Name: accurate follicle enumeration in adult mouse ovaries
Uploaded: 2020-10-16T15:00:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Accurate Follicle Enumeration in Adult Mouse Ovaries at JoVE.com

This work was made possible through Victorian State Government Operational Infrastructure Support and Australian Government NHMRC IRIISS and supported by funding from National Health and Medical Research Council (ALW #1120300) and Australian Research Council (KJH #FT190100265). The authors would like to acknowledge the technical support of the Monash Animal Research Platform, Monash Histology Platform and Monash Micro Imaging facility.

Ovaries were collected from female C57BL6J mice. All animal procedures and experiments were performed in accordance with the NHMRC Australian Code of Practice for the Care and Use of Animals and approved by the Monash Animal Research Platform Animal Ethics Committee.
NOTE: A chemotherapy agent shown to deplete primordial follicle oocytes, as determined using stereology11 and direct counts12,13 was used in this r...

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This article provides a step-by-step protocol for the gold standard technique for enumerating mouse primordial follicles, stereology, and the more commonly employed method of direct follicle counting. Chemotherapy treatment was used to compare and contrast the results obtained from these two different methods within the left and right ovary from the same animal. Both methods revealed high inter-animal variability in primordial follicle numbers. A significant depletion of the ovarian reserve was recorded using stereology,...

The immature, meiotically-arrested oocytes stored within primordial follicles in the ovary are the storage unit for the female germline and comprise an individual&#8217;s lifetime ovarian reserve. Primordial follicle numbers decline naturally with age1, or alternatively, can be prematurely depleted following exposure to exogenous chemicals, including some pharmaceuticals and environmental toxicants in air, food and water2. Given that the primordial follicle number is finite, the quantity and quality of follicles present within the ovary largely determine female fertility and offspring health. Thus, accurate quantification of primordial follicle number in women is essential for evaluating the off-target impacts of exogenous insults on the ovarian reserve.
In women, analysis of the whole ovary is generally not possible, thus non-invasive surrogate measures of the ovarian reserve must be utilized in a clinical setting. Anti-M&#971;llerian hormone (AMH) is the most widely used surrogate biomarker clinically3. Serum AMH levels are often measured in women of advanced maternal age, or before and after cancer treatment, such as chemotherapy. However, AMH is produced by growing follicles and not by primordial follicles, and thus, serum levels do not inform on absolute primordial follicle number.
With the absence of methods to accurately determine primordial follicle number in women in situ, counting ovarian follicles in small animal models, such as rodents, remains an essential research tool to assess the degree by which exogenous insults impact on primordial follicles and thus, fertility. Unfortunately though, reports throughout the literature of primordial follicle numbers in rodent models are highly variable4. A major reason for this is widely reported technical differences in the counting method employed. Predominately, there are two different techniques described in the literature for enumerating primordial follicles in mice. These include stereology, which employs the fractionator optical dissector method, and direct follicle counts.
Stereology is widely regarded the gold standard as it uses systematic uniform random sampling5, making it the most accurate method of quantifying primordial follicle number in whole mouse, or rat ovaries4,6,7. Stereology is unbiased, as it accounts for the three-dimensional structure of the object of interest8. Using an optical dissector/fractionator method, three levels of sampling are applied to quantify primordial follicles using thick tissue sections (e.g., 20 &#181;m) within a known fraction of the total mouse ovary. Firstly, the sampling interval is chosen (e.g., every 3rd section) at a random start (sampling fraction 1, f1)4. Sections are then sampled in a systematic, uniform manner from this point through the whole ovary. Then, an unbiased counting frame is superimposed over the ovarian section and progressively moved along a defined, randomized counting grid (sampling fraction 2, f2)8. Lastly, a known fraction of the section thickness is optically sampled (e.g., 10 &#181;m) and follicles within this area are counted (sampling fraction 3, f3)4. The raw follicle number is multiplied by the inverse of these sampling fractions to obtain the final value. This method requires expert training and equipment, including a microscope with a motorized stage driven by stereological software. Tissues should be preserved in a specialized Bouin&#8217;s fixative, and embedded in glycolmethacrylate resin to allow for thick tissue sections to be cut using a glycolmethacrylate resin microtome with a glass knife. This method is designed to account for tissue shrinkage and deformation, to best preserve the three-dimensional morphological structure of the ovary and follicles9.
Direct follicle counting is the most frequently used method for counting follicles10. More common fixatives (i.e., formalin) can be used, followed by paraffin wax embedding and exhaustive serial sectioning using a standard microtome at a thickness of between 4-6 &#181;m. Follicles are systematically counted in the entire tissue section at a defined interval, and then multiplied by the inverse of the sampling interval to obtain the total follicle estimate. This method is quick, easy, can be performed using archived tissues, and prepared using standard histological techniques. It requires only a light microscope with standard imaging capabilities. However, despite these advantages, direct follicle counting lacks the accuracy and strict counting parameters of stereology, making it more prone to investigator bias. Additionally, tissues may undergo shrinkage and deformation during processing, disrupting the integrity and morphology of the ovary and thus making follicle classification and quantification difficult.
The aim of this article is to describe two commonly-used methods to quantitatively assess primordial follicle number in mouse ovaries: stereology and direct follicle counting. We will provide detailed protocols for these two methods and highlight some of their strengths and weaknesses, in order to enhance reproducibility in our field and allow researchers to make an informed decision of the most appropriate counting method for their studies.

