Name: image acquisition method for the sonographic assessment of the inferior vena cava
Uploaded: 2023-01-13T14:50:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Image Acquisition Method for the Sonographic Assessment of the Inferior Vena Cava at JoVE.com

The authors have no acknowledgments.

All procedures performed in the studies involving human participants were conducted in accordance with the ethical standards of the Duke University Health System Institutional Research Committee and with the 1964 Declaration of Helsinki and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards. The protocol was performed using input from several peer-reviewed papers in the academic literature2,13,14,1...

<ol>
	<li>Hashim, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+utility+of+point+of+care+ultrasonography+(POCUS).">The utility of point of care ultrasonography (POCUS).</a> Annals of Medicine and Surgery. 71, 102982 (2021).</li><li>Finnerty, N. M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Inferior+vena+cava+measurement+with+ultrasound:+What+is+the+best+view+and+best+mode.">Inferior vena cava measurement with ultrasound: What is the best view and best mode.</a> The Western Journal of Emergency Medicine. 18 (3), 496-501 (2017).</li><li>Aslan, Y., Arslan, G., Saracoglu, K. T., Eler Cevik, B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+effect+of+ultrasonographic+measurement+of+vena+cava+inferior+diameter+on+the+prediction+of+post-spinal+hypotension+in+geriatric+patients+undergoing+spinal+anaesthesia.">The effect of ultrasonographic measurement of vena cava inferior diameter on the prediction of post-spinal hypotension in geriatric patients undergoing spinal anaesthesia.</a> International Journal of Clinical Practice. 75 (10), 14622 (2021).</li><li>Vander Mullen, J., Wise, R., Vermeulen, G., Moonen, P. J., Malbrain, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Assessment+of+hypovolaemia+in+the+critically+ill.">Assessment of hypovolaemia in the critically ill.</a> Anaesthesiology Intensive Therapy. 50 (2), 141-149 (2018).</li><li>Orso, D., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Accuracy+of+ultrasonographic+measurements+of+inferior+vena+cava+to+determine+fluid+responsiveness:+A+systematic+review+and+meta-analysis.">Accuracy of ultrasonographic measurements of inferior vena cava to determine fluid responsiveness: A systematic review and meta-analysis.</a> Journal of Intensive Care Medicine. 35 (4), 354-363 (2020).</li><li>Caplan, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Measurement+site+of+inferior+vena+cava+diameter+affects+the+accuracy+with+which+fluid+responsiveness+can+be+predicted+in+spontaneously+breathing+patients:+A+post+hoc+analysis+of+two+prospective+cohorts.">Measurement site of inferior vena cava diameter affects the accuracy with which fluid responsiveness can be predicted in spontaneously breathing patients: A post hoc analysis of two prospective cohorts.</a> Annals of Intensive Care. 10 (1), 168 (2020).</li><li>Griffin, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Inferior+vena+cava+diameter+measurement+provides+distinct+and+complementary+information+to+right+atrial+pressure+in+acute+decompensated+heart+failure.">Inferior vena cava diameter measurement provides distinct and complementary information to right atrial pressure in acute decompensated heart failure.</a> Journal of Cardiac Failure. 28 (7), 1217-1221 (2022).</li><li>Mugloo, M. M., Malik, S., Akhtar, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Echocardiographic+inferior+vena+cava+measurement+as+an+alternative+to+central+venous+pressure+measurement+in+neonates.">Echocardiographic inferior vena cava measurement as an alternative to central venous pressure measurement in neonates.</a> Indian Journal of Pediatrics. 84 (10), 751-756 (2017).</li><li>Namendys-Silva, S. A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Usefulness+of+ultrasonographic+measurement+of+the+diameter+of+the+inferior+vena+cava+to+predict+responsiveness+to+intravascular+fluid+administration+in+patients+with+cancer.">Usefulness of ultrasonographic measurement of the diameter of the inferior vena cava to predict responsiveness to intravascular fluid administration in patients with cancer.</a> Proceedings. 29 (4), 374-377 (2016).</li><li>Via, G., Tavazzi, G., Price, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Ten+situations+where+inferior+vena+cava+ultrasound+may+fail+to+accurately+predict+fluid+responsiveness:+A+physiologically+based+point+of+view.">Ten situations where inferior vena cava ultrasound may fail to accurately predict fluid responsiveness: A physiologically based point of view.</a> Intensive Care Medicine. 42 (7), 1164-1167 (2016).</li><li>Lee, C. W., Kory, P. D., Arntfield, R. T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Development+of+a+fluid+resuscitation+protocol+using+inferior+vena+cava+and+lung+ultrasound.">Development of a fluid resuscitation protocol using inferior vena cava and lung ultrasound.</a> Journal of Critical Care. 31 (1), 96-100 (2016).</li><li>Ruge, M., Marhefka, G. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=IVC+measurement+for+the+noninvasive+evaluation+of+central+venous+pressure.">IVC measurement for the noninvasive evaluation of central venous pressure.</a> Journal of Echocardiography. 20 (3), 133-143 (2022).</li><li>Privratsky, J. R., Schroder, V. T., Hashmi, N., Bronshteyn, Y. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Initial+evaluation+for+low-pressure+cardiac+tamponade+using+focused+cardiac+ultrasound.">Initial evaluation for low-pressure cardiac tamponade using focused cardiac ultrasound.</a> A&amp;A Practice. 11 (12), 356-358 (2018).</li><li>Rudski, L. G., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Guidelines+for+the+echocardiographic+assessment+of+the+right+heart+in+adults:+a+report+from+the+American+Society+of+Echocardiography+endorsed+by+the+European+Association+of+Echocardiography,+a+registered+branch+of+the+European+Society+of+Cardiology,+and+the+Canadian+Society+of+Echocardiography.">Guidelines for the echocardiographic assessment of the right heart in adults: a report from the American Society of Echocardiography endorsed by the European Association of Echocardiography, a registered branch of the European Society of Cardiology, and the Canadian Society of Echocardiography.</a> Journal of the American Society of Echocardiography. 23 (7), 685-713 (2010).</li><li>Blehar, D. J., Resop, D., Chin, B., Dayno, M., Gaspari, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Inferior+vena+cava+displacement+during+respirophasic+ultrasound+imaging.">Inferior vena cava displacement during respirophasic ultrasound imaging.</a> Critical Ultrasound Journal. 