עבודה זו נתמכה על ידי NIH / NINDS גרנט R01NS070159 (לTMD, הליגה להגנה יהודית וATS).

<ol>
	<li>Henze, D. A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Intracellular+features+predicted+by+extracellular+recordings+in+the+hippocampus+in+vivo.">Intracellular features predicted by extracellular recordings in the hippocampus in vivo.</a> J. Neurophysiol. 84, 390-400 (2000).</li><li>Gabriel, J. P., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Locomotor+pattern+in+the+adult+zebrafish+spinal+cord+in+vitro.">Locomotor pattern in the adult zebrafish spinal cord in vitro.</a> J.Neurophysiol. 99, 37-48 (2008).</li><li>Vargas, R., Johannesdottir, I. T., Sigurgeirsson, B., Thornorsteinsson, H., Karlsson, K. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+zebrafish+brain+in+research+and+teaching:+a+simple+in+vivo+and+in+vitro+model+for+the+study+of+spontaneous+neural+activity.">The zebrafish brain in research and teaching: a simple in vivo and in vitro model for the study of spontaneous neural activity.</a> Adv Physiol Educ. 35, 188-196 (2011).</li><li>Makhankov, Y. V., Rinner, O., Neuhauss, S. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=An+inexpensive+device+for+non-invasive+electroretinography+in+small+aquatic+vertebrates.">An inexpensive device for non-invasive electroretinography in small aquatic vertebrates.</a> J. Neurosci. Methods. 135, 205-210 (2004).</li><li>Brockerhoff, S. E., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+behavioral+screen+for+isolating+zebrafish+mutants+with+visual+system+defects.">A behavioral screen for isolating zebrafish mutants with visual system defects.</a> Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A.. 92, 10545-10549 (1995).</li><li>Baraban, S. C., Taylor, M. R., Castro, P. A., Baier, H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Pentylenetetrazole+induced+changes+in+zebrafish+behavior,+neural+activity+and+c-fos+expression.">Pentylenetetrazole induced changes in zebrafish behavior, neural activity and c-fos expression.</a> Neuroscience. 131, 759-768 (2005).</li><li>Baraban, S. C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+large-scale+mutagenesis+screen+to+identify+seizure-resistant+zebrafish.">A large-scale mutagenesis screen to identify seizure-resistant zebrafish.</a> Epilepsia. 48, 1151-1157 (2007).</li><li>Maximino, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Serotonin and anxiety: Neuroanatomical, pharmacological and functional aspects. , (2012).</li><li>Bally-Cuif, L., Vernier, P., Perry, S. F., Ekker, M., Farrell, A. P., Brauner, C. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Fish Physiology: Zebrafish. 29, (2010).</li><li>Kaslin, J., Nystedt, J. M., Ostergard, M., Peitsaro, N., Panula, P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+orexin/hypocretin+system+in+zebrafish+is+connected+to+the+aminergic+and+cholinergic+systems.">The orexin/hypocretin system in zebrafish is connected to the aminergic and cholinergic systems.</a> J. Neurosci. 24, 2678-2689 (2004).</li><li>McLean, D. L., Fetcho, J. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Ontogeny+and+innervation+patterns+of+dopaminergic,+noradrenergic,+and+serotonergic+neurons+in+larval+zebrafish.">Ontogeny and innervation patterns of dopaminergic, noradrenergic, and serotonergic neurons in larval zebrafish.</a> J. Comp. Neurol. 480, 38-56 (2004).</li><li>Mueller, T., Vernier, P., Wullimann, M. F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+adult+central+nervous+cholinergic+system+of+a+neurogenetic+model+animal,+the+zebrafish+Danio+rerio.">The adult central nervous cholinergic system of a neurogenetic model animal, the zebrafish Danio rerio.</a> Brain Res. 1011, 156-169 (2004).</li><li>Higashijima, S., Schaefer, M., Fetcho, J. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Neurotransmitter+properties+of+spinal+interneurons+in+embryonic+and+larval+zebrafish.">Neurotransmitter properties of spinal interneurons in embryonic and larval zebrafish.</a> J. Comp. Neurol. 480, 19-37 (1002).</li><li>Tao, L., Lauderdale, J. D., Sornborger, A. T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mapping+Functional+Connectivity+between+Neuronal+Ensembles+with+Larval+Zebrafish+Transgenic+for+a+Ratiometric+Calcium+Indicator.">Mapping Functional Connectivity between Neuronal Ensembles with Larval Zebrafish Transgenic for a Ratiometric Calcium Indicator.</a> Front Neural Circuits. 