to proliferate is made in the G1 phase immediately before initiating DNA synthesis and progressing through the rest of the cell cycle, detection of DNA synthesis at this stage allows for an unambiguous determination of the status of growth regulation in cell culture experiments.
DNA content in cells can be readily quantitated by flow cytometry of cells stained with propidium iodide, a fluorescent DNA intercalating dye. Similarly, active DNA synthesis can be quantitated by culturing cells in the presence of radioactive thymidine, harvesting the cells, and measuring the incorporation of radioactivity into an acid insoluble fraction. We have considerable expertise with cell cycle analysis and recommend a different approach. We Investigate cell proliferation using bromodeoxyuridine/fluorodeoxyuridine (abbreviated simply as BrdU) staining that detects the incorporation of these thymine analogs into recently synthesized DNA. Labeling and staining cells with BrdU, combined with total DNA staining by propidium iodide and analysis by flow cytometry1 offers the most accurate measure of cells in the various stages of the cell cycle. It is our preferred method because it combines the detection of active DNA synthesis, through antibody based staining of BrdU, with total DNA content from propidium iodide. This allows for the clear separation of cells in G1 from early S phase, or late S phase from G2/M. Furthermore, this approach can be utilized to investigate the effects of many different cell stimuli and pharmacologic agents on the regulation of progression through these different cell cycle phases.
In this report we describe methods for labeling and staining cultured cells, as well as their analysis by flow cytometry. We also include experimental examples of how this method can be used to measure the effects of growth inhibiting signals from cytokines such as TGF-&beta;1, and proliferative inhibitors such as the cyclin dependent kinase inhibitor, p27KIP1. We also include an alternate protocol that allows for the analysis of cell cycle position in a sub-population of cells within a larger culture5. In this case, we demonstrate how to detect a cell cycle arrest in cells transfected with the retinoblastoma gene even when greatly outnumbered by untransfected cells in the same culture. These examples illustrate the many ways that DNA staining and flow cytometry can be utilized and adapted to investigate fundamental questions of mammalian cell cycle control.

Determining the cell cycle position of a population of cells, or understanding how signals affect proliferation, can be readily measured by flow cytometry using this protocol. We report a simple experimental approach to staining cells and quantifying their position in the cell cycle.

Análisis de la posición del ciclo celular en células de mamífero

The regulation of cell proliferation is central to tissue morphogenesis during the development of multicellular organisms. Furthermore, loss of control of ...

The ex vivo Isolated Skeletal Microvessel Preparation for Investigation of Vascular Reactivity

The isolated microvessel preparation is an ex vivo preparation that allows for examination of the different contributions of factors that control vessel diameter, and thus, perfusion resistance1-5. This is a classic experimental preparation that was, in large measure, initially described by Uchida et al.15 several decades ago. This initial description provided the basis for the techniques that was extensively modified and enhanced, primarily in the laboratory of Dr. Brian Duling at the University of Virginia6-8, and we present a current approach in the following pages. This preparation will specifically refer to the gracilis arteriole in a rat as the microvessel of choice, but the basic preparation can readily be applied to vessels isolated from nearly any other tissue or organ across species9-13. Mechanical (i.e., dimensional) changes in the isolated microvessels can easily be evaluated in response to a broad array of physiological (e.g., hypoxia, intravascular pressure, or shear) or pharmacological challenges, and can provide insight into mechanistic elements comprising integrated responses in an intact, although ex vivo, tissue. The significance of this method is that it allows for facile manipulation of the influences on the integrated regulation of microvessel diameter, while also allowing for the control of many of the contributions from other sources, including intravascular pressure (myogenic), autonomic innervation, hemodynamic (e.g., shear stress), endothelial dependent or independent stimuli, hormonal, and parenchymal influences, to provide a partial list. Under appropriate experimental conditions and with appropriate goals, this can serve as an advantage over in vivo or in situ tissue/organ preparations, which do not readily allow for the facile control of broader systemic variables. 
The major limitation of this preparation is essentially the consequence of its strengths. By definition, the behavior of these vessels is being studied under conditions where many of the most significant contributors to the regulation of vascular resistance have been removed, including neural, humoral, metabolic, etc. As such, the investigator is cautioned to avoid over-interpretation and extrapolation of the data that are collected utilizing this preparation. The other significant area of concern with regard to this preparation is that it can be very easy to damage cellular components such as the endothelial lining or the vascular smooth muscle, such that variable source of error can be introduced. It is strongly recommended that the individual investigator utilize appropriate measurements to ensure the quality of the preparation, both at the initiation of the experiment and periodically throughout the course of a protocol.