4 (1), 18 (2012).</li><li>Kisslo, J., vonRamm, O. T., Thurstone, F. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cardiac+imaging+using+a+phased+array+ultrasound+system.+II.+Clinical+technique+and+application.">Cardiac imaging using a phased array ultrasound system. II. Clinical technique and application.</a> Circulation. 53 (2), 262-267 (1976).</li><li>vonRamm, O. T., Thurstone, F. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cardiac+imaging+using+a+phased+array+ultrasound+system.+I.+System+design.">Cardiac imaging using a phased array ultrasound system. I. System design.</a> Circulation. 53 (2), 258-262 (1976).</li><li>Via, G., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=International+evidence-based+recommendations+for+focused+cardiac+ultrasound.">International evidence-based recommendations for focused cardiac ultrasound.</a> Journal of the American Society of Echocardiography. 27 (7), 1-33 (2014).</li><li>Bhardwaj, V., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Combination+of+inferior+vena+cava+diameter,+hepatic+venous+flow,+and+portal+vein+pulsatility+index:+Venous+excess+ultrasound+score+(VEXUS+score)+in+predicting+acute+kidney+injury+in+patients+with+cardiorenal+syndrome:+A+prospective+cohort+study.">Combination of inferior vena cava diameter, hepatic venous flow, and portal vein pulsatility index: Venous excess ultrasound score (VEXUS score) in predicting acute kidney injury in patients with cardiorenal syndrome: A prospective cohort study.</a> Indian Journal of Critical Care Medicine. 24 (9), 783-789 (2020).</li><li>Klein, A. L., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=American+Society+of+Echocardiography+clinical+recommendations+for+multimodality+cardiovascular+imaging+of+patients+with+pericardial+disease:+Endorsed+by+the+Society+for+Cardiovascular+Magnetic+Resonance+and+Society+of+Cardiovascular+Computed+Tomography.">American Society of Echocardiography clinical recommendations for multimodality cardiovascular imaging of patients with pericardial disease: Endorsed by the Society for Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance and Society of Cardiovascular Computed Tomography.</a> Journal of the American Society of Echocardiography. 26 (9), 965-1012 (2013).</li><li>Au, A. K., Matthew Fields, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Ultrasound+measurement+of+inferior+vena+cava+collapse+predicts+propofol+induced+hypotension.">Ultrasound measurement of inferior vena cava collapse predicts propofol induced hypotension.</a> American Journal of Emergency Medicine. 35 (3), 508-509 (2017).</li><li>Szab&#243;, M., Boz&#243;, A., Darvas, K., Horv&#225;th, A., Iv&#225;nyi, Z. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Role+of+inferior+vena+cava+collapsibility+index+in+the+prediction+of+hypotension+associated+with+general+anesthesia:+An+observational+study.">Role of inferior vena cava collapsibility index in the prediction of hypotension associated with general anesthesia: An observational study.</a> BMC Anesthesiology. 19 (1), 139 (2019).</li><li>Chaudhry, S. R., Nahian, A., Chaudhry, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Anatomy,+Abdomen+and+Pelvis,+Pelvis.">Anatomy, Abdomen and Pelvis, Pelvis.</a> StatPearls. , (2022).</li><li>Abdomen. POCUSMedEd Available from: <a target="_blank" href="https://www.pocusmeded.com/abdominal">https://www.pocusmeded.com/abdominal</a> (2022)</li><li>Do not mistake aorta for the IVC. NephroPOCUS Available from: <a target="_blank" href="https://nephropocus.com/2020/05/14/do-not-mistake-aorta-for-the-ivc/">https://nephropocus.com/2020/05/14/do-not-mistake-aorta-for-the-ivc/</a> (2022)</li><li>Pinsky, M. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cardiopulmonary+interactions:+Physiologic+basis+and+clinical+applications.">Cardiopulmonary interactions: Physiologic basis and clinical applications.</a> Annals of the American Thoracic Society. 15, 45-48 (2018).</li><li>Levitov, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Guidelines+for+the+appropriate+use+of+bedside+general+and+cardiac+ultrasonography+in+the+evaluation+of+critically+ill+patients-Part+II:+Cardiac+ultrasonography.">Guidelines for the appropriate use of bedside general and cardiac ultrasonography in the evaluation of critically ill patients-Part II: Cardiac ultrasonography.</a> Critical Care Medicine. 44 (6), 1206-1227 (2016).</li><li>Kaptein, M. J., Kaptein, E. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Inferior+vena+cava+collapsibility+index:+Clinical+validation+and+application+for+assessment+of+relative+intravascular+volume.">Inferior vena cava collapsibility index: Clinical validation and application for assessment of relative intravascular volume.</a> Advances in Chronic Kidney Disease. 28 (3), 218-226 (2021).</li><li>Wallace, D. J., Allison, M., Stone, M. B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Inferior+vena+cava+percentage+collapse+during+respiration+is+affected+by+the+sampling+location:+An+ultrasound+study+in+healthy+volunteers.">Inferior vena cava percentage collapse during respiration is affected by the sampling location: An ultrasound study in healthy volunteers.</a> Academic Emergency Medicine. 17 (1), 96-99 (2010).</li><li>Yamaguchi, Y., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Ultrasound+assessment+of+the+inferior+vena+cava+in+children:+A+comparison+of+sub-xiphoid+and+right+lateral+coronal+views.">Ultrasound assessment of the inferior vena cava in children: A comparison of sub-xiphoid and right lateral coronal views.</a> Journal of Clinical Ultrasound. 50 (4), 575-580 (2022).</li><li>Yamanoglu, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+value+of+the+inferior+vena+cava+ultrasound+in+the+decision+to+hospitalise+in+patients+with+acute+decompensated+heart+failure;+The+best+sonographic+measurement+method.">The value of the inferior vena cava ultrasound in the decision to hospitalise in patients with acute decompensated heart failure; The best sonographic measurement method.</a> Acta Cardiologica. 76 (3), 245-257 (2021).</li><li>Kulkarni, A. P., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Agreement+between+inferior+vena+cava+diameter+measurements+by+subxiphoid+versus+transhepatic+views.">Agreement between inferior vena cava diameter measurements by subxiphoid versus transhepatic views.</a> Indian Journal of Critical Care Medicine. 19 (12), 719-722 (2015).</li><li>De Backer, D., Vincent, J. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Should+we+measure+the+central+venous+pressure+to+guide+fluid+management?+Ten+answers+to+10+questions.">Should we measure the central venous pressure to guide fluid management? Ten answers to 10 questions.</a> Critical Care. 22 (1), 43 (2018).</li></ol>