5, 2 (2011).</li><li>Fan, X., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=New+statistical+methods+enhance+imaging+of+cameleon+fluorescence+resonance+energy+transfer+in+cultured+zebrafish+spinal+neurons.">New statistical methods enhance imaging of cameleon fluorescence resonance energy transfer in cultured zebrafish spinal neurons.</a> J Biomed Opt. 12, 034017 (2007).</li><li>Burgess, H. A., Granato, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Sensorimotor+gating+in+larval+zebrafish.">Sensorimotor gating in larval zebrafish.</a> J. Neurosci. 27, 4984-4994 (2007).</li><li>Burgess, H. A., Schoch, H., Granato, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Distinct+retinal+pathways+drive+spatial+orientation+behaviors+in+zebrafish+navigation.">Distinct retinal pathways drive spatial orientation behaviors in zebrafish navigation.</a> Curr. Biol. 20, 381-386 (2010).</li><li>Mueller, K. P., Neuhauss, S. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Behavioral+neurobiology:+how+larval+fish+orient+towards+the+light.">Behavioral neurobiology: how larval fish orient towards the light.</a> Curr. Biol. 20, 159-161 (2010).</li><li>Haug, M. F., Biehlmaier, O., Mueller, K. P., Neuhauss, S. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Visual+acuity+in+larval+zebrafish:+behavior+and+histology.">Visual acuity in larval zebrafish: behavior and histology.</a> Front. Zool. 7, 8 (2010).</li><li>Fetcho, J. R., Higashijima, S., McLean, D. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Zebrafish+and+motor+control+over+the+last+decade.">Zebrafish and motor control over the last decade.</a> Brain Res.Rev. 57, 86-93 (2008).</li><li>Connaughton, V. P., Nelson, R., Bender, A. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Electrophysiological+evidence+of+GABAA+and+GABAC+receptors+on+zebrafish+retinal+bipolar+cells.">Electrophysiological evidence of GABAA and GABAC receptors on zebrafish retinal bipolar cells.</a> Vis. Neurosci. 25, 139-153 (2008).</li><li>Kim, Y. J., Nam, R. H., Yoo, Y. M., Lee, C. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Identification+and+functional+evidence+of+GABAergic+neurons+in+parts+of+the+brain+of+adult+zebrafish+(Danio+rerio).">Identification and functional evidence of GABAergic neurons in parts of the brain of adult zebrafish (Danio rerio).</a> Neurosci. Lett. 355, 29-32 (2004).</li><li>Sato, Y., Miyasaka, N., Yoshihara, Y. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Hierarchical+regulation+of+odorant+receptor+gene+choice+and+subsequent+axonal+projection+of+olfactory+sensory+neurons+in+zebrafish.">Hierarchical regulation of odorant receptor gene choice and subsequent axonal projection of olfactory sensory neurons in zebrafish.</a> J. Neurosci. 27, 1606-1615 (2007).</li><li>Westerfield, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> The zebrafish book: a guide for the laboratory use of zebrafish (Brachydanio rerio). , (1993).</li><li>Lazarova, M., Samanin, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Potentiation+by+yohimbine+of+pentylenetetrazol-induced+seizures+in+rats:+role+of+alpha+2+adrenergic+receptors.">Potentiation by yohimbine of pentylenetetrazol-induced seizures in rats: role of alpha 2 adrenergic receptors.</a> Pharmacol. Res. Commun. 15, 419-425 (1983).</li><li>Loscher, W., Honack, D., Fassbender, C. P., Nolting, B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+role+of+technical,+biological+and+pharmacological+factors+in+the+laboratory+evaluation+of+anticonvulsant+drugs.+III.+Pentylenetetrazole+seizure+models.">The role of technical, biological and pharmacological factors in the laboratory evaluation of anticonvulsant drugs. III. Pentylenetetrazole seizure models.</a> Epilepsy res. 8, 171-189 (1991).</li><li>DeMicco, A., Cooper, K. R., Richardson, J. R., White, L. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Developmental+neurotoxicity+of+pyrethroid+insecticides+in+zebrafish+embryos.">Developmental neurotoxicity of pyrethroid insecticides in zebrafish embryos.</a> Toxicol Sci. 113, 177-186 (2010).</li><li>Arnolds, D. E., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Physiological+effects+of+tricaine+on+the+supramedullary/dorsal+neurons+of+the+cunner,+Tautogolabrus+adspersus.">Physiological effects of tricaine on the supramedullary/dorsal neurons of the cunner, Tautogolabrus adspersus.</a> Biol. Bull. 203, 188-189 (2002).</li></ol>