The ex vivo Isolated Skeletal Microvessel Preparation for Investigation of Vascular Reactivity

An ex vivo preparation is described for isolation of the largest gracilis muscle resistance arterioles for interrogation of both vascular responses to vasoactive stimuli and the assessment of basic structural properties via passive wall mechanics.

La Ex vivo Preparación aislada Microvessel esquelético para la Investigación de la reactividad vascular

The isolated  microvessel preparation is an ex vivo preparation that allows for examination of the different contributions of  factors that control vessel ...

Basic Caenorhabditis elegans Methods: Synchronization and Observation

Research into the molecular and developmental biology of the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans was begun in the early seventies by Sydney Brenner and it has since been used extensively as a model organism 1. C. elegans possesses key attributes such as simplicity, transparency and short life cycle that have made it a suitable experimental system for fundamental biological studies for many years 2. Discoveries in this nematode have broad implications because many cellular and molecular processes that control animal development are evolutionary conserved 3.
C. elegans life cycle goes through an embryonic stage and four larval stages before animals reach adulthood. Development can take 2 to 4 days depending on the temperature. In each of the stages several characteristic traits can be observed. The knowledge of its complete cell lineage 4,5 together with the deep annotation of its genome turn this nematode into a great model in fields as diverse as the neurobiology 6, aging 7,8, stem cell biology 9 and germ line biology 10. 
An additional feature that makes C. elegans an attractive model to work with is the possibility of obtaining populations of worms synchronized at a specific stage through a relatively easy protocol. The ease of maintaining and propagating this nematode added to the possibility of synchronization provide a powerful tool to obtain large amounts of worms, which can be used for a wide variety of small or high-throughput experiments such as RNAi screens, microarrays, massive sequencing, immunoblot or in situ hybridization, among others. 
Because of its transparency, C. elegans structures can be distinguished under the microscope using Differential Interference Contrast microscopy, also known as Nomarski microscopy. The use of a fluorescent DNA binder, DAPI (4',6-diamidino-2-phenylindole), for instance, can lead to the specific identification and localization of individual cells, as well as subcellular structures/defects associated to them.

Basic Caenorhabditis elegans Methods: Synchronization and Observation

The easiness of maintaining and propagating the nematode C. elegans make it a nice model organism to work with. The possibility of synchronizing worms allows the work with a significant amount of subjects at the same developmental stage, what facilitates the study of one particular process in many animals.

Básico<em&gt; Caenorhabditis elegans</em&gt; Métodos de sincronización y de observación

Research into the molecular and developmental biology of the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans was begun in the early seventies by Sydney Brenner and it has ...

Temporal Tracking of Cell Cycle Progression Using Flow Cytometry without the Need for Synchronization

This protocol describes a method to permit the tracking of cells through the cell cycle without requiring the cells to be synchronized. Achieving cell synchronization can be difficult for many cell systems. Standard practice is to block cell cycle progression at a specific stage and then release the accumulated cells producing a wave of cells progressing through the cycle in unison. However, some cell types find this block toxic resulting in abnormal cell cycling, or even mass death. Bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU) uptake can be used to track the cell cycle stage of individual cells. Cells incorporate this synthetic thymidine analog, while synthesizing new DNA during S phase. By providing BrdU for a brief period it is possible to mark a pool of cells that were in S phase while the BrdU was present. These cells can then be tracked through the remainder of the cell cycle and into the next round of replication, permitting the duration of the cell cycle phases to be determined without the need to induce a potentially toxic cell cycle block. It is also possible to determine and correlate the expression of both internal and external proteins during subsequent stages of the cell cycle. These can be used to further refine the assignment of cell cycle stage or assess effects on other cellular functions such as checkpoint activation or cell death.