Even when properly imaged, information garnered from the IVC should not be the sole data point used for guiding treatment. The exact same IVC size and respirophasic changes can be seen in both normal states and in pathologic conditions. Therefore, the clinical context is critically important for guiding how to interpret the IVC data. Further, when using ultrasound to assess a patient&#39;s intravascular volume status, the published literature is mixed as to what thresholds of IVC size and respirophasic change accurately ...

Over the last several decades, the accessibility of point-of-care ultrasound (POCUS) has increased dramatically. Providers across medical disciplines can now integrate POCUS into their bedside exams and more readily identify important contributors to patients&#39; conditions1. For example, in acute care settings, one of the most important areas of focus is the assessment and management of volume status2. Inadequate fluid resuscitation can result in tissue hypoperfusion, end-organ dysfunction, and severe acid-base abnormalities. However, overzealous fluid administration is associated with worsened mortality3. The determination of volume status has primarily been accomplished using the combination&#160;of physical exam findings and dynamic hemodynamic measures, including pulse pressure variation, central venous pressure, and/or fluid challenges via either passive leg-raise testing or intravenous fluid boluses4. With the growing availability of POCUS devices, some providers are seeking to use ultrasound imaging to supplement these measures5. The sonographic assessment of the anterior-to-posterior dimension of the IVC and the respirophasic change in that dimension can assist in the assessment of right atrial pressure and, possibly, intravascular volume status6,7,8,9.
Notably, however, the relationship between IVC parameters (i.e., size and respirophasic change) and volume responsiveness is distorted in many common situations, including but not limited to, the following: (1) passively ventilated patients receiving either high positive end-expiratory pressure (PEEP) or low tidal volumes; (2) spontaneously breathing patients making either small or large respiratory effort; (3) lung hyperinflation; (4) conditions impairing venous return (e.g., right ventricular dysfunction, tension pneumothorax, cardiac tamponade, etc.); and (5) increased abdominal compart pressure10.
While the utility of IVC sonography as a standalone measure for assessing the intravascular volume status is debated5,10,11,12, there is no debate about the fact that its use as a diagnostic tool requires imaging in standardized ways and the ability to utilize alternative views when a single vantage point proves to be inadequate2. Toward this end, this manuscript defines the four sonographic views of the IVC, illustrates common sonographic pitfalls and how to avoid them, and provides examples of both typical and extreme IVC sonographic states. There are four views in which the IVC can be adequately visualized by transabdominal sonography: anterior short-axis, anterior long-axis, right lateral long-axis, and right lateral short-axis. The protocol below describes a standardized method of image acquisition.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Edge 1 ultrasound machine</td>
			<td>SonoSite</td>
			<td>n/a</td>
			<td>Used to obtain all adequate and inadequate images/clips</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
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image acquisition method for the sonographic assessment of the inferior vena cava

