Name: isolation of physiologically active thylakoids and their use in energy-dependent protein transport assays
Uploaded: 2018-09-28T14:45:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Isolation of Physiologically Active Thylakoids and Their Use in Energy-Dependent Protein Transport Assays at JoVE.com

This manuscript was prepared with funding by the Division of Chemical Sciences, Geosciences, and Biosciences, 408 Office of Basic Energy Sciences of the US Department of Energy through Grant DE-SC0017035

1. Initial Materials
<ol>
	<li>Soak approximately 55 g of peas for 3 hours in 400 mL of distilled water, and then sow in a plastic tray (35 cm x 20 cm x 6 cm) in soil covered with thin layer of vermiculite.</li>
	<li>Grow the tray of peas at 20 &#176;C under 12/12 h light/dark (50 &#181;E/m2s) cycle for 9 to 15 days.</li>
	<li>Prepare protein substrate according to a preferred method. 
	Note: We have prepared protein substrates using a variety of methods, including 1) in vitro transcription fro...

<ol>
	<li>Ellis, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Chloroplast+protein+synthesis:+principles+and+problems.">Chloroplast protein synthesis: principles and problems.</a> Sub-cellular biochemistry. 9, 237 (1983).</li><li>Li, H. -. m., Chiu, C. -. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Protein+transport+into+chloroplasts.">Protein transport into chloroplasts.</a> Annual review of plant biology. 61, (2010).</li><li>Cline, K., Ettinger, W., Theg, S. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Protein-specific+energy+requirements+for+protein+transport+across+or+into+thylakoid+membranes.+Two+lumenal+proteins+are+transported+in+the+absence+of+ATP.">Protein-specific energy requirements for protein transport across or into thylakoid membranes. Two lumenal proteins are transported in the absence of ATP.</a> Journal of Biological Chemistry. 267 (4), 2688-2696 (1992).</li><li>Skalitzky, C. A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Plastids+contain+a+second+sec+translocase+system+with+essential+functions.">Plastids contain a second sec translocase system with essential functions.</a> Plant physiology. 155 (1), 354-369 (2011).</li><li>Dabney-Smith, C., Storm, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Plastid Biology. , 271-289 (2014).</li><li>Kim, S. J., Jansson, S., Hoffman, N. E., Robinson, C., Mant, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Distinct+&amp;#34;assisted&amp;#34;+and+&amp;#34;spontaneous&amp;#34;+mechanisms+for+the+insertion+of+polytopic+chlorophyll-binding+proteins+into+the+thylakoid+membrane.">Distinct &amp;#34;assisted&amp;#34; and &amp;#34;spontaneous&amp;#34; mechanisms for the insertion of polytopic chlorophyll-binding proteins into the thylakoid membrane.</a> Journal of Biological Chemistry. 274 (8), 4715-4721 (1999).</li><li>Emanuelsson, O., Nielsen, H., Von Heijne, G. C. h. l. o. r. o. 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(117), e54717 (2016).</li><li>Lo, S. M., Theg, S. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Photosynthesis Research Protocols. , 139-157 (2011).</li><li>Vernon, L. P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Spectrophotometric+determination+of+chlorophylls+and+pheophytins+in+plant+extracts.">Spectrophotometric determination of chlorophylls and pheophytins in plant extracts.</a> Analytical Chemistry. 32 (9), 1144-1150 (1960).</li><li>Knott, T. G., Robinson, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+secA+inhibitor,+azide,+reversibly+blocks+the+translocation+of+a+subset+of+proteins+across+the+chloroplast+thylakoid+membrane.">The secA inhibitor, azide, reversibly blocks the translocation of a subset of proteins across the chloroplast thylakoid membrane.</a> Journal of Biological Chemistry. 269 (11), 7843-7846 (1994).</li><li>Yuan, J., Henry, R., McCaffery, M., Cline, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=SecA+homolog+in+protein+transport+within+chloroplasts:+evidence+for+endosymbiont-derived+sorting.">SecA homolog in protein transport within chloroplasts: evidence for endosymbiont-derived sorting.</a> Science. 266 (5186), 796-798 (1994).</li><li>Nohara, T., Nakai, M., Goto, A., Endo, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Isolation+and+characterization+of+the+cDNA+for+pea+chloroplast+SecA+Evolutionary+conservation+of+the+bacterial-type+SecA-dependent+protein+transport+within+chloroplasts.">Isolation and characterization of the cDNA for pea chloroplast SecA Evolutionary conservation of the bacterial-type SecA-dependent protein transport within chloroplasts.</a> FEBS letters. 364 (3), 305-308 (1995).</li><li>Endow, J. K., Singhal, R., Fernandez, D. E., Inoue, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Chaperone-assisted+post-translational+transport+of+plastidic+type+I+signal+peptidase+1.">Chaperone-assisted post-translational transport of plastidic type I signal peptidase 1.</a> Journal of Biological Chemistry. 290 (48), 28778-28791 (2015).</li><li>Luirink, J., Sinning, I. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=SRP-mediated+protein+targeting:+structure+and+function+revisited.">SRP-mediated protein targeting: structure and function revisited.</a> Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA)-Molecular Cell Research. 1694 (1-3), 17-35 (2004).</li><li>Yuan, J., Henry, R., Cline, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Stromal+factor+plays+an+essential+role+in+protein+integration+into+thylakoids+that+cannot+be+replaced+by+unfolding+or+by+heat+shock+protein.">Stromal factor plays an essential role in protein integration into thylakoids that cannot be replaced by unfolding or by heat shock protein.</a> Hsp70. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 90 (18), 8552-8556 (1993).</li><li>Tjalsma, H., van Dijl, J. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Proteomics-based+consensus+prediction+of+protein+retention+in+a+bacterial+membrane.">Proteomics-based consensus prediction of protein retention in a bacterial membrane.</a> Proteomics. 5 (17), 4472-4482 (2005).</li><li>Widdick, D. A., Eijlander, R. T., van Dijl, J. M., Kuipers, O. P., Palmer, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+Facile+Reporter+System+for+the+Experimental+Identification+of+Twin-Arginine+Translocation+(Tat)+Signal+Peptides+from+All+Kingdoms+of+Life.">A Facile Reporter System for the Experimental Identification of Twin-Arginine Translocation (Tat) Signal Peptides from All Kingdoms of Life.</a> Journal of Molecular Biology. 375 (3), 595-603 (2008).</li><li>Yuan, J., Cline, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Plastocyanin+and+the+33-kDa+subunit+of+the+oxygen-evolving+complex+are+transported+into+thylakoids+with+similar+requirements+as+predicted+from+pathway+specificity.">Plastocyanin and the 33-kDa subunit of the oxygen-evolving complex are transported into thylakoids with similar requirements as predicted from pathway specificity.</a> Journal of Biological Chemistry. 269 (28), 18463-18467 (1994).</li><li>Kirchhoff, H., Borinski, M., Lenhert, S., Chi, L., B&#252;chel, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Transversal+and+lateral+exciton+energy+transfer+in+grana+thylakoids+of+spinach.">Transversal and lateral exciton energy transfer in grana thylakoids of spinach.</a> Biochemistry. 43 (45), 14508-14516 (2004).</li><li>Frielingsdorf, S., Jakob, M., Kl&#246;sgen, R. B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+stromal+pool+of+TatA+promotes+Tat-dependent+protein+transport+across+the+thylakoid+membrane.">A stromal pool of TatA promotes Tat-dependent protein transport across the thylakoid membrane.</a> Journal of Biological Chemistry. 283 (49), 33838-33845 (2008).</li><li>Tu, C. -. J., Schuenemann, D., Hoffman, N. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Chloroplast+FtsY,+chloroplast+signal+recognition+particle,+and+GTP+are+required+to+reconstitute+the+soluble+phase+of+light-harvesting+chlorophyll+protein+transport+into+thylakoid+membranes.">Chloroplast FtsY, chloroplast signal recognition particle, and GTP are required to reconstitute the soluble phase of light-harvesting chlorophyll protein transport into thylakoid membranes.</a> Journal of Biological Chemistry. 274 (38), 27219-27224 (1999).</li></ol>