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	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>1-Butanol (HPLC)</td>
			<td>Fisher Chemical</td>
			<td>#A383-1</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Acid alcohol</td>
			<td>Amber Scientific</td>
			<td>#ACDL</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Bouin&#8217;s fixative</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>#HT10132</td>
			<td>Picric acid 0.9% (w/v), formaldehyde 9% (v/v), acetic acid 5% (w/v)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cyclophosphamide</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>#C0768-5G</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dibutylphthalate Polystyrene Xylene (DPX)</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>#06522</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ethanol</td>
			<td>Amber Scientific</td>
			<td>#ETH</td>
			<td>Ethanol 100%</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Micro Feather opthalmic scalpel with aluminium handle</td>
			<td>Designs for Vision</td>
			<td>#FEA-745-SR</td>
			<td>Feather blade for dissections (seen in Figure 1)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Formalin fixative</td>
			<td>Australian Biostain</td>
			<td>#ANBFC</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glass coverslip</td>
			<td>Thermo Scientific</td>
			<td>#MENCS22501GP</td>
			<td>22 mm x 50 mm</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glycomethacrylate resin RM2165 microtome</td>
			<td>Leica Microsystems</td>
			<td>#RM2165</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glycolmethacrylate DPX</td>
			<td>*made in house</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>*Mix 1.5 L Xylene; 800 g polystyrene pellets; 100mL Dibutyl phthalate for 3 weeks</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Histolene</td>
			<td>Trajan</td>
			<td>#11031</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Mayer&#8217;s haematoxylin</td>
			<td>Amber Scientific</td>
			<td>#MH</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Olympus BX50 microscope</td>
			<td>Olympus</td>
			<td>#BX50</td>
			<td>Brightfield microscope fitted with 10x dry &#38; 100x oil immersion objective (numerical aperture 1.3)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Olympus immersion oil type-F</td>
			<td>Olympus</td>
			<td>#IMMOIL-F30CC</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Olympus TH4-200 light source</td>
			<td>Olympus</td>
			<td>#TH4-200</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Paraffin wax</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>#03987</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Periodic acid</td>
			<td>Trajan</td>
			<td>#PERI1%</td>
			<td>Periodic acid 1%</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Rotary Microtome CUT 4060</td>
			<td>MicroTec</td>
			<td>#4060R/F</td>
			<td>Used to cut paraffin sections</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Schiff&#8217;s reagent</td>
			<td>Trajan</td>
			<td>#SCHF</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Scott&#39;s tap water</td>
			<td>Amber Scientific</td>
			<td>#SCOT</td>
			<td>Potassium carbonate, magnesium sulphate, water</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>StereoInvestigator Stereological System</td>
			<td>MBF Bioscience</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Includes StereoInvestigator software, multi-control unit, automatic stage and joystick</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Superfrost microscope slides</td>
			<td>Thermo Scientific</td>
			<td>#MENSF41296SP</td>
			<td>1 mm, 72 pcs</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Technovit 7100 Plastic embedding system</td>
			<td>Emgrid Australia</td>
			<td>#64709003</td>
			<td>500 mL/5 x 1 g/40 mL</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Technovit 3040 yellow</td>
			<td>Emgrid Australia</td>
			<td>#64708805</td>
			<td>100 g/80 mL</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