Over the past several decades, clinicians have incorporated several applications of diagnostic point-of-care ultrasound (POCUS) into medical decision-making. Among the applications of POCUS, imaging the inferior vena cava (IVC) is practiced by a wide variety of specialties, such as nephrology, emergency medicine, internal medicine, critical care, anesthesiology, pulmonology, and cardiology. Although each specialty uses IVC data in slightly different ways, most medical specialties, at minimum, attempt to use IVC data to make predictions about intravascular volume status. While the relationship between IVC sonographic data and intravascular volume status is complex and highly context-dependent, all clinicians should collect the sonographic data in standardized ways to ensure repeatability. This paper describes standardized IVC image acquisition including patient positioning, transducer selection, probe placement, image optimization, and the pitfalls and limitations of IVC sonographic imaging.&#160;This paper also describes the commonly performed anterior IVC long-axis view and three other views of the IVC that can each provide helpful diagnostic information when the anterior long-axis view is difficult to obtain or interpret.

Adequate exam 
There is no single caliber or respirophasic behavior of the IVC that can be considered universally normal in all circumstances. For instance, the IVC seen in Videos 1-4 and Figure 3 was imaged in a healthy, hydrated male experiencing no acute illness. However, notably, this patient&#39;s &#34;normal&#34; IVC has a relatively large AP diameter, &#62;2 cm in the ANT IVC LAX view, and shows minimal respiroph...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Image Acquisition Method for the Sonographic Assessment of the Inferior Vena Cava at JoVE.com

Image Acquisition Method for the Sonographic Assessment of the Inferior Vena Cava

Point-of-care ultrasound evaluation of the inferior vena cava (IVC) is commonly utilized to identify, among other things, the volume status. Imaging should be performed systematically to ensure repeatability. This manuscript reviews the methods and pitfalls of sonographic IVC examination.

Over the past several decades, clinicians have incorporated several applications of diagnostic point-of-care ultrasound (POCUS) into medical ...