This protocol describes the use of bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU) uptake to permit the temporal tracking of cells that were in S phase at a specific point in time. Addition of DNA dyes and antibody labeling facilitates detailed analysis of the fate of the S phase cells at later times.

Seguimiento temporal de la progresión del ciclo celular El uso de citometría de flujo sin la necesidad de sincronización

This protocol describes a method to permit the tracking of cells through the cell cycle without requiring the cells to be synchronized. Achieving cell ...

Efficient Mammalian Cell Expression and Single-step Purification of Extracellular Glycoproteins for Crystallization

Production of secreted mammalian proteins for structural and biophysical studies can be challenging, time intensive, and costly. Here described is a time and cost efficient protocol for secreted protein expression in mammalian cells and one step purification using nickel affinity chromatography. The system is based on large scale transient transfection of mammalian cells in suspension, which greatly decreases the time to produce protein, as it eliminates steps, such as developing expression viruses or generating stable expressing cell lines. This protocol utilizes cheap transfection agents, which can be easily made by simple chemical modification, or moderately priced transfection agents, which increase yield through increased transfection efficiency and decreased cytotoxicity. Careful monitoring and maintaining of media glucose levels increases protein yield. Controlling the maturation of native glycans at the expression step increases the final yield of properly folded and functional mammalian proteins, which are ideal properties to pursue X-ray crystallography. In some cases, single step purification produces protein of sufficient purity for crystallization, which is demonstrated here as an example case.

This is a quick, cost-efficient protocol for the production of secreted, glycosylated mammalian proteins and subsequent single-step purification with sufficient yields of homogenous protein for X-ray crystallography and other biophysical studies.

Efficient Expresión células de mamíferos y Single-step La purificación de glicoproteínas extracelular para la cristalización

Production of secreted mammalian proteins for structural and biophysical studies can be challenging, time intensive, and costly. Here described is a time ...

Measurement of Survival Time in Brachionus Rotifers: Synchronization of Maternal Conditions

Rotifers are microscopic cosmopolitan zooplankton used as models in ecotoxicological and aging studies due to their several advantages such as short lifespan, ease of culture, and parthenogenesis that enables clonal culture. However, caution is required when measuring their survival time as it is affected by maternal age and maternal feeding conditions. Here we provide a protocol for powerful and reproducible measurement of the survival time in Brachionus rotifers following a careful synchronization of culture conditions over several generations. Empirically, poor synchronization results in early mortality and a gradual decrease in survival rate, thus resulting in weak statistical power. Indeed, under such conditions, calorie restriction (CR) failed to significantly extend the lifespan of B. plicatilis although CR-induced longevity has been demonstrated with well-synchronized rotifer samples in past and present studies. This protocol is probably useful for other invertebrate models, including the fruitfly Drosophila melanogaster and the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans, because maternal age effects have also been reported in these species.

Measurement of Survival Time in Brachionus Rotifers: Synchronization of Maternal Conditions

Rotifers are microscopic zooplankton used as models in ecotoxicological and aging studies. Here we provide a protocol for powerful and reproducible measurement of survival time in Brachionus rotifers. Synchronization of culture conditions over several generations is of particular importance because maternal condition affects life history of offspring.

Determinación de la supervivencia en el tiempo<em&gt; Brachionus</em&gt; Los rotíferos: Sincronización de Condiciones maternas

Rotifers are microscopic cosmopolitan zooplankton used as models in ecotoxicological and aging studies due to their several advantages such as short ...