accurate follicle enumeration in adult mouse ovaries

Sexually reproducing female mammals are born with their entire lifetime supply of oocytes. Immature, quiescent oocytes are found within primordial follicles, the storage unit of the female germline. They are non-renewable, thus their number at birth and subsequent rate of loss largely dictates the female fertile lifespan. Accurate quantification of primordial follicle numbers in women and animals is essential for determining the impact of medicines and toxicants on the ovarian reserve. It is also necessary for evaluating the need for, and success of, existing and emerging fertility preservation techniques. Currently, no methods exist to accurately measure the number of primordial follicles comprising the ovarian reserve in women. Furthermore, obtaining ovarian tissue from large animals or endangered species for experimentation is often not feasible. Thus, mice have become an essential model for such studies, and the ability to evaluate primordial follicle numbers in whole mouse ovaries is a critical tool. However, reports of absolute follicle numbers in mouse ovaries in the literature are highly variable, making it difficult to compare and/or replicate data. This is due to a number of factors including strain, age, treatment groups, as well as technical differences in the methods of counting employed. In this article, we provide a step-by-step instructional guide for preparing histological sections and counting primordial follicles in mouse ovaries using two different methods: [1] stereology, which relies on the fractionator/optical dissector technique; and [2] the direct count technique. Some of the key advantages and drawbacks of each method will be highlighted so that reproducibility can be improved in the field and to enable researchers to select the most appropriate method for their studies.

A well-characterized model of follicle depletion was used, whereby young adult female mice were administered a single dose of cyclophosphamide chemotherapy, or saline vehicle control (n=5/group) and both ovaries were harvested from each animal after 48 hours. One ovary per animal was prepared as described in Step 1 for each of the two methods: stereology or direct counts. The left and right ovary from each animal was randomly assigned to each group. These data show that when using stereology, a significant depletion of m...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Accurate Follicle Enumeration in Adult Mouse Ovaries at JoVE.com

Accurate Follicle Enumeration in Adult Mouse Ovaries

Here, we describe, compare, and contrast two different techniques for accurate follicle counting of fixed mouse ovarian tissues.

Sexually reproducing female mammals are born with their entire lifetime supply of oocytes. Immature, quiescent oocytes are found within primordial ...