Chloroplast and Thylakoid isolation
Excessive breakage can result in poor chloroplast isolation and thus poor thylakoid yield after separation in the gradient. It is best to homogenize the harvested tissue gently by ensuring that all material is submerged before blending and pulsing in 15 s cycles until fully homogenized. If necessary, use multiple shorter rounds of blending with less tissue in each round.
Refrigerating all materials that come into contact with harvest...

Nearly all of the proteinaceous machinery responsible for proper chloroplast function must be translocated from the cytosol1. At the chloroplast envelopes, protein substrates are imported through the translocon of the outer membrane (TOC) and the translocon of the inner membrane (TIC)2. Further targeting to the thylakoid membrane and lumen occurs through the twin arginine translocation (cpTat)3, the secretory (cpSec1)4, the signal recognition particle (cpSRP)5, and the spontaneous insertion pathways6. A method for the high-yield isolation of physiologically active chloroplasts and thylakoid membranes is necessary to measure the energetics and kinetics of a translocation event, to understand the diverse transport mechanisms in each pathway, and to localize a particular protein substrate of interest to any of the six distinct compartments of the chloroplast.
The isolation of membranes from the chloroplast offers better experimental control over environmental factors (such as salt and substrate concentrations, the presence of ATP/GTP, and pH conditions) that affect the measurement of transport energetics and kinetics. This in vitro environment lends itself to the exploration of mechanistic details of translocation for the same reasons. In addition, while predictive software for localization of chloroplast proteins has improved7,8, in vitro transport assays provide a quicker method for confirmation over microscopy-based fluorescent assays that require a genetically encoded fluorescent tag, plant transformation and/or specific antibodies. Here, we present protocols for chloroplast and thylakoid isolations from peas (Pisum sativum), as well as for transport assays optimized for each of the energy-dependent thylakoid translocation pathways.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width:1936px;" width="1936">
	<tbody>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:324px;">Pisum sativum seeds</td>
			<td style="width:252px;">Seedway LLC, Hall, NY</td>
			<td style="width:292px;">8686 - Little Marvel</td>
			<td style="width:1068px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Miracloth</td>
			<td>Calbiochem, Gibbstown, NJ</td>
			<td>475855-1</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">80% Acetone</td>
			<td>Sigma, Saint Louis, MO</td>
			<td>67-64-1</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Blender with sharpened blades</td>
			<td>Waring Commercial</td>
			<td>BB155S</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Polytron 10-35</td>
			<td>Fischer Sci</td>
			<td>13-874-617</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Percoll</td>
			<td>Sigma, Saint Louis, MO</td>
			<td>GE17-0891-01</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Beckman J2-MC with JA 20 rotor</td>
			<td>Beckman-Coulter</td>
			<td>8043-30-1180</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Sorvall RC-5B with HB-4 rotor</td>
			<td>Sorvall</td>
			<td>8327-30-1016</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">100 mM dithiothreitol (DTT) in 1xIB</td>
			<td>Sigma, Saint Louis, MO</td>
			<td>12/3/83</td>
			<td>Can be frozen in aliquots for future use</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">200 mM MgATP in 1xIB</td>
			<td>Sigma, Saint Louis, MO</td>
			<td>74804-12-9</td>
			<td>Can be frozen in aliquots for future use</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Thermolysin in 1xIB (2mg/mL)</td>
			<td>Sigma, Saint Louis, MO</td>
			<td>9073-78-3</td>
			<td>Can be frozen in aliquots for future use</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">HEPES</td>
			<td>Sigma, Saint Louis, MO</td>
			<td>H3375</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">K-Tricine</td>
			<td>Sigma, Saint Louis, MO</td>
			<td>T0377</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Sorbitol</td>
			<td>Sigma, Saint Louis, MO</td>
			<td>50-70-4</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Magnesium Chloride</td>
			<td>Sigma, Saint Louis, MO</td>
			<td>7791-18-6</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Manganese Chloride</td>
			<td>Sigma, Saint Louis, MO</td>
			<td>13446-34-9</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">EDTA</td>
			<td>Sigma, Saint Louis, MO</td>
			<td>60-00-4</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">BSA</td>
			<td>Sigma, Saint Louis, MO</td>
			<td>9048-46-8</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Tris</td>
			<td>Sigma, Saint Louis, MO</td>
			<td>77-86-1</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">SDS</td>
			<td>Sigma, Saint Louis, MO</td>
			<td>151-21-3</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Glycerol</td>
			<td>Sigma, Saint Louis, MO</td>
			<td>56-81-5</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Bromophenol Blue</td>
			<td>Sigma, Saint Louis, MO</td>
			<td>115-39-9</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">B-Mercaptoethanol</td>
			<td>Sigma, Saint Louis, MO</td>
			<td>60-24-2</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

isolation of physiologically active thylakoids and their use in energy-dependent protein transport assays

Chloroplasts are the organelles in green plants responsible for carrying out numerous essential metabolic pathways, most notably photosynthesis. Within the chloroplasts, the thylakoid membrane system houses all the photosynthetic pigments, reaction center complexes, and most of the electron carriers, and is responsible for light-dependent ATP synthesis. Over 90% of chloroplast proteins are encoded in the nucleus, translated in the cytosol, and subsequently imported into the chloroplast. Further protein transport into or across the thylakoid membrane utilizes one of four translocation pathways. Here, we describe a high-yield method for isolation of transport-competent thylakoids from peas (Pisum sativum), along with transport assays through the three energy-dependent cpTat, cpSec1, and cpSRP-mediated pathways. These methods enable experiments relating to thylakoid protein localization, transport energetics, and the mechanisms of protein translocation across biological membranes.

To gauge amount of substrate successfully transported, it is useful to include one or more &#34;percent input&#34; lanes. For the data presented below, 10% of the final transport reaction without thylakoids was used. This &#34;percent input&#34; also helps to visualize the size of the precursor substrate. The percentage represents a known, defined amount of substrate with which to compare transported substrate against and can be scaled up or down as necessary using initially prepared prot...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Isolation of Physiologically Active Thylakoids and Their Use in Energy-Dependent Protein Transport Assays at JoVE.com

Isolation of Physiologically Active Thylakoids and Their Use in Energy-Dependent Protein Transport Assays

We present protocols herein for high-yield isolation of physiologically active thylakoids and protein transport assays for the chloroplast twin arginine translocation (cpTat), secretory (cpSec1), and signal recognition particle (cpSRP) pathways.

Chloroplasts are the organelles in green plants responsible for carrying out numerous essential metabolic pathways, most notably photosynthesis. Within ...