To assess the inferior vena cava, aka the IVC, sonographically, currently, clinicians use a wide variety of techniques. To address this variability and heterogeneity, this protocol offers a systematic IVC ultrasound image acquisition approach. This technique has built-in safeguards to minimize common pitfalls and prioritizes the least technically challenging views first, allowing the operator the greatest chance of obtaining an adequate exam efficiently.In patients with shock of unknown etiology, it can be helpful to screen for extremes of IVC size and respirophasic change to narrow the differential diagnosis. However, accurate interpretation of the IVC requires sidestepping important pitfalls in image acquisition, which this protocol is specifically designed to address. New providers often struggle with misidentification of the aorta as the inferior vena cava and misidentification of pseudo collapsibility as true IVC respirophasic change.These errors can be minimized by consistently obtaining both long and short axis views of the IVC during each exam. For individuals over one year of age, visualize the IVC with any low frequency ultrasound transducer, such as a linear phased array sector arc probe or a curvilinear probe. Set the machine to the cardiology convention using the cardiac preset function, which is present as an indicator on the right of the screen, and confirm that the screen refresh rate is at least 20 hertz.Then set the mode to B Mode and the depth to 6 to 20 centimeters, depending on the IVC depth in each patient. Apply ultrasound gel to the transducer. To obtain the anterior IVC short axis view, position the patient in the supine position with both hips flexed if tolerated by the patient.Obtain the lateral IVC short axis view. Place the ultrasound probe centered on the patient's anterior midline, just caudal to the xiphoid process in the coronal plane with the transducer indicator mark pointing toward the patient's left. Adjust the depth so that the IVC and aorta appear in the middle third of the screen and the spine is visible.To set the axis, fan the ultrasound beam cranially or caudally until the IVC and the abdominal aorta appears in the short axis cross section as rounded structures. Decrease the gain until the blood in the IVC is either completely black or just a few specs of gray are visible. Once all the settings are done, click on Acquire.Next, obtain the anterior IVC long axis view by positioning the patient and the probe as demonstrated earlier and center the view on the IVC. Then rotate the ultrasound probe 90 degrees counterclockwise without translating the probe such that the probe's indicator faces cranially at the end of the rotation. Adjust the depth so that the IVC appears in the middle third of the screen and the liver tissue is visible deeper than the IVC.To set the axis, fan the ultrasound beam toward the patient's left or right until the IVC appears rectangular, intrahepatic structure spanning from cranial to caudal. Now decrease the gain until the blood in the IVC is either completely black or just a few specs of gray are visible. Once all the settings are done, click on Acquire.To quantify the IVC anterior to posterior diameter choose a live optimized image of the IVC, click on Freeze, and click on Caliper or Measure depending on the machine's measurement button. Then move the track ball to the anterior wall of the IVC approximately one to two centimeters caudal from the hepatic vein confluence, and click on Select. Move the track ball to the posterior wall of the IVC such that the line between the two points is roughly perpendicular to the long axis of the IVC.Click on Select and then click on Acquire. Now obtain the right lateral IVC long axis view by positioning the patient in the supine position with the legs flat and the right arm moved away from the patient's side, either overhead or outstretched laterally, to allow access to the right flank. Place the probe transducer in the coronal plane with the indicator pointing cranially in the sixth or seventh right intercostal space anteriorly to the right midaxillary line.Adjust the depth so that the IVC appears in the middle third of the screen and the liver tissue is visible deeper than the IVC. To set the axis, fan the ultrasound beam anteriorly or posteriorly until the IVC is visualized as a rectangular intrahepatic structure spanning from cranial to caudal on the screen. Decrease the gain until the blood in the IVC is either completely black or just a few specks of gray are visible.Click on Acquire. To obtain the right lateral IVC short axis view, position the patient and the probe as demonstrated earlier for the lateral IVC long axis view. Then rotate the probe 90 degrees clockwise so that the probe indicator mark is pointing anteriorly.Adjust the depth so that the IVC appears in the middle third of the screen and the liver tissue, aorta, and spine are all visible deeper than the IVC. For setting the axis, fan the ultrasound beam cranially or caudally until the IVC and abdominal aorta are visible in the short axis view as rounded structures. Decrease the gain until the blood in the IVC is either completely black or just a few specks of gray are visible.Click on Acquire. An adequate exam permits the visualization of the IVC. An inadequate exam is one in which the IVC is not visible or the IVC appears to show respirophasic change only in the long axis plane.Following this procedure, you should document your findings, incorporate them into the clinical context, and decide on any modifications to patient management. The literature on sonographic assessment of the IVC is plagued with conflicting findings. By standardizing image acquisition, this review may help determine whether these conflicts are due to heterogeneity of image acquisition or due to other factors.

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Electrolytic Inferior Vena Cava Model (EIM) of Venous Thrombosis

Animal models serve a vital role in deep venous thrombosis (DVT) research in order to study thrombus formation, thrombus resolution and to test potential therapeutic compounds (1). New compounds to be utilized in the treatment and prevention of DVT are currently being developed. The delivery of potential therapeutic antagonist compounds to an affected thrombosed vein has been problematic. In the context of therapeutic applications, a model that uses partial stasis and consistently generates thrombi within a major vein has been recently established. The Electrolytic Inferior vena cava Model (EIM) is mouse model of DVT that permits thrombus formation in the presence of continuous blood flow. This model allows therapeutic agents to be in contact with the thrombus in a dynamic fashion, and is more sensitive than other models of DVT (1). In addition, this thrombosis model closely simulates clinical situations of thrombus formation and is ideal to study venous endothelial cell activation, leukocyte migration, venous thrombogenesis, and to test therapeutic applications (1). The EIM model is technically simple, easily reproducible, creates consistent thrombi sizes and allows for a large sample (i.e. thrombus and vein wall) which is required for analytical purposes.

Electrolytic Inferior Vena Cava Model EIM of Venous Thrombosis

The electrolytic induction of endothelial activation to the internal surface of the Inferior Vena Cava results in venous type thrombus formation due to endothelial activation and partial blood stasis, two components of Virchow's triad.

Animal models serve a vital role in deep venous thrombosis (DVT) research in order to study thrombus formation, thrombus resolution and to test potential ...