We hope these in-depth protocols will help to enhance reproducibility in our field while also allowing researchers to make an informed decision when selecting accounting method for their studies. As it uses several sampling parameters, stereology is highly sensitive and accurate. However, direct counts are quicker and easier and can be performed on samples prepared with standard histological techniques.Stereology is used in studies of ovarian biology for evaluating the impact of toxicants on ovarian reserves. It can also be applied to life sciences for study of the kidney and the brain. Familiarizing yourself with the morphology of the follicles requires experience.Using previous studies to define the morphology along with establishing standardized criteria of classification can help with consistency. To estimate the primordial follicle number by stereology using an optical fractionator, turn on the computer, multi control unit, camera, and light source within the stereology setup, and set the microscope objective to a low magnification. Open the stereology software and place the first slide securely onto the microscope stage.Use the joystick to locate the first tissue sample, and bring the sample into focus. In the camera settings panel under exposure, click and drag the sliding scale to adjust the light exposure. In the camera settings panel, click the white balance button and click a blank area of the section to adjust the white balance.Open the probes menu to select the optical fractionator workflow, then click start new subject, and okay. If an existing sampling configuration has been saved, click yes under sampling parameters, and select the desired sampling configuration. Click next, set the microscope to low magnification, and select the 10x magnification.Click next and left click to trace the entire ovarian section. Right click to end the selection and select close contour. Click next, set the microscope to high magnification, and select the 100x oil magnification.After placing a drop of oil on the tissue section on the slide, adjust the light exposure as demonstrated, refocus the sample, and click next. Next, click start counting, focus at the top of the sample, click okay, and begin counting. Use the focusing knob to move through the 10 micron sampling depth, and look within the counting frame for any follicles in which the oocyte nucleus comes into focus.Then, click next to move to the next site. Classify a follicle as primordial if the oocyte is surrounded by flat squamous granulosa cells but no cuboidal granulosa cells. Count only follicles in which the oocyte nucleus is visible.The nucleus must appear within the counting frame or be touching the green inclusion lines of the counting frame. If the oocyte nucleus falls outside the counting frame or touches the red exclusion lines of the counting frame, do not count this follicle. When assessing primordial follicle depletion in response to an exogenous chemical, ensure that all of the counted follicles are healthy with a normal morphology.Count any abnormal or atretic follicles separately. When all of the sites in the section have been counted, click add new section to set up and count the follicles in the next section, or click I finished counting to end the session and exit the software. Then, obtain the sum raw follicle number from each tissue section sampled from the entire ovary, and use the formula as indicated to calculate the final value for each replicate animal.To estimate primordial follicle numbers by direct follicle counting, obtain multiple stitched high-power photomicrographs of the entire ovarian tissue section. To analyze the images, open them in ImageJ software. To classify the follicles as primordial, oocytes must be clearly visible and surrounded by squamous granulosa cells, but not cuboidal granulosa cells.Use the counting tool to obtain a raw follicle number of the primordial follicles with each section sampled from the tissue. Once the sum raw follicle number from each tissue section sampled has been obtained, multiply this number by the inverse of the sampling fraction to obtain the final value for each animal as demonstrated. When using stereology, a significant depletion of the mouse primordial follicles can be detected following chemotherapy treatment compared to that detected in control animals.In contrast, using the contralateral ovaries from the same animals, direct follicle counts failed to detect a significant reduction of the ovarian reserve after chemotherapy compared to controls. Notably, it is clear that the primordial follicle number in young adult wild type animals is variable as the distribution of the saline treated animals is wider compared to the cyclophosphamide groups even when the counts are performed by stereology. It is important to be able to accurately classify primordial follicles to differentiate between healthy and atretic follicles, and to appropriately include or exclude individual follicles from the overall count.These growing follicle and corpora lutea quantification techniques can be used in conjunction with immunofluorescence and cell viability marker staining to quantify the number of follicles expressing specific markers of interest. Stereology and direct counting are used to evaluate how disease and exogenous insults can alter the ovarian reserve, leading to a more comprehensive evaluations of toxicants and their impacts on female fertility.