Combining Mitotic Cell Synchronization and High Resolution Confocal Microscopy to Study the Role of Multifunctional Cell Cycle Proteins During Mitosis

Study of the various regulatory events of the cell cycle in a phase-dependent manner provides a clear understanding about cell growth and division. The synchronization of cell populations at specific stages of the cell cycle has been found to be very useful in such experimental endeavors. Synchronization of cells by treatment with chemicals that are relatively less toxic can be advantageous over the use of pharmacological inhibitory drugs for the study of consequent cell cycle events and to obtain specific enrichment of selected mitotic stages. Here, we describe the protocol for synchronizing human cells at different stages of the cell cycle, including both in S phase and M phase with a double thymidine block and release procedure for studying the functionality of mitotic proteins in chromosome alignment and segregation. This protocol has been extremely useful for studying the mitotic roles of multifunctional proteins which possess established interphase functions. In our case, the mitotic role of Cdt1, a protein critical for replication origin licensing in G1 phase, can be studied effectively only when G2/M-specific Cdt1 can be depleted. We describe the detailed protocol for depletion of G2/M-specific Cdt1 using double thymidine synchronization. We also explain the protocol of cell fixation, and live cell imaging using high resolution confocal microscopy after thymidine release. The method is also useful for analyzing the function of mitotic proteins under both physiological and perturbed conditions such as for Hec1, a component of the Ndc80 complex, as it enables one to obtain large sample sizes of mitotic cells for fixed and live cell analysis as we show here.&#160;&#160;

We present a protocol for double thymidine synchronization of HeLa cells followed by analysis using high resolution confocal microscopy. This method is key to obtaining large number of cells that proceed synchronously from S phase to mitosis, enabling studies on mitotic roles of multifunctional proteins which also possess interphase functions.

Combina la sincronización celular mitótica y microscopia Confocal de alta resolución para estudiar el papel de las proteínas multifuncional ciclo celular durante la Mitosis

Study of the various regulatory events of the cell cycle in a phase-dependent manner provides a clear understanding about cell growth and division. The ...

Live-Cell Imaging of the Life Cycle of Bacterial Predator Bdellovibrio bacteriovorus using Time-Lapse Fluorescence Microscopy

Bdellovibrio bacteriovorus is a small gram-negative, obligate predatory bacterium that kills other gram-negative bacteria, including harmful pathogens. Therefore, it is considered a living antibiotic. To apply B. bacteriovorus as a living antibiotic, it is first necessary to understand the major stages of its complex life cycle, particularly its proliferation inside prey. So far, it has been challenging to monitor successive stages of the predatory life cycle in real-time. Presented here is a comprehensive protocol for real-time imaging of the complete life cycle of B. bacteriovorus, especially during its growth inside the host. For this purpose, a system consisting of an agarose pad is used in combination with cell-imaging dishes, in which the predatory cells can move freely beneath the agarose pad while immobilized prey cells are able to form bdelloplasts. The application of a strain producing a fluorescently tagged &#946;-subunit of DNA polymerase III further allows chromosome replication to be monitored during the reproduction phase of the B. bacteriovorus life cycle.

Live-Cell Imaging of the Life Cycle of Bacterial Predator Bdellovibrio bacteriovorus using Time-Lapse Fluorescence Microscopy

Presented here is a protocol that describes monitoring of the complete life cycle of predatory bacterium Bdellovibrio bacteriovorus using time-lapse fluorescence microscopy in combination with an agarose pad and cell-imaging dishes.

Imágenes de células vivas del ciclo de vida del depredador bacteriavo Bdellovibrio mediante microscopía de fluorescencia Time-Lapse

Bdellovibrio bacteriovorus is a small gram-negative, obligate predatory bacterium that kills other gram-negative bacteria, including harmful pathogens. ...