Mouse Complete Stasis Model of Inferior Vena Cava Thrombosis

Venous thromboembolism (VTE) includes both deep vein thrombosis (DVT) and pulmonary embolism (PE). In the United States (U.S.), the high morbidity and mortality rates make VTE a serious health concern 1-2. After heart disease and stroke, VTE is the third most common vascular disease 3. In the U.S. alone, there is an estimated 900,000 people affected each year, with 300,000 deaths occurring annually 3. A reliable in vivo animal model to study the mechanisms of this disease is necessary.
The advantages of using the mouse complete stasis model of inferior vena cava thrombosis are several. The mouse model allows for the administration of very small volumes of limited availability test agents, reducing costs dramatically. Most promising is the potential for mice with gene knockouts that allow specific inflammatory and coagulation factor functions to be delineated. Current molecular assays allow for the quantitation of vein wall, thrombus, whole blood, and plasma for assays. However, a major concern involving this model is the operative size constraints and the friability of the vessels. Also, due to the small IVC sample weight (mean 0.005 grams) it is necessary to increase animal numbers for accurate statistical analysis for tissue, thrombus, and blood assays such as real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), western blot, enzyme-linked immunosorbent (ELISA), zymography, vein wall and thrombus cellular analysis, and whole blood and plasma assays 4-8.
The major disadvantage with the stasis model is that the lack of blood flow inhibits the maximal effect of administered systemic therapeutic agents on the thrombus and vein wall.

The mouse complete stasis model of inferior vena cava thrombosis yields quantifiable amounts of vein wall tissue and thrombus. It has proven useful for evaluating interactions between the vein wall and the occlusive thrombus and in assessing the progression from acute to chronic inflammation.

Venous thromboembolism (VTE) includes both deep vein thrombosis (DVT) and pulmonary embolism (PE).  In the United States (U.S.), the high morbidity and ...

Implantation of Inferior Vena Cava Interposition Graft in Mouse Model

Biodegradable scaffolds seeded with bone marrow mononuclear cells (BMCs) are often used for reconstructive surgery to treat congenital cardiac anomalies. The long-term clinical results showed excellent patency rates, however, with significant incidence of stenosis. To investigate the cellular and molecular mechanisms of vascular neotissue formation and prevent stenosis development in tissue engineered vascular grafts (TEVGs), we developed a mouse model of the graft with approximately 1 mm internal diameter. First, the TEVGs were assembled from biodegradable tubular scaffolds fabricated from a polyglycolic acid nonwoven felt mesh coated with &#949;-caprolactone and L-lactide copolymer. The scaffolds were then placed in a lyophilizer, vacuumed for 24 hr, and stored in a desiccator until cell seeding. Second, bone marrow was collected from donor mice and mononuclear cells were isolated by density gradient centrifugation. Third, approximately one million cells were seeded on a scaffold and incubated O/N. Finally, the seeded scaffolds were then implanted as infrarenal vena cava interposition grafts in C57BL/6 mice. The implanted grafts demonstrated excellent patency (&#62;90%) without evidence of thromboembolic complications or aneurysmal formation. This murine model will aid us in understanding and quantifying the cellular and molecular mechanisms of neotissue formation in the TEVG.

To improve our knowledge of cellular and molecular neotissue formation, a murine model of the TEVG was recently developed. The grafts were implanted as infrarenal vena cava interposition grafts in C57BL/6 mice. This model achieves similar results to those achieved in our clinical investigation, but over a far shortened time-course.

Biodegradable scaffolds seeded with bone marrow mononuclear cells (BMCs) are often used for reconstructive surgery to treat congenital cardiac anomalies. ...

Patch Angioplasty in the Rat Aorta or Inferior Vena Cava

Pericardial patches are commonly used in vascular surgery to close vessels. To facilitate studies of the neointimal hyperplasia that forms on the patch, we developed a rat model of patch angioplasty that can be used in either a vein or an artery, creating a patch venoplasty or a patch arterioplasty, respectively. Technical aspects of this model are discussed. The infra-renal IVC or aorta are dissected and then clamped proximally and distally. A 3 mm venotomy or arteriotomy is performed in the infrarenal inferior vena cava or aorta of 6 to 8 week-old Wistar rats. A bovine pericardial patch (3 mm x 1.5 mm x 0.6 mm) is then used to close the site using a 10-0 nylon suture. Compared to arterial patches, venous patches show increased neointimal thickness on postoperative day 7. This novel model of pericardial patch angioplasty can be used to examine neointimal hyperplasia on vascular biomaterials, as well as to compare the differences between the arterial and venous environments.

We have established a model of pericardial patch angioplasty that can be used in either small-diameter veins or arteries. This model can be used to compare venous and arterial neointimal hyperplasia formation.

Pericardial patches are commonly used in vascular surgery to close vessels. To facilitate studies of the neointimal hyperplasia that forms on the patch, ...

'Boden Food Plate': Novel Interactive Web-based Method for the Assessment of Dietary Intake

Different methods can be used in research to assess dietary intake, many of which are still paper-based. Written estimated food diaries are often utilized in clinical trials, despite being a burden for both study participants and researchers. This method requires participant literacy, it is time consuming, labor intensive, and can easily lead to under-reporting. With advancements in technology, there is a growing interest in electronic diaries that automate the dietary assessment process. These are focused on improving accuracy, reducing both time and cost and providing users with a visual and more enjoyable experience. The methodology presented here aimed to validate the &#39;Boden Food Plate&#39;, a novel web-based platform for self-recording of food and drink items, compared to a traditional estimated food diary. The application was also rated on a satisfaction scale by study participants using a paper-based questionnaire. Sixty-seven participants completed the dietary measures on both the three-day electronic and paper food diaries. For the analysis, only dietary data completed at both study time points (baseline and week six) was utilized. Despite small mean differences between dietary data collection methods, Bland Altman analysis showed fairly wide 95% limits of agreement between the electronic platform and the written estimated food diary and there were few cases which did not fall within the 95% confidence intervals. Overall, participants found the electronic food diary to be more fun than the paper method and as easy to use as hard copy diaries. The new platform has potential as a self-recording tool for the collection of dietary data, particularly when utilized in clinical trial settings. However, further validation studies are needed to improve the validity of this novel electronic dietary data collection tool.