החוקרים מצהירים כי אין להם אינטרסים כלכליים מתחרים.

פרוטוקול זה נעשה שימוש כדי למדוד את הפעילות העצבית של דג הזברה מבוגר in vivo. בעזרת תרגול, פעילות עצבית יכולה להיות שנצפתה באופן עקבי, אם כי המאפיינים (אמפליטודה וצורה של אירועים) של הפעילות שנרשמה יכולים להשתנות בין דגים בודדים. ניצול של טכניקת ההקלטה תאית יכול להס?...

במאמר זה, פרוטוקול מתואר לקבלת בהקלטות vivo של פעילות עצבית בדג זברה מבוגר. שיטות הקלטה תאית משמשות, מתן מדידות מתח של פעילות חשמלית בתוך אזור קטן של רקמה עצבית. שיטה זו של חקירה כרוכה במעקב אחר מספר גדול של תאים בבעלי חיים מתנהגים 1. בעבר, הקלטות פרוסה כבר בוצעו בשני מבוגרים וזחלים, כמו שיש לי הכנות כוס העין והקלטות electroretinogram. ניסויים אלה במידה רבה כבר בוצעו לפרטים תגובות פיסיולוגיות של מערכות חושיות שונות 2-5. עד לאחרונה, הכנות מוח שלמות היו זמינות לביצוע אלקטרופיזיולוגיה עם 3,6,7 זחל דג הזברה, בהם פיזור נשימה וחמצן יכול להתרחש דרך העור בלבד. ההכנה שלנו מאפשרת פעילות נוירולוגית יליד דג הזברה מבוגר כדי להימדד בעוד החיה נשארה בהכרה מלאה ומודעת oו סביבתו. דג הזברה (Danio rerio) לשחק כרגע תפקיד בסיסי כמודל למחקרים גנטיים, טוקסיקולוגי, תרופתיים, וphysiopathological 3. דג הזברה זכה לנראות בתחום של מדעי המוח, כי הם חולקים הומולוגיה נרחבת עם יונקים ברמות גנטיות, העצבית והמערכת האנדוקרינית 8. במהלך העשור האחרון, טכניקות neuroanatomic וimmunohistochemical סטנדרטיות היו בשימוש כדי לקבוע את הארגון האופייני מפורט של מערכת עצבים דג הזברה 9-12 ושל ההפצה של נוירוטרנסמיטרים שונים 3,8,13. לאחרונה, חוקרים העבירו את המיקוד שלהם ללימודים תפקודיים 14,15, שרבים מהם במרכז על תהליכים התנהגותיים 16-19 ומאפיינים של מערכות אלקטרו חושיות 2,13,20. מספר קטן של מחקרים אלה התמקדו בפעילות החשמלית של אזורים הספציפיים של adult מוח דג הזברה 21-23, אך לא בוצעו באמצעות vivo בגישה. פרוטוקול זה יכול להיות מותאם ללימודי אלקטרו של שתי פעילות הספונטנית ועוררה בתוך מערכת עצבים דג הזברה כדי לתאר את דפוסי פעילות באזורי מוח מסוימים. השימוש בטכניקה זו מאפשר השוואות שיש להבחין בין פעילות הנוירולוגית של שלבי זחל צעירים ומבוגרים. יתר על כן, הפרוטוקול שלנו מאפשר השוואה בין שינויים גנטיים או תרופתיים. יחד עם גישות אחרות, כגון הנדסה גנטית או בדיקות פרמקולוגיות, שיטה זו מציעה אפשרות חדשה לניתוח הפונקציונלי של תקשורת העצבית ופלסטיות בבעלי החיים הבוגרים בשלמותה, כמו גם ליישומים אפשריים, כגון לומד אפילפסיה התחלה מאוחרת או תהליכי ניוון עצבי.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="539">
	<colgroup>
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	</colgroup>
	<tbody>
		<tr height="43">
			<td height="43" style="height:43px;width:207px;">70% Ethanol</td>
			<td style="width:91px;">Decon Laboratories</td>
			<td style="width:111px;">2750HC</td>
			<td style="width:132px;">Dilute 100% to 70% with DI water</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="22">
			<td height="22" style="height:22px;width:207px;">2 M Potassium Chloride</td>
			<td style="width:91px;">J.T. Baker</td>
			<td style="width:111px;"></td>
			<td style="width:132px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="22">
			<td height="22" style="height:22px;width:207px;">2 M Sodium Chloride</td>
			<td style="width:91px;">J.T. Baker</td>
			<td style="width:111px;">3624-05</td>
			<td style="width:132px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="47">
			<td height="47" style="height:47px;width:207px;">0.4% Tris-Buffered Tricaine</td>
			<td style="width:91px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:111px;">E10521</td>
			<td style="width:132px;">pH 7.2-7.4; stored at -20 oC</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="64">
			<td height="64" style="height:64px;width:207px;">Pancuronium Bromide</td>
			<td style="width:91px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:111px;">P1918</td>
			<td style="width:132px;">Diluted to 1 &#956;g/&#956;l in 1x phosphate buffered saline</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="127">
			<td height="127" style="height:127px;width:207px;">Habitat water</td>
			<td style="width:91px;"></td>
			<td style="width:111px;"></td>
			<td style="width:132px;">pH 7.0-7.4, conductivity of 400-450 &#956;S; maintained by Instant Ocean and Sodium Bicarbonate</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="64">
			<td height="64" style="height:64px;width:207px;">Pentylenetetrazol</td>
			<td style="width:91px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:111px;">P6500</td>
			<td style="width:132px;">Diluted to 300 mM in 1x phosphate buffered saline</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="85">
			<td height="85" style="height:85px;width:207px;">Nanofil syringe</td>
			<td style="width:91px;">World Precision Instruments, Inc.</td>
			<td style="width:111px;">06A</td>
			<td style="width:132px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="85">
			<td height="85" style="height:85px;width:207px;">34 G Beveled needle</td>
			<td style="width:91px;">World Precision Instruments, Inc.</td>
			<td style="width:111px;">NF34BV</td>
			<td style="width:132px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="43">
			<td height="43" style="height:43px;width:207px;">Sponge</td>
			<td style="width:91px;"></td>
			<td style="width:111px;"></td>
			<td style="width:132px;">Small pore and chemical-free</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="47">
			<td height="47" style="height:47px;width:207px;">Foam-backed fine sand paper</td>
			<td style="width:91px;"></td>
			<td style="width:111px;"></td>
			<td style="width:132px;">5 x 5 cm2 is large enough</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="22">
			<td height="22" style="height:22px;width:207px;">9 V Battery</td>
			<td style="width:91px;"></td>
			<td style="width:111px;"></td>
			<td style="width:132px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="22">
			<td height="22" style="height:22px;width:207px;">Wires with alligator clips</td>
			<td style="width:91px;"></td>
			<td style="width:111px;"></td>
			<td style="width:132px;">Need 2</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="64">
			<td height="64" style="height:64px;width:207px;">37 cm x 42 cm Kimwipe</td>
			<td style="width:91px;">Kimberly-Clark Professional</td>
			<td style="width:111px;">TW31KEM</td>
			<td style="width:132px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="64">
			<td height="64" style="height:64px;width:207px;">11 cm x 21 cm Kimwipe</td>
			<td style="width:91px;">Kimberly-Clark Professional</td>
			<td style="width:111px;">TW31KWP</td>
			<td style="width:132px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="22">