This method can help answer key questions regarding the mechanisms and energetics of protein transport across chloroplast membranes, as well as the location of proteins within plastids. The main advantage of this technique for thylakoid protein targeting is that it allows for complete control of the thylakoid's environment during transport, including temperature, pH, ionic conditions, and precursor concentrations. Begin by soaking approximately 55 grams of peas in 400 milliliters of distilled water for three hours.Sow the soaked peas in a plastic tray in soil, covered with a thin layer of vermiculite, and grow for nine to 15 days as described in the text protocol. On the day of chloroplast isolation, prepare a continuous density gradient by centrifuging a mixture of 15 milliliters of Percoll and 15 milliliters of 2xGB buffer in a 15 milliliter polycarbonate high speed centrifuge tube at 30, 900 gs in a fixed angle rotor for 30 minutes at four degrees Celsius with the brake off. Then harvest approximately 25 grams of nine to 15 day old pea shoots.Add them to 95 milliliters of cold 1xGB buffer in a chilled blender, with sharpened blades. And homogenize. Filter this mixture through a minimum of two layers of cheese cloth, placed in a funnel over a chilled beaker.Centrifuge the filtrate using a 15 milliliter polycarbonate centrifuge tube in a swinging bucket rotor at 3, 000 gs for five minutes at four degrees Celsius. Discard the supernatant and use a paintbrush to gently resuspend the pellet in one milliliter of 1xGB. After that use a glass posture pipette to carefully layer the screen suspension on top of the Percoll gradient.Centrifuge it in a swinging bucket rotor at 8, 000 gs for 10 minutes at four degrees Celsius with the brake off. Using a posture pipette again carefully transfer the lower green band containing intact chloroplasts into a fresh 50 milliliter polycarbonate tube and add 30 milliliters of 1xIB buffer. Centrifuge the tube in a swinging bucket rotor at 1, 800 gs for five minutes at four degrees Celsius.After discarding the supernatant, gently resuspend the pellet in one milliliter of 1xIB with a paintbrush. Wash in 30 milliliters of 1xIB and centrifuge again under the same conditions. Resuspend the pellet after the final centrifugation in one milliliter of 1xIB.To determine chlorophyll concentration, mix 10 microliters of fully resuspended chloroplasts with five milliliters of 80%acetone. Filter through a 180 micrometer thick filter paper with 11 micrometer pore size and then determine the chlorophyll concentration by spectrophotometer. Dilute the chloroplast mixture to one milligram per milliliter using cold 1xIB.To start isolating the thylakoids when stromal extract is not necessary, such as cpTat transport, centrifuge intact chloroplasts in 1.5 milliliter tubes in a swinging bucket rotor at 1, 000 gs at four degrees Celsius for six minutes. After that, discard the supernatant and resuspend the pellet in hypotonic lysis buffer to achieve one milligram per milliliter with a micropipette. Incubate on ice in the dark with occasional mixing for 10 minutes.To recover thylokoids, centrifuge in a swinging bucket rotor at 3, 200 gs at four degrees Celsius for eight minutes. Wash the thylokoids twice by resuspending the pellet with one to two milliliters of lysis buffer and then centrifuging under the same conditions. After the final centrifugation, resuspend the pellet, in one milliliter of 1xIB buffer and determine the chlorophyll concentration in isolated thylokoids using a spectrophotometer as previously demonstrated.For pathways that require stromal extract recovery such as CPSec1 and CPSRP eliquate 600 microliters of isolated chloroplasts in a swinging bucket rotor and centrifuge at 1, 000 gs for six minutes at four degrees Celsius. For chloroplast lysis, we suspend the pellet with 600 microliters of hypotonic lysis buffer. Incubate on ice in the dark for 10 minutes with occasional mixing.Then centrifuge the tubes in a swinging bucket rotor at 3, 200 gs for eight minutes at four degrees Celsius. To save the stroma, transfer the light green to yellow supernatant to a new micro centrifuge tube and add an equal volume of 2x crude stromal buffer. To wash thylokoids, add two volumes of lysis buffer and centrifuge at 3, 200 gs for eight minutes at four degrees Celsius.Resuspend the pellet in 1xIB to achieve chlorophyll concentration of one milligram per milliliter and set aside on ice for later use in transport assays. Remove residual membranes from crude stroma by centrifuging the diluted crude stroma in a fixed angle rotor at 42, 000 gs for 30 minutes at four degrees Celsius. Then collect 95%of the volume from each tube making sure not to disturb the small yellow green pellet, while noting the volume taken from each tube.To