accurate-follicle-enumeration-in-adult-mouse-ovaries

Research

JoVE Journal

Developmental Biology

Culture and Co-Culture of Mouse Ovaries and Ovarian Follicles

The mammalian ovary is composed of ovarian follicles, each follicle consisting of a single oocyte surrounded by somatic granulosa cells, enclosed together within a basement membrane. A finite pool of follicles is laid down during embryonic development, when oocytes in meiotic arrest form a close association with flattened granulosa cells, forming primordial follicles. By or shortly after birth, mammalian ovaries contain their lifetime&#8217;s supply of primordial follicles, from which point onwards there is a steady release of follicles into the growing follicular pool.
The ovary is particularly amenable to development in vitro, with follicles growing in a highly physiological manner in culture. This work describes the culture of whole neonatal ovaries containing primordial follicles, and the culture of individual ovarian follicles, a method which can support the development of follicles from an immature through to the preovulatory stage, after which their oocytes are able to undergo fertilization in vitro. The work outlined here uses culture systems to determine how the ovary is affected by exposure to external compounds. We also describe a co-culture system, which allows investigation of the interactions that occur between growing follicles and the non-growing pool of primordial follicles.

This protocol describes the primary culture/co-culture of mouse ovarian tissue, using ovaries from neonatal mice and individual ovarian follicles from prepubertal mice. The culture techniques support development in a highly physiological manner, allowing investigation of the effect of extrinsic agents on the ovary, and of interactions between ovarian follicles.

The mammalian ovary is composed of ovarian follicles, each follicle consisting of a single oocyte surrounded by somatic granulosa cells, enclosed together ...

Isolating Hair Follicle Stem Cells and Epidermal Keratinocytes from Dorsal Mouse Skin

The hair follicle (HF) is an ideal system for studying the biology and regulation of adult stem cells (SCs). This dynamic mini organ is replenished by distinct pools of SCs, which are located in the permanent portion of the HF, a region known as the bulge. These multipotent bulge SCs were initially identified as slow cycling label retaining cells; however, their isolation has been made feasible after identification of specific cell markers, such as CD34 and keratin 15 (K15). Here, we describe a robust method for isolating bulge SCs and epidermal keratinocytes from mouse HFs utilizing fluorescence activated cell-sorting (FACS) technology. Isolated hair follicle SCs (HFSCs) can be utilized in various in vivo grafting models and are a valuable in vitro model for studying the mechanisms that govern multipotency, quiescence and activation.

An ideal model for studying adult stem cell biology is the mouse hair follicle. Here we present a protocol for isolating different populations of hair follicles stem cells and epidermal keratinocytes, employing enzymatic digestion of mouse dorsal skin followed by FACS analysis.

The hair follicle (HF) is an ideal system for studying the biology and regulation of adult stem cells (SCs). This dynamic mini organ is replenished by ...

Dissection and Immunofluorescent Staining of Mushroom Body and Photoreceptor Neurons in Adult Drosophila melanogaster Brains

Nervous system development involves a sequential series of events that are coordinated by several signaling pathways and regulatory networks. Many of the proteins involved in these pathways are evolutionarily conserved between mammals and other eukaryotes, such as the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster, suggesting that similar organizing principles exist during the development of these organisms. Importantly, Drosophila has been used extensively to identify cellular and molecular mechanisms regulating processes that are required in mammals including neurogenesis, differentiation, axonal guidance, and synaptogenesis. Flies have also been used successfully to model a variety of human neurodevelopmental diseases. Here we describe a protocol for the step-by-step microdissection, fixation, and immunofluorescent localization of proteins within the adult Drosophila brain. This protocol focuses on two example neuronal populations, mushroom body neurons and retinal photoreceptors, and includes optional steps to trace individual mushroom body neurons using Mosaic Analysis with a Repressible Cell Marker (MARCM) technique. Example data from both wild-type and mutant brains are shown along with a brief description of a scoring criteria for axonal guidance defects. While this protocol highlights two well-established antibodies for investigating the morphology of mushroom body and photoreceptor neurons, other Drosophila brain regions and the localization of proteins within other brain regions can also be investigated using this protocol.

Dissection and Immunofluorescent Staining of Mushroom Body and Photoreceptor Neurons in Adult Drosophila melanogaster Brains

This protocol describes the dissection and immunostaining of adult Drosophila melanogaster brain tissues. Specifically, this protocol highlights the use of Drosophila mushroom body and photoreceptor neurons as example neuronal subsets that can be accurately used to uncover general principles underlying many aspects of neuronal development.