			<td height="22" style="height:22px;width:207px;">1/8 in diameter tube</td>
			<td style="width:91px;"></td>
			<td style="width:111px;"></td>
			<td style="width:132px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="22">
			<td height="22" style="height:22px;width:207px;">1 cm diameter tube</td>
			<td style="width:91px;"></td>
			<td style="width:111px;"></td>
			<td style="width:132px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="22">
			<td height="22" style="height:22px;width:207px;">1 mm diameter tube</td>
			<td style="width:91px;"></td>
			<td style="width:111px;"></td>
			<td style="width:132px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="43">
			<td height="43" style="height:43px;width:207px;">Reducing valve with female Luer lock cap and silicone ferrule</td>
			<td style="width:91px;">Qosina</td>
			<td style="width:111px;">51505</td>
			<td style="width:132px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="43">
			<td height="43" style="height:43px;width:207px;">Microscope (Leica MZ APO)</td>
			<td style="width:91px;"></td>
			<td style="width:111px;"></td>
			<td style="width:132px;">Another microscope can be used</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="85">
			<td height="85" style="height:85px;width:207px;">Vanna scissors</td>
			<td style="width:91px;">Roboz Surgical Instruments Co., Inc.</td>
			<td style="width:111px;">15018-10</td>
			<td style="width:132px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="85">
			<td height="85" style="height:85px;width:207px;">60 ml Luer lock syringe tubes</td>
			<td style="width:91px;">Becton, Dickinson and Company</td>
			<td style="width:111px;">309653</td>
			<td style="width:132px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="43">
			<td height="43" style="height:43px;width:207px;">3-way Stopcocks with Luer connections</td>
			<td style="width:91px;"></td>
			<td style="width:111px;"></td>
			<td style="width:132px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="43">
			<td height="43" style="height:43px;width:207px;">1-way Stopcock with Luer connection</td>
			<td style="width:91px;"></td>
			<td style="width:111px;"></td>
			<td style="width:132px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="43">
			<td height="43" style="height:43px;width:207px;">Fisherbrand 100 mm x 15 mm Petri dish</td>
			<td style="width:91px;">Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:111px;">NC9299146</td>
			<td style="width:132px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="43">
			<td height="43" style="height:43px;width:207px;">Fisherbrand 60 mm x 15 mm Petri dish</td>
			<td style="width:91px;">Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:111px;">S67961</td>
			<td style="width:132px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="64">
			<td height="64" style="height:64px;width:207px;">4 in Borosilicate capillary tube</td>
			<td style="width:91px;">World Precision Instruments</td>
			<td style="width:111px;">TW100F-4</td>
			<td style="width:132px;">Can contain a filament to aid in filling with solution</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="64">
			<td height="64" style="height:64px;width:207px;">P-97 Flaming/Brown Micropipette Puller</td>
			<td style="width:91px;">Sutter Instrument Co.</td>
			<td style="width:111px;"></td>
			<td style="width:132px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="43">
			<td height="43" style="height:43px;width:207px;">Digidata 1440</td>
			<td style="width:91px;">Molecular Devices</td>
			<td style="width:111px;"></td>
			<td style="width:132px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="43">
			<td height="43" style="height:43px;width:207px;">Axon Aloclamp 900A</td>
			<td style="width:91px;">Molecular Devices</td>
			<td style="width:111px;"></td>
			<td style="width:132px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="43">
			<td height="43" style="height:43px;width:207px;">Axoclamp software</td>
			<td style="width:91px;">Molecular Devices</td>
			<td style="width:111px;"></td>
			<td style="width:132px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="43">
			<td height="43" style="height:43px;width:207px;">HS-9Ax 1U headstage</td>
			<td style="width:91px;">Molecular Devices</td>
			<td style="width:111px;"></td>
			<td style="width:132px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="43">
			<td height="43" style="height:43px;width:207px;">0.010 in Silver wire</td>
			<td style="width:91px;">A-M Systems, Inc.</td>
			<td style="width:111px;"></td>
			<td style="width:132px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="43">
			<td height="43" style="height:43px;width:207px;">Q-series electrode holder</td>
			<td style="width:91px;">Warner Instruments</td>
			<td style="width:111px;">QSW-A10P</td>
			<td style="width:132px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="22">
			<td height="22" style="height:22px;width:207px;">10 ml Luer lock syringe</td>
			<td style="width:91px;"></td>
			<td style="width:111px;"></td>
			<td style="width:132px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="64">
			<td height="64" style="height:64px;width:207px;">1 mm x 15 in Tubing</td>
			<td style="width:91px;"></td>
			<td style="width:111px;"></td>
			<td style="width:132px;">Connect Luer lock syringe to Q-series electrode holder</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="43">
			<td height="43" style="height:43px;width:207px;">Micromanipulator</td>
			<td style="width:91px;">Warner Instruments</td>
			<td style="width:111px;"></td>
			<td style="width:132px;">Need 2</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="22">
			<td height="22" style="height:22px;width:207px;">Microsoft-based PC</td>
			<td style="width:91px;">Dell</td>
			<td style="width:111px;"></td>
			<td style="width:132px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="22">
			<td height="22" style="height:22px;width:207px;">Faraday Cage</td>
			<td style="width:91px;"></td>
			<td style="width:111px;"></td>
			<td style="width:132px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="22">
			<td height="22" style="height:22px;width:207px;">Air Table</td>
			<td style="width:91px;"></td>
			<td style="width:111px;"></td>
			<td style="width:132px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:207px;">Dissecting Microscope</td>
			<td style="width:91px;"></td>
			<td style="width:111px;"></td>
			<td style="width:132px;"></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