prepare the concentrated stromal extract, pool the collected supernatants. Then use a four milliliter 30 kilodalton molecular weight cut-off concentrator to concentrate the extract five fold. To assay the cpTat transport in a 1.5 milliliter tube on ice mix the isolated thylokoids to a final chlorophyll concentration of 0.33 milligrams per milliliter, five millimolar ATP prepared in 1xIB, and eight millimolar DTT prepared in 1xIB.To initiate the transport, introduce substrate protein to the transport mix. Conduct the reaction by illuminating the suspension with 80 to 100 microeinsteins per square meter per second of photosynthetically active radiation for 10 minutes at room temperature. To stop the transport reaction, dilute the suspension eight fold with ice cold 1xIB.Centrifuge at 3, 200 gs in a micro centrifuge for five minutes at four degrees Celsius to recover thylokoids. After discarding the supernatant, resuspend the pellet in 120 microliters of ice cold 1xIB. To assay the CPSec1 or PSRP pathways mix the the following in a 1.5 milliliter tube on ice.Thylakoids to a final chlorophyll concentration of 0.33 milligrams per milliliter, 0.83 milligrams per milliliter chlorophyll equivalents of stromal extract, and five millimolar ATP prepared in 1xIB. Bring the reaction up to the desired volume with ice cold 1xIB and incubate on ice for 10 minutes. To initiate the transport introduce 10%volume by volume of substrate protein to this transport mix.Illuminate with 80 to 100 microeinsteins per square meter per second of photosynthetically active radiation for 10 minutes at room temperature. To stop the reaction, dilute the suspension eight fold with ice cold 1xIB. Centrifuge at 3, 200gs in a micro centrifuge for five minutes at four degrees Celsius.After discarding the supernatant, resuspend the pellet in 120 microliters of ice cold 1xIB. To remove residual substrate that has not been transported, digest external protein by adding six microliters of two milligrams per milliliter thermolysin and 10 millimolar calcium chloride in 1xIB. Incubate this protease reaction on ice for 40 minutes.Quench the protease by doubling the volume with 25 millimolar EDTA in 1xIB. Centrifuge at 3, 200 gs in a micro centrifuge for five minutes at four degrees Celsius to recover thylokoids. After removing the supernatant, resuspend recovered thylokoids in 120 microliters of five milimolar EDTA in 1xIB, and transfer to a new 1.5 milliliter tube.After centrifuging again at 3, 200 gs in a micro centrifuge for five minutes at four degrees Celsius, discard the supernatant and resuspend the pellet in an appropriate volume of laemmli sample buffer, supplemented with 10 millimolar EDTA. Place the samples in a boiling water bath for 10 minutes. Proceed to analyze the samples by SDS page.Transport of iOE17 protein through the cpTat pathway resulted in a size shift of two to three kilodaltons between the introduced substrate and the mature processed form. This is due to cleavage of the n terminal signal peptide indicating a successful cpTat transport. Thermolysin treatment leaves only the successfully transported and therefore proteus resistant mature band.Transport of OE33 precursor through the CPSec1 pathway, resulted in a size shift in the mature substrate, and proteus protection of the transported substrate. Insertion of LHCP precursor into the thylokoid membrane via the cpSRP pathway, evaluated through thermolysin digestion led to a size shift of 1.5 to two kilodaltons. This indicated successful membrane insertion, as the membrane protects the uncleaved of mature LHCP degradation product from complete proteolysis.After watching this video you should have a good understanding of how to isolate thylokoids and assay tranportivity through the energy dependent cpTat, cpSec 1 and cpSRP pathways. Once mastered this technique can be done in three to four hours when performed properly. Although not illustrated in this video we generally keep the overhead lights off in the lab when isolating and working with photosynthetically active chloroplasts and thylakoids.While attempting this procedure it's important to keep isolated chloroplast and thylakoids at four degrees Celsius. Remember to resuspend chloroplasts gently in the beginning. Avoid disturbing the Procoll gradient after the first centrifucation step.Additionally, percent input sample can be prepared in parallel with the transport reactions and run on the same gel to estimate the substrate transport. Don't forget, that working with radioactive substrates requires conscientious handling and proper PPE. After it's development, this technique paved the way for researchers in the field of protein targeting to explore the energetics, kinetics and unique mechanisms governing protein transport across thylakoid membranes.