&#039;Boden Food Plate&#039;: Novel Interactive Web-based Method for the Assessment of Dietary Intake

The &#39;Boden Food Plate&#39; is an electronic food diary designed to be an interactive and fun method to collect dietary intake using visual depictions. The purpose of this study was to validate the web-based application against a traditional three-day estimated food diary method.

Different methods can be used in research to assess dietary intake, many of which are still paper-based. Written estimated food diaries are often utilized ...

Image Acquisition using Portable Sonography for Emergency Airway Management

With its increasing popularity and accessibility, portable ultrasonography has been rapidly adapted not only to improve the perioperative care of patients, but also to address the potential benefits of employing ultrasound in airway management. The benefits of point of care ultrasound (POCUS) include its portability, the speed at which it can be utilized, and its lack of invasiveness or exposure of the patient to radiation of other imaging modalities.
Two primary indications for airway POCUS include confirmation of endotracheal intubation and identification of the cricothyroid membrane in the event a surgical airway is required. In this article, the technique of using ultrasound to confirm endotracheal intubation and the relevant anatomy is described, along with the associated ultrasonographic images. In addition, identification of the anatomy of the cricothyroid membrane and the ultrasonographic acquisition of appropriate images to perform this procedure are reviewed.
Future advances include utilizing airway POCUS to identify patient characteristics that might indicate difficult airway management. Traditional bedside clinical exams have, at best, fair predictive values. The addition of ultrasonographic airway assessment has the potential to improve this predictive accuracy. This article describes the use of POCUS for airway management, and initial evidence suggests that this has improved the diagnostic accuracy of predicting a difficult airway. Given that one of the limitations of airway POCUS is that it requires a skilled sonographer, and image analysis can be operator dependent, this paper will provide recommendations to standardize the technical aspects of airway ultrasonography and promote further research utilizing sonography in airway management. The goal of this protocol is to educate researchers and medical health professionals and to advance the research in the field of airway POCUS.

Point of care ultrasound (POCUS) is increasingly being utilized in airway management. Presented here are some clinical utilities of POCUS, including differentiating endotracheal and esophageal intubation, identification of the cricothyroid membrane in the event a surgical airway is required, and measuring anterior neck soft tissue to predict difficult airway management.

With its increasing popularity and accessibility, portable ultrasonography has been rapidly adapted not only to improve the perioperative care of ...

Troubleshooting FoCUS Image Acquisition: Patient Positioning, Transducer Manipulation, and Image Optimization

Focused cardiac ultrasound (FoCUS) is a limited, clinician-performed application of echocardiography to add real-time information to patient care. These bedside exams are problem oriented, rapidly and repeatedly performed, and largely qualitative in nature. Competency in FoCUS includes mastery of the stereotactic and psychomotor skills required for transducer manipulation and image acquisition. Competency also requires the ability to optimize the setup, troubleshoot image acquisition, and understand the sonographic limitations because of complex clinical environments and patient pathology. This article presents concepts for successful, high-quality two-dimensional (B-mode) image acquisition in FoCUS.
Concepts of high-quality image acquisition can be applied to all established sonographic windows of the FoCUS exam: the parasternal long-axis (PLAX), parasternal short-axis (PSAX), apical four chamber (A4C), subcostal fourchamber (SC4C), and the inferior vena cava (IVC). The apical five-chamber (A5C) and subcostal short-axis (SCSA) views are mentioned, but are not discussed in-depth. A pragmatic figure illustrating the movements of the phased array transducer is also provided to serve as a cognitive aid during FoCUS image acquisition.

Here, we present a protocol to allow providers to perform focused cardiac ultrasound (FoCUS) in the clinical environment. We describe methods of transducer manipulation, review common pitfalls of transducer movements, and suggest tips to optimize phased array transducer use.

Focused cardiac ultrasound (FoCUS) is a limited, clinician-performed application of echocardiography to add real-time information to patient care. These ...