Nervous system development involves a sequential series of events that are coordinated by several signaling pathways and regulatory networks. Many of the ...

A Novel Use of Three-dimensional High-frequency Ultrasonography for Early Pregnancy Characterization in the Mouse

High-frequency ultrasonography (HFUS) is a common method to non-invasively monitor the real-time development of the human fetus in utero. The mouse is routinely used as an in vivo model to study embryo implantation and pregnancy progression. Unfortunately, such murine studies require pregnancy interruption to enable follow-up phenotypic analysis. To address this issue, we used three-dimensional (3-D) reconstruction of HFUS imaging data for early detection and characterization of murine embryo implantation sites and their individual developmental progression in utero. Combining HFUS imaging with 3-D reconstruction and modeling, we were able to accurately quantify embryo implantation site number as well as monitor developmental progression in pregnant C57BL6J/129S mice from 5.5 days post coitus (d.p.c.) through to 9.5 d.p.c. with the use of a transducer. Measurements included: number, location, and volume of implantation sites as well as inter-implantation site spacing; embryo viability was assessed by cardiac activity monitoring. In the immediate post-implantation period (5.5 to 8.5 d.p.c.), 3-D reconstruction of the gravid uterus in both mesh and solid overlay format enabled visual representation of the developing pregnancies within each uterine horn. As genetically engineered mice continue to be used to characterize female reproductive phenotypes derived from uterine dysfunction, this method offers a new approach to detect, quantify, and characterize early implantation events in vivo. This novel use of 3-D HFUS imaging demonstrates the ability to successfully detect, visualize, and characterize embryo-implantation sites during early murine pregnancy in a non-invasive manner. The technology offers a significant improvement over current methods, which rely on the interruption of pregnancies for gross tissue and histopathologic characterization. Here we use a video and text format to describe how to successfully perform ultrasounds of early murine pregnancy to generate reliable and reproducible data with reconstruction of the uterine form in mesh and solid 3-D images.

Mice are widely used to study gestational biology. However, pregnancy termination is required for such studies which precludes longitudinal investigations and necessitates the use of large numbers of animals. Therefore, we describe a non-invasive technique of high-frequency ultrasonography for early detection and monitoring of post-implantation events in the pregnant mouse.

High-frequency ultrasonography (HFUS) is a common method to non-invasively monitor the real-time development of the human fetus in utero. The mouse is ...

Methods for Imaging Intracellular pH of the Follicle Stem Cell Lineage in Live Drosophila Ovarian Tissue

Changes in intracellular pH (pHi) play important roles in the regulation of many cellular functions, including metabolism, proliferation, and differentiation. Typically, pHi dynamics are determined in cultured cells, which are amenable to measuring and experimentally manipulating pHi. However, the recent development of new tools and methodologies has made it possible to study pHi dynamics within intact, live tissue. For Drosophila research, one important development was the generation of a transgenic line carrying a pHi biosensor, mCherry::pHluorin. Here, we describe a protocol that we routinely use for imaging live Drosophila ovarioles to measure pHi in the epithelial follicle stem cell (FSC) lineage in mCherry::pHluorin transgenic wild type lines; however, the methods described here can be easily adapted for other tissues, including the wing discs and eye epithelium. We describe techniques for expressing mCherry::pHluorin in the FSC lineage, maintaining ovarian tissue during live imaging, and acquiring and analyzing images to obtain pHi values.

Methods for Imaging Intracellular pH of the Follicle Stem Cell Lineage in Live Drosophila Ovarian Tissue

We provide a protocol for imaging intracellular pH of an epithelial stem cell lineage in live Drosophila ovarian tissue. We describe methods to generate transgenic flies expressing a pH biosensor, mCherry::pHluorin, image the biosensor using quantitative fluorescence imaging, generate standard curves, and convert fluorescence intensity values to pH values.