isolation-physiologically-active-thylakoids-their-use-energy

Research

JoVE Journal

Biochemistry

An Efficient Method for the Isolation of Highly Purified RNA from Seeds for Use in Quantitative Transcriptome Analysis

Plant seeds accumulate large amounts of storage reserves comprising biodegradable organic matter. Humans rely on seed storage reserves for food and as industrial materials. Gene expression profiles are powerful tools for investigating metabolic regulation in plant cells. Therefore, detailed, accurate gene expression profiles during seed development are required for crop breeding. Acquiring highly purified RNA is essential for producing these profiles. Efficient methods are needed to isolate highly purified RNA from seeds. Here, we describe a method for isolating RNA from seeds containing large amounts of oils, proteins, and polyphenols, which have inhibitory effects on high-purity RNA isolation. Our method enables highly purified RNA to be obtained from seeds without the use of phenol, chloroform, or additional processes for RNA purification. This method is applicable to Arabidopsis, rapeseed, and soybean seeds. Our method will be useful for monitoring the expression patterns of low level transcripts in developing and mature seeds.

We have succeeded in establishing a method for RNA isolation from plant seeds containing large amounts of oils, proteins, and polyphenols, which have inhibitory effects on high-purity RNA isolation. Our method is suitable for monitoring the expression of genes with low level transcripts in seeds.

Plant seeds accumulate large amounts of storage reserves comprising biodegradable organic matter. Humans rely on seed storage reserves for food and as ...