electrophysiological recording in the brain of intact adult zebrafish

בעבר, מחקרי אלקטרו בדג זברה מבוגר היו מוגבלים לחתוך תכשירים או להכנות כוס העין והקלטות electrorentinogram. מאמר זה מתאר כיצד יכול להיות משותק דג הזברה מבוגר, מחוברת לצינורות, ומשמש לניסויי in vivo אלקטרו, המאפשר הקלטה של פעילות עצבית. חוסר תנועה של המבוגר דורש מנגנון כדי לספק חמצן מומס לזימים במקום תנועת buccal וopercular. בעזרת הטכניקה שלנו, בעלי חיים הם משותקים וperfused עם מים בסביבה כדי למלא דרישה זו. פתיחת גולגולת מתבצעת תחת methanesulfonate tricaine (MS-222; tricaine) הרדמה כדי לספק גישה למוח. האלקטרודה הראשית אז ממוקמת בתוך חלון פתיחת הגולגולת כדי להקליט את פעילות מוח תאית. באמצעות השימוש במערכת זלוף multitube, מגוון רחב של תרכובות תרופתיים יכול להינתן לדגים בוגרים וכל שינויים בפעילות העצביתניתן לצפות. המתודולוגיה לא רק מאפשרת לתצפיות שנעשו לגבי שינויים בפעילות נוירולוגית, אבל זה גם מאפשר להשוואות שנעשו בין הזחל ודג זברה מבוגר. זה נותן לחוקרים את היכולת לזהות השינויים בפעילות עצבית עקב כניסתה של תרכובות שונות בשלבי חיים שונים.

פרוטוקול זה נעשה שימוש כדי למדוד את הפעילות העצבית של דג הזברה מבוגר in vivo. קלטות אלקטרו אלה מתקבלות באופן עקבי וreproducibly. איור 5 מראה דוגמא מייצגת של שינויי ילידים מושרה ושל הפעילות העצבית של דג הזברה מבוגר כאשר pentylenetetrazol (PTZ), chemoconvulsant נפוץ 6,7,25,26, הוא ה...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Electrophysiological Recording in the Brain of Intact Adult Zebrafish at JoVE.com

Electrophysiological Recording in the Brain of Intact Adult Zebrafish

מאמר זה מתאר כיצד יכול להיות משותק דג הזברה מבוגר, מחוברת לצינורות, ומשמש לניסויי in vivo אלקטרו לאפשר הקלטות ומניפולציה של פעילות עצבית בבעלי חיים בשלמותה.

הקלטת אלקטרו במוח של דג הזברה למבוגר שלמה

Previously, electrophysiological studies in adult zebrafish have been limited to slice preparations or to eye cup preparations and electrorentinogram ...

electrophysiological-recording-in-the-brain-of-intact-adult-zebrafish

Research

JoVE Journal

Neuroscience

21.4K Views.  University of Georgia.  מאמר זה מתאר כיצד יכול להיות משותק דג הזברה מבוגר, מחוברת לצינורות, ומשמש לניסויי in vivo אלקטרו לאפשר הקלטות ומניפולציה של פעילות עצבית בבעלי חיים בשלמותה. 

Video: Electrophysiological Recording in the Brain of Intact Adult Zebrafish

Electrophysiological Characterization of GFP-Expressing Cell Populations in the Intact Retina

Studying the physiological properties and synaptic connections of specific neurons in the intact tissue is a challenge for those cells that lack conspicuous morphological features or show a low population density. This applies particularly to retinal amacrine cells, an exceptionally multiform class of interneurons that comprise roughly 30 subtypes in mammals1. Though being a crucial part of the visual processing by shaping the retinal output2, most of these subtypes have not been studied up to now in a functional context because encountering these cells with a recording electrode is a rare event.
Recently, a multitude of transgenic mouse lines is available that express fluorescent markers like green fluorescent protein (GFP) under the control of promoters for membrane receptors or enzymes that are specific to only a subset of neurons in a given tissue3,4. These pre-labeled cells are therefore accessible to directed microelectrode targeting under microscopic control, permitting the systematic study of their physiological properties in situ. However, excitation of fluorescent markers is accompanied by the risk of phototoxicity for the living tissue. In the retina, this approach is additionally hampered by the problem that excitation light causes appropriate stimulation of the photoreceptors, thus inflicting photopigment bleaching and transferring the retinal circuits into a light-adapted condition. These drawbacks are overcome by using infrared excitation delivered by a mode-locked laser in short pulses of the femtosecond range. Two-photon excitation provides energy sufficient for fluorophore excitation and at the same time restricts the excitation to a small tissue volume minimizing the hazards of photodamage5. Also, it leaves the retina responsive to visual stimuli since infrared light (&gt;850 nm) is only poorly absorbed by photopigments6.
In this article we demonstrate the use of a transgenic mouse retina to attain electrophysiological in situ recordings from GFP-expressing cells that are visually targeted by two-photon excitation. The retina is prepared and maintained in darkness and can be subjected to optical stimuli which are projected through the condenser of the microscope (Figure 1). Patch-clamp recording of light responses can be combined with dye filling to reveal the morphology and to check for gap junction-mediated dye coupling to neighboring cells, so that the target cell can by studied on different experimental levels.