Changes in intracellular pH (pHi) play important roles in the regulation of many cellular functions, including metabolism, proliferation, and ...

Dissection and Staining of Drosophila Pupal Ovaries

Unlike adult Drosophila ovaries, pupal ovaries are relatively difficult to access and examine due to their small size, translucence, and encasing within a pupal case. The challenge of dissecting pupal ovaries also lies in their physical location within the pupa: the ovaries are surrounded by fat body cells inside the pupal abdomen, and these fat cells must be removed to allow for proper antibody staining. To overcome these challenges, this protocol utilizes customized Pasteur pipets to extract fat body cells from the pupal abdomen. Moreover, a chambered coverglass is used in place of a microcentrifuge tube during the staining process to improve visibility of the pupae. However, despite these and other advantages of the tools used in this protocol, successful execution of these techniques may still involve several days of practice due to the small size of pupal ovaries. The techniques outlined in this protocol could be applied to time course experiments in which ovaries are analyzed at various stages of pupal development.

Dissection and Staining of Drosophila Pupal Ovaries

The Drosophila ovary is an excellent model system for studying stem cell niche development. Though methods for dissecting larval and adult ovaries have been published, pupal ovary dissections require different techniques that have not been published in detail. Here we outline a protocol for dissecting, staining, and mounting pupal ovaries.

Unlike adult Drosophila ovaries, pupal ovaries are relatively difficult to access and examine due to their small size, translucence, and encasing within a ...

Whole Mount Immunofluorescence and Follicle Quantification of Cultured Mouse Ovaries

Research in the field of mammalian reproductive biology often involves evaluating the overall health of ovaries and testes. Specifically, in females, ovarian fitness is often assessed by visualizing and quantifying follicles and oocytes. Because the ovary is an opaque three-dimensional tissue, traditional approaches require laboriously slicing the tissue into numerous serial sections in order to visualize cells throughout the entire organ. Furthermore, because quantification by this method typically entails scoring only a subset of the sections separated by the approximate diameter of an oocyte, it is prone to inaccuracy. Here, a protocol is described that instead utilizes whole organ tissue clearing and immunofluorescence staining of mouse ovaries to visualize follicles and oocytes. Compared to more traditional approaches, this protocol is advantageous for visualizing cells within the ovary for numerous reasons: 1) the ovary remains intact throughout sample preparation and processing; 2) small ovaries, which are difficult to section, can be examined with ease; 3) cellular quantification is more readily and accurately achieved; and 4) the whole organ imaged.

Here, we present a protocol to quantify follicles in cultured ovaries of young mice without serial sectioning. Using whole organ immunofluorescence and tissue clearing, physical sectioning is replaced with optical sectioning. This method of sample preparation and visualization maintains organ integrity and facilitates automated quantification of specific cells.

Research in the field of mammalian reproductive biology often involves evaluating the overall health of ovaries and testes. Specifically, in females, ...

Visualizing the Node and Notochordal Plate In Gastrulating Mouse Embryos Using Scanning Electron Microscopy and Whole Mount Immunofluorescence

The post-implantation mouse embryo undergoes major shape changes after the initiation of gastrulation and morphogenesis. A hallmark of morphogenesis is the formation of the transient organizers, the node and notochordal plate, from cells that have passed through the primitive streak. The proper formation of these signaling centers is essential for the development of the body plan and techniques to visualize them are of high interest to mouse developmental biologists. The node and notochordal plate lie on the ventral surface of gastrulating mouse embryos around embryonic day (E) 7.5 of development. The node is a cup-shaped structure whose cells possess a single slender cilium each. The proper subcellular localization and rotation of the cilia in the node pit determines left-right asymmetry. The notochordal plate cells also possess single cilia albeit shorter than those of the node cells. The notochordal plate forms the notochord which acts as an important signaling organizer for somitogenesis and neural patterning. Because the cells of the node and notochordal plate are transiently present on the surface and possess cilia, they can be visualized using scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Among other techniques used to visualize these structures at the cellular level is whole mount immunofluorescence (WMIF) using the antibodies against the proteins that are highly expressed in the node and notochordal plate. In this report, we describe our optimized protocols to perform SEM and WMIF of the node and notochordal plate in developing mouse embryos to help in the assessment of tissue shape and cellular organization in wild-type and gastrulation mutant embryos.