Synthesis of 1,2-Azaborines and the Preparation of Their Protein Complexes with T4 Lysozyme Mutants

We describe a general synthesis of 1,2-azaborines using standard air-free techniques and protein complex preparation with T4 lysozyme mutants by vapor diffusion. Oxygen- and moisture-sensitive compounds are prepared and isolated under an inert atmosphere (N2) using either a vacuum gas manifold or a glove box. As an example of azaborine synthesis, we demonstrate the synthesis and purification of the volatile N-H-B-ethyl-1,2-azaborine by a five-step sequence involving distillation and column chromatography for the isolation of products. T4 lysozyme mutants L99A and L99A/M102Q are expressed with Escherichia coli RR1 strain. Standard protocols for chemical cell lysis followed by purification using carboxymethyl ion exchange column affords protein of sufficiently high purity for crystallization. Protein crystallization is performed in various concentrations of precipitant at different pH ranges using the hanging drop vapor diffusion method. Complex preparation with the small molecules is carried out by vapor diffusion method under an inert atmosphere. X-ray diffraction analysis of the crystal complex provides unambiguous structural evidence of binding interactions between the protein binding site and 1,2-azaborines.

A protocol for the synthesis of 1,2-azaborines and the preparation of their protein complexes with T4 lysozyme mutants is presented.

We describe a general synthesis of 1,2-azaborines using standard air-free techniques and protein complex preparation with T4 lysozyme mutants by vapor ...

Analyzing Supercomplexes of the Mitochondrial Electron Transport Chain with Native Electrophoresis, In-gel Assays, and Electroelution

The mitochondrial electron transport chain (ETC) transduces the energy derived from the breakdown of various fuels into the bioenergetic currency of the cell, ATP. The ETC is composed of 5 massive protein complexes, which also assemble into supercomplexes called respirasomes (C-I, C-III, and C-IV) and synthasomes (C-V) that increase the efficiency of electron transport and ATP production. Various methods have been used for over 50 years to measure ETC function, but these protocols do not provide information on the assembly of individual complexes and supercomplexes. This protocol describes the technique of native gel polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (PAGE), a method that was modified more than 20 years ago to study ETC complex structure. Native electrophoresis permits the separation of ETC complexes into their active forms, and these complexes can then be studied using immunoblotting, in-gel assays (IGA), and purification by electroelution. By combining the results of native gel PAGE with those of other mitochondrial assays, it is possible to obtain a completer picture of ETC activity, its dynamic assembly and disassembly, and how this regulates mitochondrial structure and function. This work will also discuss limitations of these techniques. In summary, the technique of native PAGE, followed by immunoblotting, IGA, and electroelution, presented below, is a powerful way to investigate the functionality and composition of mitochondrial ETC supercomplexes.

This protocol describes the separation of functional mitochondrial electron transport chain complexes (Cx) I-V and supercomplexes thereof using native electrophoresis to reveal information about their assembly and structure. The native gel can be subjected to immunoblotting, in-gel assays, and purification by electroelution to further characterize individual complexes.

The mitochondrial electron transport chain (ETC) transduces the energy derived from the breakdown of various fuels into the bioenergetic currency of the ...

Biochemical and Structural Characterization of the Carbohydrate Transport Substrate-binding-protein SP0092

Development of new antimicrobials and vaccines for Streptococcus pneumoniae (pneumococcus) are necessary to halt the rapid rise in multiple resistant strains. Carbohydrate substrate binding proteins (SBPs) represent viable targets for the development of protein-based vaccines and new antimicrobials because of their extracellular localization and the centrality of carbohydrate import for pneumococcal metabolism, respectively. Described here is a rationalized integrated protocol to carry out a comprehensive characterization of SP0092, which can be extended to other carbohydrate SBPs from the pneumococcus and other bacteria. This procedure can aid the structure-based design of inhibitors for this class of proteins. Presented in the first part of this manuscript are protocols for biochemical analysis by thermal shift assay, multi angle light scattering (MALS), and size exclusion chromatography (SEC), which optimize the stability and homogeneity of the sample directed to crystallization trials and so enhance the probability of success. The second part of this procedure describes the characterization of the SBP crystals using a tunable wavelength anomalous diffraction synchrotron beamline, and data collection protocols for measuring data that can be used to resolve the crystallized protein structure.

A streamlined protocol for performing an extensive biochemical and structural characterization of a carbohydrate substrate binding protein from Streptococcus pneumoniae is presented.

Development of new antimicrobials and vaccines for Streptococcus pneumoniae (pneumococcus) are necessary to halt the rapid rise in multiple resistant ...