This article depicts the recording of individual cells from fluorescently tagged neuronal populations in the intact mouse retina. By using two-photon infrared excitation transgenetically labeled cells were targeted for patch-clamp recording to study their light responses, receptive field properties, and morphology.

אפיון אלקטרו של ה-GFP, הבעת אוכלוסיות תאים ברשתית אינטקט

Studying the physiological properties and synaptic connections of specific neurons in the intact tissue is a challenge for those cells that lack ...

Stereotaxic Surgery for Excitotoxic Lesion of Specific Brain Areas in the Adult Rat

Many behavioral functions in mammals, including rodents and humans, are mediated principally by discrete brain regions. A common method for discerning the function of various brain regions for behavior or other experimental outcomes is to implement a localized ablation of function. In humans, patient populations with localized brain lesions are often studied for deficits, in hopes of revealing the underlying function of the damaged area. In rodents, one can experimentally induce lesions of specific brain regions.
Lesion can be accomplished in several ways. Electrolytic lesions can cause localized damage but will damage a variety of cell types as well as traversing fibers from other brain regions that happen to be near the lesion site. Inducible genetic techniques using cell-type specific promoters may also enable site-specific targeting. These techniques are complex and not always practical depending on the target brain area. Excitotoxic lesion using stereotaxic surgery, by contrast, is one of the most reliable and practical methods of lesioning excitatory neurons without damaging local glial cells or traversing fibers.
Here, we present a protocol for stereotaxic infusion of the excitotoxin, N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA), into the basolateral amygdala complex. Using anatomical indications, we apply stereotaxic coordinates to determine the location of our target brain region and lower an injection needle in place just above the target. We then infuse our excitotoxin into the brain, resulting in excitotoxic death of nearby neurons. While our experimental subject of choice is a rat, the same methods can be applied to other mammals, with the appropriate adjustments in equipment and coordinates.
This method can be used on a variety of brain regions, including the basolateral amygdala1-6, other amygdala nuclei6, 7, hippocampus8, entorhinal cortex9 and prefrontal cortex10. It can also be used to infuse biological compounds such as viral vectors1, 11. The basic stereotaxic technique could also be adapted for implantation of more permanent osmotic pumps, allowing more prolonged exposure to a compound of interest.

Targeted ablation of specific brain region(s) by infusion of an excitotoxin using stereotaxic coordinates is described. This technique could also be adapted for infusion of other chemicals into the rat brain.

ניתוח Stereotaxic על הנגע Excitotoxic של אזורי מוח ספציפיים עכברוש למבוגרים בלבד

Many behavioral functions in mammals, including rodents and humans, are mediated principally by discrete brain regions. A common method for discerning the ...

Forebrain Electrophysiological Recording in Larval Zebrafish

Epilepsy affects nearly 3 million people in the United States and up to 50 million people worldwide. Defined as the occurrence of spontaneous unprovoked seizures, epilepsy can be acquired as a result of an insult to the brain or a genetic mutation. Efforts to model seizures in animals have primarily utilized acquired insults (convulsant drugs, stimulation or brain injury) and genetic manipulations (antisense knockdown, homologous recombination or transgenesis) in rodents. Zebrafish are a vertebrate model system1-3 that could provide a valuable alternative to rodent-based epilepsy research. Zebrafish are used extensively in the study of vertebrate genetics or development, exhibit a high degree of genetic similarity to mammals and express homologs for ~85% of known human single-gene epilepsy mutations. Because of their small size (4-6 mm in length), zebrafish larvae can be maintained in fluid volumes as low as 100 &mu;l during early development and arrayed in multi-well plates. Reagents can be added directly to the solution in which embryos develop, simplifying drug administration and enabling rapid in vivo screening of test compounds4. Synthetic oligonucleotides (morpholinos), mutagenesis, zinc finger nuclease and transgenic approaches can be used to rapidly generate gene knockdown or mutation in zebrafish5-7. These properties afford zebrafish studies an unprecedented statistical power analysis advantage over rodents in the study of neurological disorders such as epilepsy. Because the "gold standard" for epilepsy research is to monitor and analyze the abnormal electrical discharges that originate in a central brain structure (i.e., seizures), a method to efficiently record brain activity in larval zebrafish is described here. This method is an adaptation of conventional extracellular recording techniques and allows for stable long-term monitoring of brain activity in intact zebrafish larvae. Sample recordings are shown for acute seizures induced by bath application of convulsant drugs and spontaneous seizures recorded in a genetically modified fish.

A simple method to record extracellular field potentials in the larval zebrafish forebrain is described. The method provides a robust in vivo read-out of seizure-like activity. This technique can be used with genetically modified zebrafish larvae carrying epilepsy-related genes or seizures evoked by administration of convulsant drugs.

הקלטת אלקטרו מוח קדמי בזחל דג זברה

Epilepsy affects nearly 3 million people in the United States and up to 50 million people worldwide. Defined as the occurrence of spontaneous unprovoked ...