A Modified Sonographic Algorithm for Image Acquisition in Life-Threatening Emergencies in the Critically Ill Newborn

The use of routine point-of-care ultrasound (POCUS) is increasing in neonatal intensive care units (NICUs), with several centers advocating for 24 h equipment availability. In 2018, the sonographic algorithm for life-threatening emergencies (SAFE) protocol was published, which allows the assessment of neonates with sudden decompensation to identify abnormal contractility, tamponade, pneumothorax, and pleural effusion. In the study unit (with a consulting neonatal hemodynamics and POCUS service), the algorithm was adapted by including consolidated core steps to support at-risk newborns, aiding clinicians in managing cardiac arrest, and adding views to verify correct intubation. This paper presents a protocol that can be applied in the NICU and the delivery room (DR) in relation to three scenarios: cardiac arrest, hemodynamic deterioration, or respiratory decompensation. 
This protocol can be performed with a state-of-the-art ultrasound machine or an affordable handheld device; the image acquisition protocol is carefully detailed. This method was designed to be learned as a general competence to obtain the timely diagnosis of life-threatening scenarios; the method aims to save time but does not represent a substitute for comprehensive and standardized hemodynamic and radiological analyses by a multidisciplinary team, which might not universally be on call but needs to be involved in the process. From January 2019 to July 2022, in our center, 1,045 hemodynamic consultation/POCUS consults were performed with 25 patients requiring the modified SAFE protocol (2.3%), and a total of 19 procedures were performed. In five cases, trained fellows on call resolved life-threatening situations. Clinical examples are provided that show the importance of including this technique in the care of critical newborns.

Here, we present a protocol that can be applied in the neonatal intensive care unit and the delivery room in relation to three scenarios: cardiac arrest, hemodynamic deterioration, or respiratory decompensation. This protocol can be performed with a state-of-the-art ultrasound machine or an affordable handheld device; an image acquisition protocol is carefully detailed.

The use of routine point-of-care ultrasound (POCUS) is increasing in neonatal intensive care units (NICUs), with several centers advocating for 24 h ...

Focused Assessment with Sonography for Trauma (FAST) Exam: Image Acquisition

Over the past twenty years, the Focused Assessment with Sonography for Trauma (FAST) exam has transformed the care of patients presenting with a combination of trauma (blunt or penetrating) and hypotension. In these hemodynamically unstable trauma patients, the FAST exam permits rapid and noninvasive screening for free pericardial or peritoneal fluid, the latter of which implicates intra-abdominal injury as a likely contributor to the hypotension and justifies emergent abdominal surgical exploration. Further, the abdominal portion of the FAST exam can also be used outside of the trauma setting to screen for free peritoneal fluid in patients who become hemodynamically unstable in any context, including after procedures that may inadvertently injure abdominal organs. These "non-trauma" situations of hemodynamic instability are often triaged by providers from specialties other than emergency medicine or trauma surgery who are not familiar with the FAST exam. Therefore, there is a need to promulgate knowledge about the FAST exam to all clinicians caring for critically ill patients. Toward this end, this article describes FAST exam image acquisition: patient positioning, transducer selection, image optimization, and exam limitations. Since the free fluid is likely to be found in specific anatomic locations that are unique for each canonical FAST exam view, this work centers on the unique image acquisition considerations for each window: subcostal, right upper quadrant, left upper quadrant, and pelvis.

Focused Assessment with Sonography for Trauma FAST Exam: Image Acquisition

The Focused Assessment with Sonography for Trauma (FAST) exam is a diagnostic point-of-care ultrasound examination used to screen for the presence of free fluid in the pericardium and peritoneum. Indications, techniques, and pitfalls of the procedure are discussed in this article.

Over the past twenty years, the Focused Assessment with Sonography for Trauma (FAST) exam has transformed the care of patients presenting with a ...

Strategies for Efficient Vascular Anastomosis in Mouse Liver Transplantation

Vascular Reconstruction with the Cuff Technique in Mouse Orthotopic Liver Transplantation

Mouse orthotopic liver transplantation is an effective methodology for investigating the underlying mechanisms of liver ischemia and reperfusion injury. However, the technical challenges pose a barrier to utilizing this valuable experimental model and passing on these skills to the next generation. The most challenging aspect of this procedure is vascular reconstruction, including the portal vein (PV), infrahepatic inferior vena cava (IHIVC), and suprahepatic inferior vena cava. The use of plastic cuffs, rather than sutures, allows for smoother PV and IHIVC reconstruction. Vessels are reconstructed by attaching a cuff made from an intravenous catheter to the tip of the graft vessel and interposing the cuff into the recipient vessel. The two most crucial aspects are properly visualizing the inner lumen of the vessel and avoiding the use of excessive force. Our aim is to provide a technical overview of vascular reconstructions using the cuff technique in recipient surgery. These technical tips for the cuff technique are expected to help microsurgeons facilitate vascular reconstruction and advance their research.

Author Spotlight: Exploring Cold Ischemia and Warm Reperfusion Injury in Fatty Liver Transplantation

This protocol provides technical information for vessel reconstruction using the cuff technique in mouse orthotopic liver transplantation.

Mouse orthotopic liver transplantation is an effective methodology for investigating the underlying mechanisms of liver ischemia and reperfusion injury. ...