Isolation and Respiratory Measurements of Mitochondria from Arabidopsis thaliana

Mitochondria are essential organelles involved in numerous metabolic pathways in plants, most notably the production of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) from the oxidation of reduced compounds such as nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH) and flavin adenine dinucleotide (FADH2). The complete annotation of the Arabidopsis thaliana genome has established it as the most widely used plant model system, and thus the need to purify mitochondria from a variety of organs (leaf, root, or flower) is necessary to fully utilize the tools that are now available for Arabidopsis to study mitochondrial biology. Mitochondria are isolated by homogenization of the tissue using a variety of approaches, followed by a series of differential centrifugation steps producing a crude mitochondrial pellet that is further purified using continuous colloidal density gradient centrifugation. The colloidal density material is subsequently removed by multiple centrifugation steps. Starting from 100 g of fresh leaf tissue, 2 - 3 mg of mitochondria can be routinely obtained. Respiratory experiments on these mitochondria display typical rates of 100 - 250 nmol O2 min-1 mg total mitochondrial protein-1 (NADH-dependent rate) with the ability to use various substrates and inhibitors to determine which substrates are being oxidized and the capacity of the alternative and cytochrome terminal oxidases. This protocol describes an isolation method of mitochondria from Arabidopsis thaliana leaves using continuous colloidal density gradients and an efficient respiratory measurements of purified plant mitochondria.

Isolation and Respiratory Measurements of Mitochondria from Arabidopsis thaliana

As mitochondria are only a small percentage of the plant cell, they need to be purified for a range of studies. Mitochondria can be isolated from a variety of plant organs by homogenization, followed by differential and density gradient centrifugation to obtain a highly purified mitochondrial fraction.

Mitochondria are essential organelles involved in numerous metabolic pathways in plants, most notably the production of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) from ...

Split-BioID &#8212; Proteomic Analysis of Context-specific Protein Complexes in Their Native Cellular Environment

To complement existing affinity purification (AP) approaches for the identification of protein-protein interactions (PPI), enzymes have been introduced that allow the proximity-dependent labeling of proteins in living cells. One such enzyme, BirA* (used in the BioID approach), mediates the biotinylation of proteins within a range of approximately 10 nm. Hence, when fused to a protein of interest and expressed in cells, it allows the labeling of proximal proteins in their native environment. As opposed to AP that relies on the purification of assembled protein complexes, BioID detects proteins that have been marked within cells no matter whether they are still interacting with the protein of interest when they are isolated. Since it biotinylates proximal proteins, one can moreover capitalize on the exceptional affinity of streptavidin for biotin to very efficiently isolate them. While BioID performs better than AP for identifying transient or weak interactions, both AP- and BioID-mass spectrometry approaches provide an overview of all possible interactions a given protein may have. However, they do not provide information on the context of each identified PPI. Indeed, most proteins are typically part of several complexes, corresponding to distinct maturation steps or different functional units. To address this common limitation of both methods, we have engineered a protein-fragments complementation assay based on the BirA* enzyme. In this assay, two inactive fragments of BirA* can reassemble into an active enzyme when brought in close proximity by two interacting proteins to which they are fused. The resulting split-BioID assay thus allows the labeling of proteins that assemble around a pair of interacting proteins. Provided these two only interact in a given context, split-BioID then allows the analysis of specific context-dependent functional units in their native cellular environment. Here, we provide a step-by-step protocol to test and apply split-BioID to a pair of interacting proteins.

Split-BioID &amp;#8212; Proteomic Analysis of Context-specific Protein Complexes in Their Native Cellular Environment

We provide a step-by-step protocol for split-BioID, a protein fragments-complementation assay based on the proximity-labeling technique BioID. Activated on the interaction of two given proteins, it allows the proteomics analysis of context-dependent protein complexes in their native cellular environment. The method is simple, cost-effective and only requires standard laboratory equipment.

To complement existing affinity purification (AP) approaches for the identification of protein-protein interactions (PPI), enzymes have been introduced ...

Use of Recombinant Fusion Proteins in a Fluorescent Protease Assay Platform and Their In-gel Renaturation

Proteases are intensively studied enzymes due to their essential roles in several biological pathways of living organisms and in pathogenesis; therefore, they are important drug targets. We have developed a magnetic-agarose-bead-based assay platform for the investigation of proteolytic activity, which is based on the use of recombinant fusion protein substrates. In order to demonstrate the use of this assay system, a protocol is presented on the example of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) protease. The introduced assay platform can be utilized efficiently in the biochemical characterization of proteases, including enzyme activity measurements in mutagenesis, kinetic, inhibition, or specificity studies, and it may be suitable for high-throughput substrate screening or may be adapted to other proteolytic enzymes.
In this assay system, the applied substrates contain N-terminal hexahistidine (His6) and maltose-binding protein (MBP) tags, cleavage sites for tobacco etch virus (TEV) and HIV-1 proteases, and a C-terminal fluorescent protein. The substrates can be efficiently produced in Escherichia coli cells and easily purified using nickel (Ni)-chelate-coated beads. During the assay, the proteolytic cleavage of bead-attached substrates leads to the release of fluorescent cleavage fragments, which can be measured by fluorimetry. Additionally, cleavage reactions can be analyzed by sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE). A protocol for the in-gel renaturation of assay components is also described, as partial renaturation of fluorescent proteins enables their detection based on molecular weight and fluorescence.