The node and notochordal plate are transient signaling organizers in developing mouse embryos that can be visualized using several techniques. Here, we describe in detail how to perform two of the techniques to study their structure and morphogenesis: 1) scanning electron microscopy (SEM); and 2) whole mount immunofluorescence (WMIF).

The post-implantation mouse embryo undergoes major shape changes after the initiation of gastrulation and morphogenesis. A hallmark of morphogenesis is ...

Direct Lineage Reprogramming of Adult Mouse Fibroblast to Erythroid Progenitors

Erythroid cell commitment and differentiation proceed through activation of a lineage-restricted transcriptional network orchestrated by a group of cell fate determining and maturing factors. We previously set out to define the minimal set of factors necessary for instructing red blood cell development using direct lineage reprogramming of fibroblasts into induced erythroid progenitors/precursors (iEPs). We showed that overexpression of Gata1, Tal1, Lmo2, and c-Myc (GTLM) can rapidly convert murine and human fibroblasts directly to iEPs that resemble bona fide erythroid cells in terms of morphology, phenotype, and gene expression. We intend that iEPs will provide an invaluable tool to study erythropoiesis and cell fate regulation. Here we describe the stepwise process of converting murine tail tip fibroblasts into iEPs via transcription factor-driven direct lineage reprogramming (DLR). In this example, we perform the reprogramming in fibroblasts from erythroid lineage-tracing mice that express the yellow fluorescent protein (YFP) under the control of the erythropoietin receptor gene (EpoR) promoter, enabling visualization of erythroid cell fate induction upon reprogramming. Following this protocol, fibroblasts can be reprogrammed into iEPs within five to eight days. 
While improvements can still be made to the process, we show that GTLM-mediated reprogramming is a rapid and direct process, yielding cells with properties of bona fide erythroid progenitor and precursor cells.

Here we present our protocol for producing induced erythroid progenitors (iEPs) from mouse adult fibroblasts using transcription factor-driven direct lineage reprogramming (DLR).

Erythroid cell commitment and differentiation proceed through activation of a lineage-restricted transcriptional network orchestrated by a group of cell ...

Vascular Casting of Adult and Early Postnatal Mouse Lungs for Micro-CT Imaging

Blood vessels form intricate networks in 3-dimensional space. Consequently, it is difficult to visually appreciate how vascular networks interact and behave by observing the surface of a tissue. This method provides a means to visualize the complex 3-dimensional vascular architecture of the lung.
To accomplish this, a catheter is inserted into the pulmonary artery and the vasculature is simultaneously flushed of blood and chemically dilated to limit resistance. Lungs are then inflated through the trachea at a standard pressure and the polymer compound is infused into the vascular bed at a standard flow rate. Once the entire arterial network is filled and allowed to cure, the lung vasculature may be visualized directly or imaged on a micro-CT (&#181;CT) scanner.
When performed successfully, one can appreciate the pulmonary arterial network in mice ranging from early postnatal ages to adults. Additionally, while demonstrated in the pulmonary arterial bed, this method can be applied to any vascular bed with optimized catheter placement and endpoints.

The aim of this technique is ex vivo visualization of pulmonary arterial networks of early postnatal and adult mice through lung inflation and injection of a radio-opaque polymer-based compound via the pulmonary artery. Potential applications for casted tissues are also discussed.

Blood vessels form intricate networks in 3-dimensional space. Consequently, it is difficult to visually appreciate how vascular networks interact and ...