Recording Electrical Activity from Identified Neurons in the Intact Brain of Transgenic Fish

Understanding the cell physiology of neural circuits that regulate complex behaviors is greatly enhanced by using model systems in which this work can be performed in an intact brain preparation where the neural circuitry of the CNS remains intact. We use transgenic fish in which gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) neurons are genetically tagged with green fluorescent protein for identification in the intact brain. Fish have multiple populations of GnRH neurons, and their functions are dependent on their location in the brain and the GnRH gene that they express1 . We have focused our demonstration on GnRH3 neurons located in the terminal nerves (TN) associated with the olfactory bulbs using the intact brain of transgenic medaka fish (Figure 1B and C). Studies suggest that medaka TN-GnRH3 neurons are neuromodulatory, acting as a transmitter of information from the external environment to the central nervous system; they do not play a direct role in regulating pituitary-gonadal functions, as do the well-known hypothalamic GnRH1 neurons2, 3 .The tonic pattern of spontaneous action potential firing of TN-GnRH3 neurons is an intrinsic property4-6, the frequency of which is modulated by visual cues from conspecifics2 and the neuropeptide kisspeptin 15. In this video, we use a stable line of transgenic medaka in which TN-GnRH3 neurons express a transgene containing the promoter region of Gnrh3 linked to enhanced green fluorescent protein7 to show you how to identify neurons and monitor their electrical activity in the whole brain preparation6.

In this video, we will demonstrate how to record electrical activity from identified single neurons in a whole brain preparation, which preserves complex neural circuits. We use transgenic fish in which gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) neurons are genetically tagged with a fluorescent protein for identification in the intact brain preparation.

הקלטת פעילות חשמלי מתא העצב מזוהה במוח שלם של דג מהונדס

Understanding the cell physiology of neural circuits that regulate complex behaviors is greatly enhanced by using model systems in which this work can be ...

Micromanipulation of Gene Expression in the Adult Zebrafish Brain Using Cerebroventricular Microinjection of Morpholino Oligonucleotides

Manipulation of gene expression in tissues is required to perform functional studies. In this paper, we demonstrate the cerebroventricular microinjection (CVMI) technique as a means to modulate gene expression in the adult zebrafish brain. By using CVMI, substances can be administered into the cerebroventricular fluid and be thoroughly distributed along the rostrocaudal axis of the brain. We particularly focus on the use of antisense morpholino oligonucleotides, which are potent tools for knocking down gene expression in vivo. In our method, when applied, morpholino molecules are taken up by the cells lining the ventricular surface. These cells include the radial glial cells, which act as neurogenic progenitors. Therefore, knocking down gene expression in the radial glial cells is of utmost importance to analyze the widespread neurogenesis response in zebrafish, and also would provide insight into how vertebrates could sustain adult neurogenesis response. Such an understanding would also help the efforts for clinical applications in human neurodegenerative disorders and central nervous system regeneration. Thus, we present the cerebroventricular microinjection method as a quick and efficient way to alter gene expression and neurogenesis response in the adult zebrafish forebrain. We also provide troubleshooting tips and other useful information on how to carry out the CVMI procedure.

In this article, we demonstrate a method for manipulation of gene expression in the ventricular cells of the adult zebrafish telencephalon using antisense morpholino oligonucleotides. We present this method as an efficient and quick protocol that can be used for functional studies in the adult vertebrate brain.

מיקרומניפולציה של ביטוי גנים במוח דג הזברה למבוגר באמצעות Microinjection Cerebroventricular של oligonucleotides morpholino

Manipulation of gene expression in tissues is  required to perform functional studies. In this paper, we demonstrate the  cerebroventricular ...

Simultaneous Electrophysiological Recording and Micro-injections of Inhibitory Agents in the Rodent Brain

Here we describe a method for the construction of a single-use &#8220;injectrode&#8221; using commercially accessible and affordable parts. A probing system was developed that allows for the injection of a drug while recording electrophysiological signals from the affected neuronal population. This method provides a simple and economical alternative to commercial solutions. A glass pipette was modified by combining it with a hypodermic needle and a silver filament. The injectrode is attached to commercial microsyringe pump for drug delivery. This results in a technique that provides real-time pharmacodynamics feedback through multi-unit extracellular signals originating from the site of drug delivery. As a proof of concept, we recorded neuronal activity from the superior colliculus elicited by flashes of light in rats, concomitantly with delivery of drugs through the injectrode. The injectrode recording capacity permits the functional characterization of the injection site favoring precise control over the localization of drug delivery. Application of this method also extends far beyond what is demonstrated here, as the choice of chemical substance loaded into the injectrode is vast, including tracing markers for anatomic experiments.

Here, we craft a glass pipette with dual functions: inhibition of deep brain structures by microinjections of drugs and real-time monitoring of their effects through simultaneous electrophysiological recordings.

אלקטרו הקלטה בו זמנית ומייקרו-הזרקות של סוכנים מעכבים במוח מכרסם

Here we describe a method for the construction of a single-use &#8220;injectrode&#8221; using commercially accessible and affordable parts. A probing ...

Recording Synaptic Plasticity in Acute Hippocampal Slices Maintained in a Small-volume Recycling-, Perfusion-, and Submersion-type Chamber System

Even though experiments on brain slices have been in use since 1951, problems remain that reduce the probability of achieving a stable and successful analysis of synaptic transmission modulation when performing field potential or intracellular recordings. This manuscript describes methodological aspects that might be helpful in improving experimental conditions for the maintenance of acute brain slices and for recording field excitatory postsynaptic potentials in a commercially available submersion chamber with an outflow-carbogenation unit. The outflow-carbogenation helps to stabilize the oxygen level in experiments that rely on the recycling of a small buffer reservoir to enhance the cost-efficiency of drug experiments. In addition, the manuscript presents representative experiments that examine the effects of different carbogenation modes and stimulation paradigms on the activity-dependent synaptic plasticity of synaptic transmission.