Here, we present the detailed procedure of a recently developed protease assay platform utilizing N-terminal hexahistidine/maltose-binding protein and fluorescent protein-fused recombinant substrates attached to the surface of nickel-nitrilotriacetic acid magnetic agarose beads. A subsequent in-gel analysis of the assay samples separated by sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis is also presented.

Proteases are intensively studied enzymes due to their essential roles in several biological pathways of living organisms and in pathogenesis; therefore, ...

Analysis of Protein Folding, Transport, and Degradation in Living Cells by Radioactive Pulse Chase

Radioactive pulse-chase labeling is a powerful tool for studying the conformational maturation, the transport to their functional cellular location, and the degradation of target proteins in live cells. By using short (pulse) radiolabeling times (&lt;30 min) and tightly controlled chase times, it is possible to label only a small fraction of the total protein pool and follow its folding. When combined with nonreducing/reducing SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) and immunoprecipitation with (conformation-specific) antibodies, folding processes can be examined in great detail. This system has been used to analyze the folding of proteins with a huge variation in properties such as soluble proteins, single and multi-pass transmembrane proteins, heavily N- and O-glycosylated proteins, and proteins with and without extensive disulfide bonding. Pulse-chase methods are the basis of kinetic studies into a range of additional features, including co- and posttranslational modifications, oligomerization, and polymerization, essentially allowing the analysis of a protein from birth to death. Pulse-chase studies on protein folding are complementary with other biochemical and biophysical methods for studying proteins in vitro by providing increased temporal resolution and physiological information. The methods as described within this paper are adapted easily to study the folding of almost any protein that can be expressed in mammalian or insect-cell systems.

Here we describe a protocol for a general pulse-chase method that allows the kinetic analysis of folding, transport, and degradation of proteins to be followed in live cells.

Radioactive pulse-chase labeling is a powerful tool for studying the conformational maturation, the transport to their functional cellular location, and ...

Application of Biolayer Interferometry (BLI) for Studying Protein-Protein Interactions in Transcription

A transcription factor&#160;(TF) is a protein that regulates gene expression by interacting with the RNA polymerase, another TF, and/or template DNA. GrgA is a novel transcription activator found specifically in the obligate intracellular bacterial pathogen Chlamydia. Protein pulldown assays using affinity beads have revealed that GrgA binds two &#963; factors, namely &#963;66 and &#963;28, which recognize different sets of promoters for genes whose products are differentially required at developmental stages. We have used BLI to confirm and further characterize the interactions. BLI demonstrates several advantages over pulldown: 1) It reveals real-time association and dissociation between binding partners, 2) It generates quantitative kinetic parameters, and 3) It can detect bindings that pulldown assays often fail to detect. These characteristics have enabled us to deduce the physiological roles of GrgA in gene expression regulation in Chlamydia, and possible detailed interaction mechanisms. We envision that this relatively affordable technology can be extremely useful for studying transcription and other biological processes.

Application of Biolayer Interferometry BLI for Studying Protein-Protein Interactions in Transcription

Interactions of transcription factors (TFs) with the RNA polymerase are usually studied using pulldown assays. We apply a Biolayer Interferometry (BLI) technology to characterize the interaction of GrgA with the chlamydial RNA polymerase. Compared to pulldown assays, BLI detects real-time association and dissociation, offers higher sensitivity, and is highly quantitative.

A transcription factor&#160;(TF) is a protein that regulates gene expression by interacting with the RNA polymerase, another TF, and/or template DNA. GrgA ...

Use of Microscale Thermophoresis to Measure Protein-Lipid Interactions

The ability to determine the binding affinity of lipids to proteins is an essential part of understanding protein-lipid interactions in membrane trafficking, signal transduction and cytoskeletal remodeling. Classic tools for measuring such interactions include surface plasmon resonance (SPR) and isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC). While powerful tools, these approaches have setbacks. ITC requires large amounts of purified protein as well as lipids, which can be costly and difficult to produce. Furthermore, ITC as well as SPR are very time consuming, which could add significantly to the cost of performing these experiments. One way to bypass these restrictions is to use the relatively new technique of microscale thermophoresis (MST). MST is fast and cost effective using small amounts of sample to obtain a saturation curve for a given binding event. There currently are two types of MST systems available. One type of MST requires labeling with a fluorophore in the blue or red spectrum. The second system relies on the intrinsic fluorescence of aromatic amino acids in the UV range. Both systems detect the movement of molecules in response to localized induction of heat from an infrared laser. Each approach has its advantages and disadvantages. Label-free MST can use untagged native proteins; however, many analytes, including pharmaceuticals, fluoresce in the UV range, which can interfere with determination of accurate KD values. In comparison, labeled MST allows for a greater diversity of measurable pairwise interactions utilizing fluorescently labeled probes attached to ligands with measurable absorbances in the visible range as opposed to UV, limiting the potential for interfering signals from analytes.

Microscale thermophoresis obtains binding constants quickly at low material cost. Either labeled or label free microscale thermophoresis is commercially available; however, label free thermophoresis is not capable of the diversity of interaction measurements that can be performed using fluorescent labels. We provide a protocol for labeled thermophoresis measurements.