This protocol describes the stabilization of the oxygen level in a small volume of recycled buffer and methodological aspects of recording activity-dependent synaptic plasticity in submerged acute hippocampal slices.

הקלטה הפלסטיות הסינפטית בפרוסות בהיפוקמפוס חריפה, בהשתתפות של מיחזור - בנפח מצומצם, זלוף- ומערכת ועלייתו-סוג תא

Even though experiments on brain slices have been in use since 1951, problems remain that reduce the probability of achieving a stable and successful ...

Modeling Amyloid-&#946;42 Toxicity and Neurodegeneration in Adult Zebrafish Brain

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a debilitating neurodegenerative disease in which accumulation of toxic amyloid-&#946;42 (A&#946;42) peptides leads to synaptic degeneration, inflammation, neuronal death, and learning deficits. Humans cannot regenerate lost neurons in the case of AD in part due to impaired proliferative capacity of the neural stem/progenitor cells (NSPCs) and reduced neurogenesis. Therefore, efficient regenerative therapies should also enhance the proliferation and neurogenic capacity of NSPCs. Zebrafish (Danio rerio) is a regenerative organism, and we can learn the basic molecular programs with which we could design therapeutic approaches to tackle AD. For this reason, the generation of an AD-like model in zebrafish was necessary. Using our methodology, we can introduce synthetic derivatives of A&#946;42 peptide with tissue penetrating capability into the adult zebrafish brain, and analyze the disease pathology and the regenerative response. The advantage over the existing methods or animal models is that zebrafish can teach us how a vertebrate brain can naturally regenerate, and thus help us to treat human neurodegenerative diseases better by targeting endogenous NSPCs. Therefore, the amyloid-toxicity model established in the adult zebrafish brain may open new avenues for research in the field of neuroscience and clinical medicine. Additionally, the simple execution of this method allows for cost-effective and efficient experimental assessment. This manuscript describes the synthesis and injection of A&#946;42 peptides into zebrafish brain.

This protocol describes the synthesis, characterization, and injection of monomeric amyloid-&#946;42 peptides for generating amyloid toxicity in adult zebrafish to establish an Alzheimer&#39;s disease model, followed by histological analyses and detection of aggregations.

מידול עמילואיד-β42 רעילות, הקשורים ניוון מוחיים במוח דג זברה למבוגרים

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a debilitating neurodegenerative disease in which accumulation of toxic amyloid-&#946;42 (A&#946;42) peptides leads to ...

Assessment of Long-term Depression Induction in Adult Cerebellar Slices

Synaptic plasticity provides a mechanism for learning and memory. For cerebellar motor learning, long-term depression (LTD) of synaptic transmissions from parallel fibers (PF) to Purkinje cells (PC) is considered the basis for motor learning, and deficiencies of both LTD and motor learning are observed in various gene-manipulated animals. Common motor learning sets, such as adaptation of the optokinetic reflex (OKR), the vestibular-ocular reflex (VOR), and rotarod test were used for evaluation of motor learning ability. However, results obtained from the GluA2-carboxy terminus modified knock-in mice demonstrated normal adaptation of the VOR and the OKR, despite lacking PF-LTD. In that report, induction of LTD was only attempted using one type of stimulation protocol at room temperature. Thus, conditions to induce cerebellar LTD were explored in the same knock-in mutants using various protocols at near physiological temperature. Finally, we found stimulation protocols, by which LTD could be induced in these gene-manipulated mice. In this study, a set of protocols are proposed to evaluate LTD-induction, which will more accurately allow examination of the causal relationship between LTD and motor learning. In conclusion, experimental conditions are crucial when evaluating LTD in gene-manipulated mice.

In some gene-manipulated animals, using a single protocol may fail to induce LTD in cerebellar Purkinje cells, and there may be a discrepancy between LTD and motor learning. Multiple protocols are necessary to assess LTD-induction in gene-manipulated animals. Standard protocols are shown.

הערכה של האינדוקציה לטווח ארוך של דיכאון פרוסות למבוגרים בלבד

Synaptic plasticity provides a mechanism for learning and memory. For cerebellar motor learning, long-term depression (LTD) of synaptic transmissions from ...

Wireless Electrophysiological Recording of Neurons by Movable Tetrodes in Freely Swimming Fish

The neural mechanisms governing fish behavior remain mostly unknown, although fish constitute the majority of all vertebrates. The ability to record brain activity from freely moving fish would advance research on the neural basis of fish behavior considerably. Moreover, precise control of the recording location in the brain is critical to studying coordinated neural activity across regions in fish brain. Here, we present a technique that records wirelessly from the brain of freely swimming fish while controlling for the depth of the recording location. The system is based on a neural logger associated with a novel water-compatible implant that can adjust the recording location by microdrive-controlled tetrodes. The capabilities of the system are illustrated through recordings from the telencephalon of goldfish.

A novel wireless technique for recording extracellular neural signals from the brain of freely swimming goldfish is presented. The recording device is composed of two tetrodes, a microdrive, a neural data logger, and a waterproof case. All parts are custom-made except for the data logger and its connector.

הקלטה אלקטרופיסיולוגית של הנוירונים על ידי להזזה Tetrodes בחינם שחייה דגים

The neural mechanisms governing fish behavior remain mostly unknown, although fish constitute the majority of all vertebrates. The ability to record brain ...